161-468: Eton College ( / ˈ iː t ən / EE -tən ) is a 13–18 public fee-charging and boarding secondary school for boys in Eton, Berkshire , England. It is noted for having educated prime ministers , world leaders, Nobel laureates , Academy Award and BAFTA award-winning actors, and generations of the aristocracy , having been referred to as "the nurse of England's statesmen". The school
322-641: A Committee on Public Schools under the leadership of David Fleming . The committee was tasked to "consider means whereby the association between the Public Schools and the general educational system of the country could be developed and extended". The Fleming Report (1944) entitled The Public Schools and the General Education System defined a public school as a member of the Governing Bodies Association or
483-644: A charity is defined as an institution established for a charitable purpose and providing a public benefit. The "advancement of education" is a long-standing charitable purpose. The UK's oldest charity is the King's School Canterbury . Charitable status for schools outside of the state maintained sector confers various tax benefits. This means schools are not liable for corporation tax or capital gains tax and receive an 80% reduction in business rates (a local property tax). Donations by individuals to such schools are considered "tax free". Fee-charging schools having
644-467: A "dame", who became responsible for the physical welfare of the boys. (Some houses had previously been run by dames without a housemaster.) Each house typically contains about 50 boys. Although classes are organised on a school basis, most boys spend a large proportion of their time in their house. Not all boys who pass the college election examination choose to become King's Scholars, which involves living in "College" with its own ancient traditions, wearing
805-618: A black gown worn over the top of their tailcoats , giving them the nickname 'tugs' (Latin: togati , wearers of gowns); and occasionally by a surplice in Chapel. The house is looked after by the Master in College . Having succeeded in the examination, they include many of the most academically gifted boys in the school. As the school grew, more pupils were allowed to attend provided that they paid their own fees and lived in boarding-houses within
966-423: A career. The English public school model influenced the 19th-century development of Scottish elite schools, but a tradition of the gentry sharing their primary education with their tenants kept Scotland more egalitarian. Edward IV of England Edward IV (28 April 1442 – 9 April 1483) was King of England from 4 March 1461 to 3 October 1470, then again from 11 April 1471 until his death in 1483. He
1127-467: A chief per pale azure and gules in the dexter a fleur-de-lys in the sinister a lion passant guardant or . The three lilies are also evident on the coat-of-arms of Eton provost Roger Lupton . Although the charter specifies that the lily flowers relate to the founder's hope for a flourishing of knowledge, that flower is also a symbol for the Virgin Mary , in whose honour the college was founded, with
1288-460: A collection of beautifully illuminated historical and literary manuscripts, many made specially for him by craftsmen in Bruges. His book purchases included books for entertainment and instruction, whose contents reveal his interests. They focus on the lives of great rulers, including Julius Caesar , historical chronicles, and instructional and religious works. In 1476, William Caxton established
1449-771: A compromise, whereby Henry remained king, but York and his descendants were designated his successors. The implications of removing the legally accepted heir to the throne created substantial opposition to the Yorkist administration; in late 1460, Edward was given his first independent command and sent to deal with a Lancastrian insurgency in Wales. Warwick remained in London, while York, Salisbury, and Edmund marched north to suppress another in Yorkshire ; all three were killed following defeat at Wakefield on 30 December, leaving Edward as
1610-451: A gown, and therefore a degree of separation from the other boys. If they choose instead to belong to one of the 24 Oppidan houses, they are simply regarded as Oppidans. However, they may still earn a non-financial award that recognises their academic capabilities. This is known as an Oppidan Scholarship . The title of Oppidan Scholar is awarded for consistently performing with distinction in school and external examinations ("Trials"): to earn
1771-537: A grant from central government. The direct grant grammar schools would henceforth receive partial state funding (a "direct grant") in return for taking between 25 and 50 percent of its pupils from state primary schools. Other grammar schools were funded by Local Education Authorities . The Labour government in 1965 made major changes to the organisation of state maintained schools issuing Circular 10/65 which directed local authorities to phase out selection at eleven years of age. It also fulfilled its pledge to examine
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#17327731151791932-650: A great want in Cork—namely, a good public school, and with the object of inducing persons who had been sending their children to England, to educate them at home'. In 2020 6.7% of the school population in the Republic of Ireland attended 'elite' fee charging schools. In 1892 Haileybury alumnus Charles Rendall, founded Haileybury "altera terra" in Melbourne, Australia. In the 20th and 21st centuries, several public schools opened affiliates in other countries, especially
2093-597: A habitual use of emetics , which allowed him to gorge himself at meals, then return after vomiting to start again. He fell fatally ill at Easter 1483, but survived long enough to add codicils to his will, the most important naming his brother as Protector after his death. He died on 9 April 1483 and was buried in St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle . His twelve-year-old son, Edward V , was never crowned, Gloucester becoming King Richard III in July. The cause of Edward's death
2254-643: A hard-fought victory at the Battle of Mortimer's Cross in Herefordshire . The battle was preceded by a meteorological phenomenon known as parhelion , or three suns, which he took as his emblem, the " Sun in splendour ". However, this was offset by Warwick's defeat at the Second Battle of St Albans on 17 February, the Lancastrians regaining custody of Henry VI. The two met in London, where Edward
2415-449: A house captain of arts. All house positions are entitled to "Stick-Ups" (a white bow tie and winged collar). Some houses may have more house captains than the standard rule. House prefects were once elected from the oldest year, but this no longer happens. The old term "Library" survives in the name of the room set aside for the oldest year's use, where boys have their own kitchen and living space. Similarly, boys in their penultimate year have
2576-647: A large number of endowments, including much valuable land. The group of feoffees appointed by the king to receive forfeited lands of the Alien Priories for the endowment of Eton were as follows: It was intended to have formidable buildings; Henry intended the nave of the College Chapel to be the longest in Europe, and several religious relics , supposedly including a part of the True Cross and
2737-622: A long first-floor room where conditions were inhumane. Following complaints about the finances, buildings and management of Eton, the Clarendon Commission was set up in 1861 as a royal commission to investigate the state of nine schools in England, including Eton. Questioned by the commission in 1862, Head Master Edward Balston came under attack for his view that in the classroom little time could be spared for subjects other than classical studies . As with other public schools,
2898-419: A model, visiting at least six times (in 1441, 1444, 1446, 1447, 1448, 1449, 1451, 1452) and having its statutes transcribed. Henry appointed Winchester's headmaster, William Waynflete , as Eton's Provost , and transferred some of Winchester's 70 scholars to start his new school. There is a rumour that he also had carts of earth from Winchester transported to Eton. When Henry VI founded the school, he granted it
3059-544: A new model for the nineteenth and early twentieth century public school. Arnold developed the praepostor (or prefect ) system, in which a group of senior boys were given disciplinary powers of other pupils. This became a standard method to establish good order in the public schools, which had developed a reputation for rowdiness and on occasion, serious disorder. King's College School was founded in 1829 and University College School in 1830. Separate preparatory schools (or "prep schools") for younger boys developed from
3220-425: A number of factors, including: the dissolution of the house lists, which allowed Old Etonians to register their sons at birth, in 1990; harder entrance examinations as the emphasis on academic attainment increased; a sharp rise in school fees increasingly beyond the means of many UK families; and increased applications from international, often very wealthy, families. There are three academic terms (known as halves) in
3381-471: A range of bursaries and scholarships. A recent Head Master, Tony Little , said that Eton was developing plans to allow any boy to attend the school whatever his parents' income and, in 2011, said that around 250 boys received "significant" financial help from the school. In early 2014, this figure had risen to 263 pupils receiving the equivalent of around 60% of school fee assistance, whilst a further 63 received their education free of charge. Little said that, in
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#17327731151793542-558: A response to the perceived need to modernise such a curriculum in line with commercial needs, the Grammar School Act 1840 was passed. This allowed schools to make an application to a court of law (rather than Parliament) to deviate from the wishes of the original founder and teach "other branches of literature and science". The new public schools established in the early and mid-19th century were not constrained by early endowments and therefore were able from foundation to offer
3703-461: A room known as "Debate". There are entire house gatherings every evening, usually around 8:05–8:30 p.m. These are known as "Prayers", due to their original nature. The house master and boys have an opportunity to make announcements, and sometimes the boys provide light entertainment. For much of Eton's history, junior boys had to act as "fags", or servants, to older boys. Their duties included cleaning, cooking, and running errands. A Library member
3864-401: A scheme was devised towards the end of the 19th century to familiarise privileged schoolboys with social conditions in deprived areas. The project of establishing an " Eton Mission " in the crowded district of Hackney Wick in east London was started at the beginning of 1880, and it lasted until 1971 when it was decided that a more local project (at Dorney ) would be more realistic. However over
4025-568: A sot or dunce, Lascivious, headstrong, or all these at once; That in good time the stripling's finish'd taste For loose expense and fashionable waste Should prove your ruin, and his own at last; Train him in public with a mob of boys, Childish in mischief only and in noise, Else of a mannish growth, and five in ten In infidelity and lewdness men. ..." —Extract from William Cowper 's 1784 Tirocinium or A Review of Schools In 1801 William Vincent , headmaster of Westminster published A Defence of Public Education . It contains
4186-455: A third receive some kind of bursary or scholarship. The name 'King's Scholars' refers to the foundation of the school by King Henry VI in 1440. The original school consisted of the 70 Scholars (together with some Commensals) and the Scholars were educated and boarded at the foundation's expense. King's Scholars are entitled to use the letters 'KS' after their name and they can be identified by
4347-554: A treaty with Louis XI of France , which included a suggested marriage between Edward and Anne of France or Bona of Savoy , respectively daughter and sister-in-law of the French king. In October 1464, Warwick was enraged to discover that on 1 May, Edward had secretly married Elizabeth Woodville , a widow with two sons, whose Lancastrian husband, John Grey of Groby , died at the Second Battle of St Albans. If nothing else, it
4508-430: A wider range of taught subjects. From the 1850s organised games became prominent in the curriculum, based on the precedent set at Rugby by Thomas Arnold , forming a keystone of character development through teamwork, sportsmanship and self-sacrifice. Hely Almond headmaster at Loretto 1862–1903, in stating 'Games in which success depends on the united efforts of many, and which also foster courage and endurance are
4669-615: A year, but was caught and imprisoned in the Tower of London . There was little point in killing him while his son remained alive since this would have transferred the Lancastrian claim from a frail captive to one who was young and free. Most of the nobility had either remained loyal to Henry or stayed neutral, forcing Edward to rely heavily on the Nevilles. Consolidating the regime initially took precedence, but John Neville 's victory at
4830-627: Is a member of the G30 Schools Group. Eton today is a larger school than it has been for much of its history. In 1678, there were 207 boys. In the late 18th century, there were about 300, while today, the total has risen to over 1,300. The school is included in The Schools Index as one of the 150 best private schools in the world and among top 30 senior schools in the UK. About 20% of pupils at Eton receive financial support, through
4991-631: Is a member of the Headmasters' and Headmistresses' Conference and the school is a member of the Eton Group of independent schools in the United Kingdom. The school appointed its first female Lower Master (deputy head), Susan Wijeratna , in 2017. She was succeeded by Paul Williams in 2023 as she took on the role of headmistress at Latymer Upper School. Eton has a long list of distinguished former pupils. In 2019, Boris Johnson became
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5152-578: Is defined in Brewer's Dictionary of Modern Phrase and Fable as "a somewhat demeaning term dating from the 1930s for an English public school that is not one of the ancient foundations, such as Eton, Harrow, Rugby or Winchester". Public school rivalry is a factor in the perception of a "great" (or "major") versus "minor" distinction. The perception of a top tier of public schools is long standing but with some debate on membership. Howard Staunton 's book of 1865 entitled The Great Schools of England considered
5313-466: Is independent of the State and of local government, yet it is not privately owned or run for profit." Oxford Dictionary of English: 'In England, originally, a grammar-school founded or endowed for use or benefit of the public, either generally, or of a particular locality, and carried on under some kind of public management or control; often contrasted with a "private school" carried on at the risk and for
5474-501: Is no single or absolute definition of public school , and the use of the term has varied over time and according to context. The starting point was the contrast between a public school and private teaching (eg., provided by a hired tutor). In England and Wales schools that are called public schools are not funded from public taxation . Sydney Smith in an 1810 article published in The Edinburgh Review suggested
5635-521: Is situated. Houses occasionally swap buildings according to the seniority of the housemaster and the physical desirability of the building. The names of buildings occupied by houses are used for few purposes other than a correspondence address. They are: Godolphin House, Jourdelay's (both built as such c. 1720), Hawtrey House, Durnford House (the first two built as such by the Provost and Fellows, 1845, when
5796-407: Is the largest boarding school in England ahead of Millfield and Oundle . Eton charges up to £52,749 per year (£17,583 per term, with three terms per academic year, for 2023/24). Eton was noted as being the sixth most expensive HMC boarding school in the UK in 2013–14. It was founded in 1440 by Henry VI as Kynge's College of Our Ladye of Eton besyde Windesore, making it the 18th-oldest school in
5957-417: Is uncertain; allegations of poison were common in an era when lack of medical knowledge meant death often had no obvious explanation. Other suggestions include pneumonia or malaria , although both were well-known and easy to describe. One contemporary attributed it to apoplexy brought on by excess, which fits with what is known of his physical habits. Another theory is that Edward died of syphilis. While
6118-833: The Clarendon schools . The Headmasters' Conference (HMC), now the Headmasters' and Headmistresses' Conference, has grown steadily and by 2021 had 298 British and Irish schools as members. Many new schools were established in the mid-part of the nineteenth century including the day schools City of London School (1837) and Liverpool College (1840). New boarding schools included Cheltenham (1841), Marlborough (1843), Rossall (1844), Radley (1847), Taunton (1847), Lancing (1848), Hurstpierpoint (1849), Bradfield (1850), Wellington (1852), Epsom (1855), Ardingly (1858), Clifton (1862), Malvern (1862), Haileybury (1862), Framlingham (1864) and Cranleigh (1865). In 1887
6279-628: The Competition Act 1998 (see Eton College controversies ). In 2011, plans to attack Eton College were found on the body of a senior al-Qaeda leader shot dead in Somalia . The coat of arms of Eton College was granted in 1449 by the founder King Henry VI, as recorded as follows on the original charter, attested by the Great Seal of England and preserved in the College archives: Thus the blazon is: Sable, three lily-flowers argent on
6440-698: The Crown of Thorns . He persuaded the then Pope , Eugene IV , to grant him a privilege unparalleled anywhere in England: the right to grant indulgences to penitents on the Feast of the Assumption . The college also came into possession of one of England's Apocalypse manuscripts . However, when Henry was deposed by King Edward IV in 1461, the new King annulled all grants to the school and removed most of its assets and treasures to St George's Chapel, Windsor , on
6601-631: The Endowed Schools Act 1869 . In that year Edward Thring , headmaster of Uppingham School , wrote to 37 of his fellow headmasters of what he considered the leading boys' schools, not covered by the Public Schools Act of 1868, inviting them to meet annually to address the threat posed by the Endowed Schools Act of 1869. In the first year 12 headmasters attended; the following year 34 attended, including heads from
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6762-572: The Girls' Schools Association . The majority of public schools are affiliated with, or were established by, a Christian denomination , principally the Church of England , but in some cases the Roman Catholic and Methodist churches. A small number are non-denominational or inherently secular, including Oswestry School , Bedales and University College School . A minor public school
6923-462: The Headmasters' Conference . The Fleming Committee recommended that one-quarter of the places at the public schools should be assigned to a national bursary scheme for children who would benefit from boarding. A key advocate was the post-war Minister of Education Ellen Wilkinson , but the proposed national bursary scheme never got into legislation in that post-war age of severe budget constraints. The Conservative government elected in 1951 did not adopt
7084-418: The Headmasters' and Headmistresses' Conference (HMC). Originally intended as a sister institution to King's College, Cambridge , Eton is known for its history, wealth, and notable alumni, known as Old Etonians . Eton is one of four public schools , along with Harrow (1572), Sherborne (705) and Radley (1847), to have retained the boys-only , boarding -only tradition, which means that its boys live at
7245-615: The Siege of Neuss , Louis opened negotiations. Soon after Edward landed at Calais, the two signed the Treaty of Picquigny . Edward received an immediate payment of 75,000 crowns , plus a yearly pension of 50,000 crowns, thus allowing him to recoup the costs of his army. In 1482, Edward backed an attempt to usurp the Scottish throne by Alexander Stewart, 1st Duke of Albany , brother of James III of Scotland . Gloucester invaded Scotland and took
7406-614: The Welsh Marches , where the Duke of York was the dominant landowner. In 1447, the Duke of York was made chief governor of Ireland , although he did not take up the post until 1449. Most of Normandy was recaptured by the French, leaving Calais as the last English possession in Northern France; Somerset, whom many held responsible for the losses, was appointed King Henry's chief minister. English politics became dominated by
7567-605: The ruling class . Historically, public schools produced many of the military officers and administrators of the British Empire . In 2019, two-thirds of cabinet ministers of the United Kingdom had been educated at such fee-charging schools. In Scotland , a public school has a different significance; there the term is typically synonymous with state school in England and Wales. Fee-charging schools are referred to as private or independent schools. There
7728-711: The "principal schools of England", entitled The History of the Colleges of Winchester, Eton, and Westminster; with the Charter-House, the Schools of St. Paul's, Merchant Taylors, Harrow, and Rugby, and the Free-School of Christ's Hospital . In 1818 Nicholas Carlisle published a two-volume survey entitled A Concise Description of the Endowed Grammar Schools in England and Wales . The survey
7889-540: The (then) United Kingdom. The 1895 Public School Yearbook included Loretto School (1827), Glenalmond College (1847) and Fettes College (1870). In Ireland, of the Royal Schools, The Royal School, Armagh 1608 was described as offering an excellent public school education and being the equal of any school in the British Isles. Cork Grammar School 1881 was established for 'the purpose of supplying
8050-453: The 1464 Battle of Hexham seemed to end the Lancastrian threat. This exposed internal divisions, particularly over foreign policy, which in this period largely focused on the relationship between England, France and the Duchy of Burgundy , with two of the parties manoeuvring to form an alliance against the third. Although Edward preferred Burgundy as a partner, he allowed Warwick to negotiate
8211-622: The 1830s, with entry to the senior schools becoming limited to boys of at least 12 or 13 years old. The first of these was Windlesham House School , established with support from Thomas Arnold , the headmaster of Rugby School between 1828 and 1841. A Royal Commission , the Clarendon Commission (1861–1864), investigated nine of the more established schools, including seven boarding schools ( Charterhouse , Eton , Harrow , Rugby , Shrewsbury , Westminster and Winchester ) and two day schools ( St Paul's and Merchant Taylors' ). The Public Schools Act 1868 subsequently regulated and reformed
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#17327731151798372-492: The 1965 Public Schools Commission took in scope of its work and also considered 22 maintained and 152 direct grant grammar schools . In 2023, using the 1965 Public Schools Commission definition or the 1944 Fleming Committee definition, there are 302 independent secondary schools belonging to the Headmasters' and Headmistresses' Conference (78% of HMC schools are co-educational, 9% are boys only and 13% are girls only), and 152 independent girls' secondary schools belonging to
8533-599: The 20th British prime minister to have attended the school, and the fifth since the end of the Second World War. Previous Conservative leader David Cameron was the 19th British prime minister to have attended the school, and recommended that Eton set up a school in the state sector to help drive up standards. Eton has been described as the most famous public school in the world, and has been referred to as "the chief nurse of England's statesmen". Eton has educated generations of British and foreign aristocracy, and for
8694-513: The Clarendon nine, four are (or are soon to be, in the case of Westminster) fully co-educational ( Rugby , Charterhouse , Shrewsbury and Westminster ), two remain as boys-only day schools ( St Paul's and Merchant Taylors' ) and two retain the full-boarding, boys-only tradition ( Eton and Harrow ). Winchester was formerly part of the last group. By the end of the 19th century the "public school movement", had extended to all parts of
8855-402: The College provides that the board shall be populated as follows (in addition to the Provost and Vice-Provost): The current Provost, William Waldegrave, Baron Waldegrave of North Hill , has made public that he will be stepping down as Provost after the 2024 Summer Half (summer term). The school contains 25 boys' houses , each headed by a housemaster , selected from the more senior members of
9016-673: The Crown , the established church , or the government. Henceforth each of these schools was to be managed by a board of governors . St Paul's School and the Merchant Taylors' School claimed successfully that their constitutions made them "private" schools, and were excluded from the requirements of this legislation. The Taunton Commission was appointed in 1864 to examine the remaining 782 endowed grammar schools , and in 1868 produced recommendations to restructure their endowments; these recommendations were included, in modified form, in
9177-623: The Divisional Court and the Court of Appeal determined that the City of London School was a public school. The Public Schools Yearbook was published for the first time in 1889, listing 30 schools, mostly boarding schools. The day school exceptions were St Paul's School and Merchant Taylors' School . By 1895 there were entries for 64 schools. Frederick William Sanderson , Headmaster of Oundle School , initiated educational reforms at
9338-477: The Duke of Clarence, who held estates adjacent to the Neville heartland in the north. Concerned by this, Edward blocked a proposed marriage between Clarence and Warwick's eldest daughter Isabel . In early July, Clarence defied his brother by travelling to Calais, where he married Isabel in a ceremony conducted by George Neville and overseen by Warwick. The three men issued a 'remonstrance', listing alleged abuses by
9499-577: The Earl of Warwick and Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales , were killed), he resumed the throne. Shortly afterwards, Henry VI was found dead in the Tower of London , possibly killed on Edward's orders. Despite facing an overseas threat from Henry Tudor , the last remaining Lancastrian claimant, Edward reigned in relative peace for the next twelve years. Edward nearly restarted the Hundred Years' War , following his invasion of France in 1475, but he
9660-803: The Ely Cathedral Grammar School, then the King's School Ely when refounded in 1541 by Henry VIII , subsequently adopting the current name in 2012) and St Albans School c. 948 . Until the Late Middle Ages most schools were controlled by the Church; and had specific entrance criteria; others were restricted to the sons of members of guilds, trades, or livery companies . In 1382 William of Wykeham , Bishop of Winchester and Chancellor of England , founded Winchester College . In 1440 Henry VI founded Eton College. These schools had significantly larger foundations than
9821-579: The HMC. State funding was however revived between 1981 and 1997 with the introduction of the Assisted Places Scheme , which provided support for 80,000 pupils attending schools not part of the state maintained sector. Many boarding schools started to admit day pupils for the first time, and others abolished boarding completely. Some started accepting girls in the sixth form , while others became fully co-educational . Corporal punishment ,
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#17327731151799982-611: The Labour government to separate the independent and state sectors. The direct grant scheme was abolished in 1975 and the HMC schools within the scheme became fully independent. Local authorities were ordered to cease funding places at independent schools. This accounted for over a quarter of places at 56 schools, and over half the places at 22 schools. Between 1975 and 1983 funding was also withdrawn from 11 voluntary-aided grammar schools, which became independent schools and full members of
10143-453: The Lancastrian nobility were enormous and explain the enduring bitterness among those who survived. Since 1996, excavations have uncovered over 50 skeletons from the battle; an analysis of their injuries shows the brutality of the contest, including extensive post-mortem mutilations. Margaret fled to Scotland with Edward of Westminster, while the new king returned to London for his 28 June 1461 coronation . Henry VI remained at large for over
10304-474: The Middle and Far East. The schools are typically founded in partnership with a local business person or organisation with the "home" school maintaining control of curriculum and staffing. The almost exclusive teaching of grammar ( Latin and to a lesser extent ancient Greek ) prevailed until well into the 19th century. Most schools were legally obliged to do so by the terms of their original endowment. As
10465-520: The Royal Commission on Secondary Education ) described the schools reformed by the 1868 Act as the "seven 'great endowed schools'". Public schools emerged from grammar schools established to educate pupils, usually destined for clerical orders, in Latin grammar. Thus, concerned with educating boys. The term "public" came into use because over time access to such schools was not restricted on
10626-533: The Royal Works. The last important addition to the central college buildings was the College Library, in the south range of the cloister, 1725–29, by Thomas Rowland. It has a very important collection of books and manuscripts. The Duke of Wellington is often incorrectly quoted as saying that "The Battle of Waterloo was won on the playing-fields of Eton." Wellington was at Eton from 1781 to 1784 and
10787-436: The UK Office of Fair Trading (OFT) found that 50 prominent public schools were in breach of the Competition Act 1998 through their exchange of details of planned fee increases over three academic years 2001–02, 2002–03 and 2003–04. The Independent Schools Council claimed that the investigation had been "a scandalous waste of public money". Three-quarters of HMC schools are now either partially or fully co-educational. Of
10948-546: The UK government to levy VAT on school fees, a commitment (re)made in the 1983 Labour Party election manifesto under Neil Kinnock 's leadership, and revived in 2017 by Jeremy Corbyn . In support of the case for maintaining the status quo , the Independent Schools Council published in 2022 a report which stated that the independent education sector contributed in 2021 £16.5 billion to the UK economy and generated £5.1 billion of tax revenue. The 2019 UK Conservative Party election manifesto made no mention of education outside of
11109-430: The War of the Roses has been documented by numerous historians, Edward as an individual is less well known; 19th century historians like William Stubbs generally dismissed him as a bloodthirsty nonentity. The most comprehensive modern biography was written by Charles Ross in 1974, who concluded the peace and stability of his later reign was squandered in short-term aggrandisement. He further suggests that Edward "remains
11270-501: The Woodvilles and other advisors close to Edward and then returned to London, where they assembled an army to remove these 'evil councillors' and establish good government. With Edward still in the north, the royal army was defeated by a Neville force at Edgecote Moor on 24 July 1469. After the battle, Edward was held in Middleham Castle ; on 12 August, his father-in-law Richard Woodville and Richard's younger son, John Woodville , were executed at Kenilworth . It soon became clear there
11431-423: The Yorkist regime was deeply unpopular and the Lancastrians rapidly assembled an army of over 30,000; when John Neville switched sides, Edward narrowly escaped capture and was forced to seek refuge in Bruges . Edward took refuge in Flanders , part of the Duchy of Burgundy, accompanied by a few hundred men, including his younger brother Richard, Duke of Gloucester, Anthony Woodville and William Hastings. The Duchy
11592-486: The Yorkists at Edgecote in 1469 and his defection confirmed Clarence's decision to switch sides; as they marched south, more recruits came in, including 3,000 at Leicester. Edward entered London unopposed and took Henry prisoner; Warwick was defeated and killed at the Battle of Barnet on 14 April, while a second Lancastrian army was destroyed at the Battle of Tewkesbury on 4 May. Sixteen-year-old Edward of Westminster,
11753-499: The basis of home location, paternal occupation or status, and that they were subject to an element of public management or control, in contrast to private schools which were run for the personal profit of the owner(s). The origins of schools in England were primarily religious, although in 1640 the House of Commons invited the reformer and promoter of universal education Comenius to England to establish and participate in an agency for
11914-404: The case of Harrow, political sponsorship by aristocratic Whig politician James Brydges (later Duke of Chandos) played a significant role, but also, as was the case too with Rugby, an exemplary headmaster was a key factor in raising the status of the school. This phenomenon was also seen at Shrewsbury , where Samuel Butler was headmaster between 1798 and 1836. "Would you your son should be
12075-433: The children—nay, the eldest sons—of some of the best families in England have been educated." By the end of the 17th century, the London day schools St Paul's and Merchant Taylors', together with the charitable foundations of Christ's Hospital and Charterhouse, had developed an elevated "standing in popular regard". By the end of the 18th century, two local grammar schools, Harrow and Rugby, had achieved national fame. In
12236-456: The choice of their clothes? Edward Balston: Yes. Public school (United Kingdom) A public school in England and Wales is a type of fee-charging private school originally for older boys. They are "public" in the sense of being open to pupils irrespective of locality, denomination or paternal trade or profession ; nor are they run for the profit of a private owner. Although
12397-453: The collar stud, but some senior boys are entitled to wear a white bow tie and winged collar ("Stick-Ups"). These include boys part of select prefect bodies, those who represent their house as a type of House Captain (general, sports or arts) and those who are "keepers" of areas of the school. There are some variations in the school dress worn by boys in authority; see School Prefects and King's Scholars sections. The long-standing belief that
12558-465: The daughters of the Earl and Countess of Warwick and heirs to their mother's considerable inheritance. Many of the estates held by the brothers had been granted by Edward, who could also remove them, making them dependent on his favour. This was not the case with property acquired through marriage and explains the importance of this dispute. The last significant rebellion ended in February 1474 with
12719-504: The death of Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester . Allegations of illegitimacy were discounted at the time as politically inspired, and by later historians. Edward and his siblings George, Duke of Clarence , and Margaret, Duchess of Burgundy , were physically very similar, all three being tall and blonde, in contrast to their father, the Duke of York, who was short and dark. His youngest brother, who later became King Richard III , closely resembled their father. During Edward's youth, there
12880-526: The economy recovered from the depression of 1450 to 1470 , Edward's spending habitually exceeded income; on his death in 1483, the Crown had less than £1,200 in cash. His close relationship with the London branch of the Medici Bank ended in its bankruptcy; in 1517, the Medicis were still seeking repayment of Edward's debts. Economics was closely linked to foreign policy; Edward's reign was dominated by
13041-660: The evidence for these is circumstantial. Edward IV's eldest son, also named Edward, was made Prince of Wales when he was seven months old and given his own household at the age of three. Based in Ludlow Castle , he was supervised by his uncle, Anthony Woodville, 2nd Earl Rivers, who also acted as his regent for the Council of Wales and the Marches . The historical consensus is he and his brother Richard were killed, probably between July and September 1483; debate on who gave
13202-405: The exception that they are obliged to wear a white neckcloth. Lord Clarendon: Is the colour of their clothes much restricted? Edward Balston: We would not let them wear for instance a yellow coat or any other colour very much out of the way. Lord Clarendon: If they do not adopt anything very extravagant either with respect to colour or cut you allow them to follow their own taste with respect to
13363-729: The existing local grammar schools, had high level political patronage, and also accepted "non-local" pupils. This was "the start of a new kind of school". Elizabeth I refounded Westminster School in 1560, with new statutes, to select forty Queen's Scholars . This created a "triad" of privileged schools—Winchester, Eton and Westminster. From the 16th century onward, boys' boarding schools continued to be founded or endowed for public use. Daniel Defoe in The Compleat English Gentleman of 1728, writes of "the great schools of Eton, Winchester, Westminster, Felsted , Bishop Stortford (sic), Canterbury and others, where
13524-530: The first English printing press in the outbuildings of Westminster Abbey ; on 18 November 1477, he produced Sayengis of the Philosophres , translated into English for Edward by his brother-in-law Anthony Woodville . It is not known where or how Edward's library was stored, but it is recorded that he transferred volumes from the Great Wardrobe to Eltham Palace and that he had a yeoman "to kepe
13685-566: The first time, members of the British royal family in direct line of succession: the Prince of Wales and his brother the Duke of Sussex , in contrast to the royal tradition of male education at either naval college or Gordonstoun , or by tutors. The Good Schools Guide called the school "the number one boys' public school", adding that "The teaching and facilities are second to none." The school
13846-445: The following. "By a public school, we mean an endowed place of education of old standing, to which the sons of gentlemen resort in considerable numbers, and where they continue to reside, from eight or nine, to eighteen years of age. We do not give this as a definition which would have satisfied Porphyry or Duns-Scotus , but as one sufficiently accurate for our purpose. The characteristic features of these schools are, their antiquity,
14007-428: The funds instead to finance his household expenditures. Under his rule, ownership of the Duchy of Lancaster was transferred to the Crown, where it remains today. In 1478, his staff prepared the so-called 'Black Book', a comprehensive review of government finances, still in use a century later. He invested heavily in business ventures with the City of London , which he used as an additional source of funding. Although
14168-519: The game!" from Henry Newbolt 's 1892 poem Vitaï Lampada and "the Battle of Waterloo was won on the playing fields of Eton", the latter popularly attributed to the Duke of Wellington . Many ex-pupils, like those from other schools, had, and still have, a nostalgic affection for their old schools ( George Orwell remembered being "interested and happy" at Eton, ) and a public school tie and an " old boy network " of former pupils were useful in advancing
14329-521: The government, his chief supporters being Richard Neville, 5th Earl of Salisbury , and Salisbury's eldest son, Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick . In January 1454, 12-year-old Edward accompanied his father to London to attend the Great Council . The birth of King Henry VI's son, Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales , in October 1453 created a viable Lancastrian figurehead, and the 1450s
14490-424: The grounds his brother's marriage to Elizabeth Woodville was invalid. The Titulus Regius argued that the alleged pre-contract of marriage between Edward IV and Lady Eleanor Talbot rendered his marriage to Elizabeth Woodville void. Both Eleanor and Edward were dead, but according to Philippe de Commines , Robert Stillington, Bishop of Bath and Wells, claimed to have carried out the ceremony himself. Once secure on
14651-502: The heir to the throne, died on the battlefield, with surviving leaders like Somerset executed shortly afterwards. This was followed by Henry's death a few days later; a contemporary chronicle claimed this was due to "melancholy" but it is generally assumed he was killed on Edward's orders. Although the Lancastrian cause seemed at an end, the regime was destabilised by a quarrel between Clarence and his brother Gloucester. The two were married to Isabel Neville and Anne Neville , respectively,
14812-459: The important interiors of the Parlour, Election Hall, and Election Chamber, where most of the 18th century "leaving portraits" are kept. "After Lupton's time, nothing important was built until about 1670, when Provost Allestree gave a range to close the west side of School Yard between Lower School and Chapel". This was remodelled later and completed in 1694 by Matthew Bankes, Master Carpenter of
14973-694: The king's bookes". More than forty of his books survive intact from the 15th century, which suggests they were carefully stored, and are in the Royal Collection of manuscripts , held by the British Library. Edward spent large sums on Eltham Palace , including the extant Great Hall, the site of a feast for 2,000 people in December 1482, shortly before his death in April. He also began great improvements to St George's Chapel, Windsor , where he
15134-691: The lands known as the Burgundian Netherlands , became part of the Holy Roman Empire and France acquired the rest. Edward and his successors lost much of their imfluence. Edward's court was described by a visitor from Europe as "the most splendid ... in all Christendom ". He spent large amounts on expensive status symbols to show off his power and wealth as king of England, while his collecting habits show an eye for style and an interest in scholarship, particularly history. He acquired fine clothes, jewels, and furnishings, as well as
15295-564: The last went to Canada. The purpose of the tours was to encourage Empire settlement, with the boys possibly becoming district officers in India or imperial governors of the Dominions. In 1959, the college constructed a nuclear bunker to house the college's Provost and fellows. The facility is now used for storage. In 1969, Dillibe Onyeama became the first black person to obtain his school-leaving certificate from Eton. Three years later Onyeama
15456-488: The late 19th and 20th centuries were Cyril Alington , Robert Birley and Anthony Chenevix-Trench . M. R. James was a Provost. Between the years 1926 and 1939, Eton pupils were included as part of a group of around 20 or 30 selected public school boys who travelled yearly to various British Empire countries as part of the Public School Boys Empire Tour. The first tour travelled to Australia;
15617-475: The marriage was an impulsive decision, but differ on whether it was also a "calculated political move". One view is the low status of the Woodvilles was part of the attraction, since unlike the Nevilles, they were reliant on Edward and thus more likely to remain loyal. Others argue if this was his purpose, there were far better options available; all agree it had significant political implications that impacted
15778-481: The new head of the Yorkist party. At this stage of Edward's career, contemporaries like Philippe de Commines described him as handsome, affable, and energetic. Unusually tall for the period at 6 feet 4 inches (193 centimetres), he was an impressive sight in armour, and took care to wear splendid clothes. This was done deliberately to contrast him with King Henry VI, whose physical and mental frailties undermined his position. On 2 February 1461, Edward won
15939-565: The new regime. Backed by wealthy Flemish merchants, in March 1471 Edward landed near Hull , close to his estates in Yorkshire. Supporters were reluctant to join him; the important northern city of York opened its gates only when he claimed to be seeking the return of his dukedom, like Henry IV seventy years earlier. The first significant contingent to join was a group of 600 men under William Parr and James Harrington . Parr fought against
16100-430: The nine Clarendon schools had a combined asset value of almost £2bn. Eton College is the school with the largest endowment of over £500m. Charitable status is politically controversial. The UK Labour Party leader Keir Starmer in 2021 pledged to remove charitable status for fee-charging schools, a policy also of Harold Wilson , stated in the 1974 Labour election manifesto. Removal of charitable status would enable
16261-555: The nine Clarendon schools plus Cheltenham College , Christ's Hospital , and Dulwich College . In 1881 C.Kegan Paul & Co published Our Public Schools with chapters on seven schools: Eton , Harrow , Winchester , Rugby , Westminster , Marlborough , and Charterhouse . In 1893 Edward Arnold published a book entitled Great Public Schools with a chapter on each of Eton , Harrow , Charterhouse , Cheltenham , Rugby , Clifton , Westminster , Marlborough , Haileybury , and Winchester . The Bryce Report of 1895 ( Report of
16422-556: The number of three having significance to the Blessed Trinity . The motto of the college is Floreat Etona ("may Eton flourish"). The grant of arms to King's College, Cambridge, is worded identically, but with roses instead of lily-flowers. The school is headed by a Provost , a vice-provost and a board of governors (known as Fellows) who appoint the Head Master. As of 2022 the school governors include: Statute VII of
16583-411: The numbers, and the ages of the young people who are educated at them ...". Arthur Leach , in his History of Winchester College (1899), stated: "The only working definition of a Public School...is that it is an aristocratic or plutocratic school which is wholly or almost wholly a Boarding School, is under some form of more or less public control, and is ... non-local". Edward C. Mack in 1938 proposed
16744-465: The one attributed to him by Count Charles de Montalembert's C'est ici qu'a été gagnée la bataille de Waterloo ("It is here that the Battle of Waterloo was won"). The architect John Shaw Jr (1803–1870) became a surveyor to Eton. He designed New Buildings (1844–46), Provost Francis Hodgson 's addition to provide better accommodation for collegers, who until then had mostly lived in Long Chamber,
16905-459: The only king in English history since 1066 in active possession of his throne who failed to secure the safe succession of his son. His lack of political foresight is largely to blame for the unhappy aftermath of his early death." Commentators observe a marked difference between Edward's first period as king, and the second. The failure of attempts to reconcile former enemies like Somerset meant he
17066-538: The orders, and why, continues, although their uncle Richard III was the beneficiary. By mid-August, Elizabeth Woodville was certain of the deaths of her sons; after her initial grief turned to fury, she opened secret talks with Margaret Beaufort. She promised her support in return for Henry's agreement to marry her eldest daughter Elizabeth. In December 1483, Henry swore an oath to do so, which he duly carried out after his coronation in October 1485. Prior to his succession, Richard III declared his nephews illegitimate, on
17227-465: The other side of the River Thames . Legend has it that Edward's mistress, Jane Shore , intervened on the school's behalf. She was able to save a good part of the school, although the royal bequest and the number of staff were much reduced. Construction of the chapel, originally intended to be slightly over twice as long, with 18, or possibly 17, bays (there are eight today) was stopped when Henry VI
17388-422: The present uniform was first worn as mourning for the death of King George III in 1820 is unfounded. In 1862, Edward Balston , Head Master, noted little in the way of uniform in an interview with the Clarendon Commission . Lord Clarendon: One more question, which bears in some degree upon other schools, namely with regard to the dress. The boys do not wear any particular dress at Eton? Edward Balston: No, with
17549-648: The profit of its master or proprietors.' In November 1965, the UK Cabinet considered the definition of a public school for the purpose of the Public Schools Commission set up that year. It started with the 1944 Fleming Committee definition of Public Schools, which consisted of schools which were members of the then Headmasters' Conference , the Governing Bodies Association or the Girls' Schools Association . At that time, there were 276 such independent schools (134 boys and 142 girls), which
17710-558: The promotion of learning. It was intended that by-products of this would be the publication of "universal" books and the setting up of schools for boys and girls. The English Civil War prevented any such reform. Some schools are particularly old, such as The King's School, Canterbury c. 597 , The King's School, Rochester c. 604 , St Peter's School, York c. 627 , Sherborne School c. 710 , (refounded 1550 by Edward VI ), Warwick School c. 914 , King's Ely c. 970 (once
17871-633: The proposal. It failed because it was not a high priority for either party, money was tight, there was wavering support from both public schools and local education authorities, and no consensus was reached on how to select the pupils to participate. Based on the recommendations of the Fleming Report, the Education Act 1944 , also known as "the Butler Act", did, however, establish an enhanced status for endowed grammar schools receiving
18032-728: The rest of Edward's reign. One reason for this was that twelve of the new queen's siblings survived into adulthood, creating a large pool of competitors for offices and estates, as well as in the matrimony market. Resentment built when her sisters made a series of advantageous unions, including that of Catherine Woodville to Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham ; Anne Woodville to William, heir to Henry Bourchier, 1st Earl of Essex ; and Eleanor Woodville with Anthony, heir to Edmund Grey, 1st Earl of Kent . In 1467, Edward dismissed his Lord Chancellor , Warwick's brother George Neville, Archbishop of York . Warwick responded by building an alliance with Edward's disaffected younger brother and heir,
18193-792: The role of public schools, setting up a Royal commission "to advise on the best way of integrating the public schools with the State system". The commission used a wider definition than that of the Fleming Committee. The Public Schools Commission produced two reports: the Newsom Report of 1968 entitled The Public Schools Commission: First Report covering boarding schools and the Donnison Report of 1970 entitled The Public Schools Commission: Second Report covering day schools, including also direct grant and maintained grammar schools. The report presented by John Newsom in 1968
18354-409: The school on a 100% bursary. Registration at birth, corporal punishment, and fagging are no longer practised at Eton. Academic standards were raised, and by the mid-1990s Eton ranked among Britain's top three schools in getting its pupils into Oxford and Cambridge . The proportion of boys at the school who were sons of Old Etonians fell from 60% in 1960 to 20% in 2016. This has been attributed to
18515-454: The school seven days a week during term time. The remainder of them, including Charterhouse in 1971, Westminster in 1973, Rugby in 1976, Shrewsbury in 2015, and Winchester in 2022, have since become co-educational . Eton College was founded by Henry VI as a charity school to provide free education to 70 poor boys who would then go on to King's College, Cambridge , founded by the same king in 1441. Henry used Winchester College as
18676-407: The school suffered reduced income while still under construction, the completion and further development of the school have since depended to some extent on wealthy benefactors. Building resumed when Roger Lupton was Provost , around 1517. His name is borne by the big gatehouse in the west range of the cloisters, fronting School Yard, perhaps the most famous image of the school. This range includes
18837-443: The school was increasing in numbers and needed more centralised control), The Hopgarden, South Lawn, Waynflete, Evans's, Keate House, Warre House, Villiers House, Common Lane House, Penn House, Walpole House, Cotton Hall, Wotton House, Holland House, Mustians, Angelo's, Manor House, Farrer House, Baldwin's Bec, The Timbralls, and Westbury. In addition to the housemaster, each house has two house captains, two house captains of games and
18998-660: The school's memorial to the Etonians who had died in the Boer War . Many tablets in the cloisters and chapel commemorate the large number of dead Etonians of the First World War . A bomb destroyed part of Upper School in World War II and blew out many windows in the chapel. The college commissioned replacements by Evie Hone (1949–52) and by John Piper and Patrick Reyntiens (1959 onward). Among Head Masters of
19159-473: The seven boarding schools investigated by Clarendon, and in summary established and granted autonomy to new governing bodies for the seven schools and as part of that, released them from previous obligations under their founding charters to educate "boys on the Foundation" ie scholarship boys who paid nominal or no fees. The Act gave the seven schools independence from direct jurisdiction or responsibility of
19320-421: The short term, he wanted to ensure that around 320 pupils per year receive bursaries and that 70 were educated free of charge, with the intention that the number of pupils receiving financial assistance would continue to increase. The Orwell Award is a sixth form scholarship awarded to boys in UK state schools whose academic performance may have been held back by personal circumstance. Boys who earn this award attend
19481-490: The simple definition of "a non-local endowed boarding school for the upper classes". Vivian Ogilvie in The English Public School (1957) suggests five "characteristics commonly associated with a public school" (while allowing that these are not absolute or definitive): "it is a class school, catering for a well-to-do clientèle; it is expensive; it is non-local; it is a predominantly boarding school; it
19642-505: The state maintained sector. In September 2023 the UK Labour party announced that, if elected, it planned to allow public schools to retain their charitable status (and some associated tax benefits) but did plan to charge VAT on fees and remove concessions on business rates paid to local authorities. The 19th-century public school ethos promoted ideas of service to Crown and Empire, exemplified in tropes such as "Play up! Play up! And play
19803-498: The status of charities are not totally tax exempt as they pay some business rates, VAT on procured goods and services and staff pay income tax on earnings. The public benefit that a charity is obliged to provide is not defined in law. Typically schools provide this public benefit by offering bursaries to pupils of families with limited financial means and supporting local state maintained school(s) and institutions, including allowing public access to school facilities. As of 2020
19964-472: The struggle between the Yorkists and supporters of the House of Lancaster , or Lancastrians, notably the Duke of Somerset, William de la Pole, 1st Duke of Suffolk , and King Henry VI's wife, Margaret of Anjou . Matters came to a head in August 1453 when King Henry VI collapsed into a catatonic stupor on hearing news of the loss of Gascony , an English possession for over 300 years. The Duke of York took over
20125-509: The surrender of John de Vere, 13th Earl of Oxford , who survived to command the Lancastrian army at Bosworth in 1485. Clarence was widely suspected of involvement, a factor in his eventual execution in the Tower on 18 February 1478; claims he was "drowned in a butt of Malmsey wine" appears to have been a joke by Edward, referring to his favourite drink. In 1475, Edward allied with Burgundy and declared war on France. With Duke Charles busy with
20286-560: The teaching staff, which numbers some 155. Almost all of the school's pupils go on to universities, about a third of them to the University of Oxford or University of Cambridge . One boarding house, College , is reserved for 70 King's Scholars, who attend Eton on scholarships provided by the original foundation and awarded by examination each year; King's Scholars used to pay up to 90 per cent of full fees, depending on their means. This financial incentive has been phased out. Still, up to
20447-655: The term "public school" has been in use since at least the 18th century, its usage was formalised by the Public Schools Act 1868 , which put into law most recommendations of the 1864 Clarendon Report . Nine prestigious schools were investigated by Clarendon (including two day schools , Merchant Taylors' and St Paul's ) and seven subsequently reformed by the Act: Eton , Shrewsbury , Harrow , Winchester , Rugby , Westminster , and Charterhouse . Public schools are elite institutions and are associated with
20608-549: The text "...comprize under the expression of Public Schools? Are we to understand only Winchester, Eton and Westminster? or are we to extend our notion, as we ought to do, to the other three great schools in the Metropolis; to Harrow, Rugby, Manchester , Wakefield and many more of equal magnitude in the North?" In 1816 Rudolph Ackermann published a book which used the term "History of the Public Schools" of what he described as
20769-401: The three-sided diplomatic contest between England, France, and Burgundy, with two of the three seeking to ally against the third. As Flemish merchants were the largest buyers of English wool, Edward was generally pro-Burgundian, although Duke Charles' reluctance to support him in 1471 cooled their relationship. The death of Charles in 1477 led to the 1482 Treaty of Arras ; Flanders, along with
20930-533: The throne as Richard III . Edward was born on 28 April 1442 at Rouen in Normandy , eldest surviving son of Richard, 3rd Duke of York , and Cecily Neville . Until his father's death, he was known as the Earl of March . Both his parents were direct descendants of King Edward III , giving Edward a potential claim to the throne. This was strengthened in 1447, when York became heir to the childless King Henry VI on
21091-543: The throne, Henry VII annulled the Titulus Regius and arrested Stillington, who died in prison in 1491. Despite this apparent resolution, the Yorkist cause continued well into the 16th century. The most famous are the pretenders Lambert Simnel and Perkin Warbeck , but Yorkist challengers remained a concern for Henry VII and his son. In 1541, Henry VIII executed Margaret Pole, Countess of Salisbury , daughter of
21252-434: The throne. His marriage to Elizabeth Woodville in 1464 led to conflict with his chief advisor, Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick , known as the "Kingmaker". In 1470, a revolt led by Warwick and Edward's brother George, Duke of Clarence , briefly re-installed Henry VI . Edward fled to Flanders , where he gathered support and invaded England in March 1471; after victories at the battles of Barnet and Tewkesbury (where both
21413-413: The title, a boy must obtain either three distinctions in a row or four throughout his school career. Within the school, an Oppidan Scholar is entitled to use the post-nominal letters OS . Each Oppidan house is usually referred to by the initials (forenames and surname) of its current housemaster, a senior teacher ("beak"), or more formally by his surname alone, not by the name of the building in which it
21574-421: The town of Edinburgh , but not Edinburgh Castle , where James was being held prisoner by his nobles. Albany switched sides and without siege equipment, the English army was forced to withdraw, with little to show for an expensive campaign, apart from the capture of Berwick Castle . Edward's health began to fail, and he became subject to an increasing number of ailments; his physicians attributed this in part to
21735-516: The town of Eton, outside the college's original buildings. These pupils became known as Oppidans, from the Latin word oppidum , meaning "town". The houses developed over time as a means of providing residence for the Oppidans in a more congenial manner, and during the 18th and 19th centuries the housemasters started to rely more for administrative purposes on a senior female member of staff, known as
21896-489: The turn of the century. Oundle became the first school to create an engineering curriculum as well as teaching biochemistry and agriculture. There was a further expansion in public school education in the interwar years. New schools such as Rendcomb (1920), Stowe (1923), Canford (1923), Bryanston (1928) and Millfield (1935) were established. In 1942 the then President of the Board of Education Rab Butler appointed
22057-507: The very lifeblood of the public school system', encapsulated the thinking of the era. The prominence of team sports prevails to the current day and is a feature by which public schools still distinguish themselves from state maintained schools. By the latter part of the 19th century 'modern' subjects such as mathematics and science featured in many schools listings in The Public Schools Yearbook . Within English law
22218-416: The year: They are called halves because the school year was once split into two halves, between which the boys went home. The School is known for its traditions, including a uniform of black tailcoat (or morning coat ) and black waistcoat , a starched stiff collar and black pinstriped trousers. Most pupils wear a white " tie " which is a narrow strip of cloth folded over the joint of the collar to hide
22379-592: The years much money was raised for the Eton Mission, a fine church by G. F. Bodley was erected; many Etonians visited and stimulated among other things the Eton Manor Boys' Club , a notable rowing club which has survived the Mission itself, and the 59 Club for motorcyclists. The large and ornate School Hall and School Library (by L. K. Hall) were erected in 1906–08 across the road from Upper School as
22540-533: Was Jane Shore , later compelled by Richard III to perform public penance at Paul's Cross ; Thomas More claimed this backfired, since "albeit she were out of al array save her kyrtle only: yet went she so fair & lovely ... that her great shame wan her much praise." Edward had several acknowledged illegitimate children; There are claims for many others, including Mary, second wife of Henry Harman of Ellam, and Isabel Mylbery (born circa 1470), who married John Tuchet, son of John Tuchet, 6th Baron Audley . However,
22701-614: Was a central figure in the Wars of the Roses , a series of civil wars in England fought between the Yorkist and Lancastrian factions between 1455 and 1487. Edward inherited the Yorkist claim to the throne at the age of eighteen when his father, Richard, Duke of York , was killed at the Battle of Wakefield in December 1460. After defeating Lancastrian armies at Mortimer's Cross and Towton in early 1461, he deposed King Henry VI and took
22862-412: Was a clear demonstration he was not in control of the king, despite suggestions to the contrary. Edward's motives have been widely discussed by contemporaries and historians. Although Elizabeth's mother, Jacquetta of Luxembourg , came from the upper nobility, her father, Richard Woodville, Lord Rivers , was a middle-ranking provincial baron. The Privy Council told Edward with unusual frankness that "she
23023-541: Was abolished in state schools in 1986, and had been abandoned in most public schools by the time it was formally banned in independent schools in 1999 in England and Wales, (2000 in Scotland and 2003 in Northern Ireland). The system of fagging , whereby younger pupils were required to act to some extent as personal servants to the most senior boys, was phased out during the 1970s and 1980s. In September 2005
23184-468: Was assuaged by Louis XI in the Treaty of Picquigny . This treaty formally ended the Hundred Years' War, which had been in abeyance since the Battle of Castillon in 1453. Following his sudden death in April 1483, Edward was briefly succeeded by his son Edward V ; his younger brother, Richard, was appointed Lord Protector of England for the duration of the new king's minority, but quickly seized
23345-428: Was banned from visiting Eton after he published a book which described the racism that he experienced during his time at the school. Simon Henderson , current Head Master of Eton, apologised to Onyeama for the treatment he endured during his time at the school, although Onyeama did not think the apology was necessary. In 2005, the school was one of fifty of the country's leading independent schools found to have breached
23506-618: Was buried in 1483; later completed by Henry VII, it was badly damaged during the First English Civil War , and little of the original work remains. Edward had ten children by Elizabeth Woodville , seven of whom survived him; they were declared illegitimate under the 1484 Titulus Regius , an act repealed by Henry VII, who married Edward's eldest daughter, Elizabeth. Edward had numerous mistresses, including Lady Eleanor Talbot and Elizabeth Lucy , possibly daughter of Thomas Waite (or Wayte), of Southampton. The most famous
23667-636: Was compensated with the title Marquess of Montagu , but this was a significant demotion for a key supporter. In March 1470, Warwick and Clarence exploited a private feud to start the 1470 Lincolnshire Rebellion ; when it was defeated, the two fled to France in May 1470. Seeing an opportunity, Louis XI persuaded Warwick to negotiate with his enemy, Margaret of Anjou; she eventually agreed, first making him kneel before her in silence for fifteen minutes. With French support, Warwick landed in England on 9 September 1470 and announced his intention to restore Henry. By now,
23828-443: Was conducted by means of a questionnaire sent to the schools. The description of 475 schools range from one or two paragraphs to many pages of detail. Included in the survey are the renowned nine schools which forty three years later became the subject of the 1861 Clarendon Commission . In 1828 Thomas Arnold became headmaster of Rugby School. The reforming actions he took during his fourteen years (1828–1842) of tenure established
23989-523: Was deposed. Only the Quire of the intended building was completed. Eton's first Head Master, William Waynflete , founder of Magdalen College, Oxford and previously headmaster of Winchester College , built the ante-chapel that completed the chapel. The important wall paintings in the chapel and the brick north range of the present School Yard also date from the 1480s; the lower storeys of the cloister, including College Hall, were built between 1441 and 1460. As
24150-518: Was dominated by political conflict between the two factions. By the age of 17, the Earl of March was a political and military leader in his own right; after their defeat at the Battle of Ludford Bridge in 1459, his father and brother Edmund fled to Ireland, while the Earls of March, Salisbury and Warwick made their way to Calais. Edward's name appears alongside those of his father, Warwick and Salisbury in widely circulated manifestoes declaring their quarrel
24311-527: Was economic decline in England and military defeat abroad, exacerbated by a weak and corrupt central government. Both Edward and his younger brother Edmund, Earl of Rutland , were born in Rouen, where their father, the Duke of York, served as governor of English lands in France until 1445, when he was replaced by Henry Beaufort, 3rd Duke of Somerset . Edward and Edmund were probably brought up at Ludlow Castle , in
24472-506: Was entitled to yell at any time and without notice, "Boy, Up!" or "Boy, Queue!", and all first-year boys had to come running. The last boy to arrive was given the task. These practices, known as fagging , were partially phased out of most houses in the 1970s. Captains of house and games still sometimes give tasks to first-year boys, such as collecting the mail from the school office. There are many inter-house competitions, mostly in sports but also in academics, drama and music. The Head Master
24633-506: Was hastily appointed king, before marching north, where the two sides met at the Battle of Towton . Fought on 29 March in the middle of a snowstorm, it was the bloodiest battle ever to take place on English soil, and ended in a decisive Yorkist victory. Estimates of the dead range from 9,000 to 20,000; figures are uncertain, as most of the mass graves were emptied or moved over the centuries, while corpses were generally stripped of clothing or armour before burial. Nevertheless, casualties among
24794-564: Was little support for Warwick or Clarence; Edward was released in September and resumed the throne. Outwardly, the situation remained unchanged, but tensions persisted and Edward did nothing to reduce the Nevilles' sense of vulnerability. The Percys, traditional rivals of the Neville family in the North, fought for Lancaster at Towton; their titles and estates were confiscated and given to Warwick's brother John Neville. In early 1470, Edward reinstated Henry Percy as Earl of Northumberland ; John
24955-405: Was no wife for a prince such as himself, for she was not the daughter of a duke or earl." The marriage was certainly unwise and unusual, although not unheard of; Henry VI's mother, Catherine of Valois , married her chamberlain, Owen Tudor . By all accounts, Elizabeth possessed considerable charm of person and intellect, while Edward was used to getting what he wanted. Historians generally accept
25116-406: Was noticeably more ruthless after 1471, including the execution of his brother Clarence. In his youth, Edward was a capable and charismatic military commander, who led from the front, but as he grew older, the energy noted by contemporaries became less apparent. One effect of this was that Parliament became increasingly reluctant to approve taxes for wars which Edward failed to prosecute, then used
25277-552: Was only with Henry's evil counsellors. In 1460, Edward crossed the English Channel with Warwick and Salisbury, and marched into London. At Northampton in July, he commanded one of three divisions in a Yorkist victory that led to the capture of Henry VI. York returned from Ireland; on entering the Palace of Westminster , he declared himself king, a claim greeted by the assembled lords in silence. The Act of Accord agreed
25438-677: Was ruled by Charles the Bold , husband of his sister Margaret; he provided minimal help, something Edward never forgot. The restored Lancastrian regime faced the same issue that dominated Henry's previous reign. Mental and physical frailties made him incapable of ruling and resulted in an internal struggle for control, made worse because the coalition that put him back on the throne consisted of bitter enemies. Edmund Beaufort, 4th Duke of Somerset , held Warwick responsible for his father 's death in 1455, while he had executed his elder brother in 1464; Warwick and Clarence quickly found themselves isolated by
25599-441: Was supportive of boarding school education and made 52 recommendations, including state funding of up to 45,000 places. No action was taken by the then Labour government (or successive administrations). The report presented by David Donnison in 1970 made 25 recommendations for England and Wales and 22 for Scotland. The commission was divided on many issues so several of the recommendations were not made with full consensus. No action
25760-399: Was taken by the incoming (1970) Conservative government but five years later the direct grant scheme was terminated by Labour. The social changes of the 1960s were felt in the public schools; the new headmaster at Oundle School noted that "student protests and intellectual ferment were challenging the status quo". These challenges later coincided with the mid-1970s recession and moves by
25921-450: Was to send his sons there. According to Nevill (citing the historian Sir Edward Creasy ), what Wellington said, while passing an Eton cricket match many decades later, was, "There grows the stuff that won Waterloo", a remark Nevill construes as a reference to "the manly character induced by games and sport" among English youth generally, not a comment about Eton specifically. In 1889, Sir William Fraser conflated this uncorroborated remark with
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