The European Parliamentary Technology Assessment ( EPTA ) is a network of technology assessment (TA) institutions specialising in advising parliamentary bodies in Europe.
95-456: The EPTA partners advise parliaments on the possible social, economic and environmental impact of new sciences and technologies. The common aim is to provide impartial and high quality analysis and reports of developments in issues such as for example bioethics and biotechnology , public health , environment and energy, ICTs , and R&D policy. Such work is seen as an aid to the democratic control of scientific and technological innovations, and
190-423: A "set of medical conditions" as opposed to the storied and spiritual beings that they are. Bioethics in the realm of Islam differs from Western bioethics, but they share some similar perspectives viewpoints as well. Western bioethics is focused on rights, especially individual rights. Islamic bioethics focuses more on religious duties and obligations, such as seeking treatment and preserving life. Islamic bioethics
285-447: A considerable body of literature on these matters. In the case of many non-Western cultures, a strict separation of religion from philosophy does not exist. In many Asian cultures, for example, there is a lively discussion on bioethical issues. Buddhist bioethics, in general, is characterized by a naturalistic outlook that leads to a rationalistic, pragmatic approach. Buddhist bioethicists include Damien Keown . In India, Vandana Shiva
380-550: A considerable part of the primary care doctor’s workload. In other countries these certificates are only needed for longer periods of illness. In either case this can function can pose ethical problems for doctors as they try to reconcile a duty to do the best for the patient, a duty not to lie to employers, and the need to maintain the doctor patient relationship for professional and/or financial reasons. Many people want information on patients’ health, and are prepared to pay for it. Insurance companies, employers, social agencies such as
475-512: A field of study and professional practice, interested in ethical issues related to health (primarily focused on the human, but also increasingly includes animal ethics ), including those emerging from advances in biology , medicine , and technologies. It proposes the discussion about moral discernment in society (what decisions are "good" or "bad" and why) and it is often related to medical policy and practice, but also to broader questions as environment , well-being and public health . Bioethics
570-515: A fulfillment of the prophecy in Isaiah 53:5 : "He took up our infirmities and carried our diseases". Jesus endorsed the use of the medical assistance of the time (medicines of oil and wine) when he told the parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke 10:25–37), who "bound up [an injured man's] wounds, pouring on oil and wine" (verse 34) as a physician would. Jesus then told the doubting teacher of
665-479: A healthcare provider, it is important to know and understand varying world views and religious beliefs. Having this knowledge and understanding can empower healthcare providers with the ability to better treat and serve their patients. Developing a connection and understanding of a patient's moral agent helps enhance the care provided to the patient. Without this connection or understanding, patients can be at risk of becoming "faceless units of work" and being looked at as
760-436: A human child can only be proper and legitimate via marriage. This does not mean that a child can only be reproduced via sexual intercourse between a married couple, but that the only proper and legitimate way to have a child is when it is an act between husband and wife. It is okay for a married couple to have a child artificially and from techniques using modern biotechnology as opposed to sexual intercourse, but to do this out of
855-438: A large amount of information and to develop personal relationships over time. Patients often see the same clinician for a variety of problems, at once or at different times. Whole families may see the same doctors and nurses, who may also be their friends and neighbours. These factors affect moral decisions in primary care, and raise ethical dilemmas which might not occur often in secondary and tertiary medical care (6, 7). Moreover,
950-536: A more expansive application, touching upon the philosophy of science and issues of biotechnology . The two fields often overlap, and the distinction is more so a matter of style than professional consensus. Medical ethics shares many principles with other branches of healthcare ethics, such as nursing ethics . A bioethicist assists the health care and research community in examining moral issues involved in our understanding of life and death, and resolving ethical dilemmas in medicine and science. Examples of this would be
1045-429: A particular patient, how to reconcile their own values and those of their patients, when and where to refer or investigate, how to respect confidentiality when dealing with patients, relatives and third parties. All these decisions involve values as well as facts and are therefore ethical issues. These issues may also involve other workers in primary healthcare, such as receptionists and managers. Primary care ethics
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#17327727763041140-431: A pathway of healing in which God uses both the natural and the supernatural to heal. Being healed has been described as a privilege of accepting Christ's redemption on the cross. Pentecostal writer Wilfred Graves Jr. views the healing of the body as a physical expression of salvation . Matthew 8:17 , after describing Jesus exorcising at sunset and healing all of the sick who were brought to him, quotes these miracles as
1235-470: A personal doctor who can integrate their health care and view their problems together rather than in isolation, and who can protect them from over-investigation and over-treatment -which Toon characterises as the 'furor therapeuticus' of specialist medicine (16). Patients as a whole benefit because the system ensures that expensive secondary care resources are spent on those who have the greatest need. Some people however are concerned that gatekeeping can damage
1330-411: A position where it would be difficult to refuse, and/or it is not informed, in that patients are often given forms to consent to the release of medical records without what this means being properly explained to them. Doctors can face a conflict of interest in this situation, since they can benefit financially from the fees paid for the release of such information. This poses a difficult ethical conflict as
1425-535: A scientific and technological component. Associate membership can be granted to other TA units that have a TA program and the resources to realize it, but that do not fulfill other criteria for full membership. Associates are involved in all EPTA activities but are not represented in the EPTA Council. Further, other units interested in the work of EPTA can act as observers. According to the official EPTA homepage, there are currently 12 full members : According to
1520-497: A shift in bioethics that utilizes indigenous African philosophy rather than western philosophy. Some African bioethicists also believe that Africans will be more likely to accept a bioethical approach grounded in their own culture, as well as empower African people. Masahiro Morioka argues that in Japan the bioethics movement was first launched by disability activists and feminists in the early 1970s, while academic bioethics began in
1615-420: A system which restricts access to secondary care and is often called “primary care gatekeeping”. Although historically in some countries this developed as a mutually beneficial arrangement between specialists and primary care doctors, rather than from a desire to improve patient care, it is widely recognised that it benefits both individual patients and the health care system. Individual patients benefit from having
1710-852: A tendency to be issue-specific, such as to do with rationing (11), confidentiality , medical reports, or relationships with relatives. Much of the literature on primary care ethics concerns primary care physicians. The term primary care physician is synonymous with family practitioner , or general practitioner ; meaning a medically qualified clinician who is the first point of access to health care, with general responsibilities which may but do not necessarily include child health or obstetrics and gynaecology. Other primary care clinicians; nurses, physiotherapists, midwives, and in some situations pharmacists may face similar issues, and some (confidentially, prioritisation of patients) may also involve administrative staff. In some healthcare systems primary care specialists may also encounter many of these issues. Although
1805-664: A united front limited patient autonomy, hiding uncertainty amongst clinicians. Decisions about overarching goals of treatment were reframed as technical matters excluding patients and their families. Palliative care experts were used as intermediaries to guide patients towards less invasive end-of-live treatment. In their study, Hauschild and Vries found that 76% of ethical consultants were trained as clinicians. Studying informed consent , Corrigan found that some social processes resulted in limitations to patients choice, but also at times patients could find questions regarding consent to medical trials burdensome. The most prevalent subject
1900-543: Is a leading bioethicist speaking from the Hindu tradition. In Africa, and partly also in Latin America, the debate on bioethics frequently focuses on its practical relevance in the context of underdevelopment and geopolitical power relations. In Africa, their bioethical approach is influenced by and similar to Western bioethics due to the colonization of many African countries. Some African bioethicists are calling for
1995-484: Is also a controversial gene therapy called "germline gene therapy", in which genes in a sperm or egg can be edited to prevent genetic disorder in the future generation . It is unknown how this type of gene therapy affects long-term human development. In the United States, federal funding cannot be used to research germline gene therapy. The ethical challenges in gene therapy for rare childhood diseases underscore
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#17327727763042090-532: Is another important approach. These latter research cover topics including connections between doctors and patients, coping mechanisms, and social support. The description of other important fields of medical sociology study emphasizes how theory and research have changed in the twenty-first century. Bioethicists come from a wide variety of backgrounds and have training in a diverse array of disciplines. The field contains individuals trained in philosophy such as Baruch Brody of Rice University , Julian Savulescu of
2185-465: Is concerned with the ethical questions that arise in the relationships among life sciences , biotechnology , medicine , politics , law , theology and philosophy . It includes the study of values relating to primary care, other branches of medicine (" the ethics of the ordinary "), ethical education in science, animal, and environmental ethics , and public health. The term bioethics ( Greek bios , "life"; ethos , "moral nature, behavior" )
2280-596: Is credited with being one of the first full-length books published on the topic of feminist bioethics and points out the shortcomings in then-current bioethical theories. Sherwin's viewpoint incorporates models of oppression within healthcare that intend to further marginalize women, people of color, immigrants, and people with disabilities. Since created in 1992, the International Journal of Feminist Approaches to Bioethics has done much work to legitimize feminist work and theory in bioethics. By pointing out
2375-638: Is founded on the Qur'an, the Sunnah, and reason (al-'aql), much like any other inquiry into Islam. Sunni Muslims may use terms like ijmaa' (consensus) and qiyas in place of reason (analogy). Ijmaa' and qiyas as such are not recognized by Shi'a since they are insufficient proofs on their own. In Christian bioethics it is noted that the Bible, especially the New Testament , teaches about healing by faith. Healing in
2470-490: Is heavily influenced and connected to the teachings of the Qur'an as well as the teachings of Muhammad . These influences essentially make it an extension of Shariah or Islamic Law. In Islamic bioethics, passages from the Qur'an are often used to validate various medical practices. For example, a passage from the Qur'an states "whosoever killeth a human being ... it shall be as if he had killed all humankind, and whosoever saveth
2565-400: Is how social stratification (based on SES, gender, class, ethnicity, and age) affects patterns of behavior related to health and sickness, illness risk, disability, and other outcomes related to health care. The study of health care organization and provision, which encompasses the evolving organizational structures of health care organizations and the social psychology of health and health care,
2660-400: Is not a discipline; it is a notional field of study which is simultaneously an aspect of primary health care and applied ethics . De Zulueta argues that primary care ethics has ‘a definitive place on the ‘ bioethics map’ , represented by a substantial body of empirical research, literary texts and critical discourse (2, 9, 10). The substantial body of research referred to by De Zulueta (9) has
2755-520: Is not against Islamic law but is nonetheless condemned by Islamic ethics. Or there can be circumstances that, while not required by Islamic law, are essential from an ethical standpoint. For instance, while idle conversation is not strictly forbidden by Islamic law, it is morally unacceptable since it wastes time and is detrimental to one's spiritual growth. The night prayers are another illustration (which should be performed after midnight and before dawn). Islamic bioethics' first influences Islamic bioethics
2850-447: Is often the first step in the patient journey, small decisions made then may make big differences later on. Most of the bioethical literature however deals with tertiary medicine, and much less attention is paid to the daily concerns of primary care physicians and members of the primary care team (5). In countries with well developed primary health care, patients often stay with the same practice for many years, allowing practices to gather
2945-399: Is seen as acceptable ethics now may not be so one hundred years ago. The hospital administrator is required to have a thorough awareness of their moral and legal obligations. The practice of bioethics in clinical care have been studied by medical sociology . Many scholars consider that bioethics arose in response to a perceived lack of accountability in medical care in the 1970s. Studying
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3040-517: Is seen as unethical. This again depends on the values that doctors espouse, and in this case in particular on doctors' understanding of the nature of the doctor patient relationship . A characteristic feature of primary care is that doctors’ often care for several patients who are related to each other. They also often care for a number of individuals and families who live and/or work in close proximity, and whose lives are intimately related to each other. Particularly though not exclusively in rural areas,
3135-418: Is that Islamic ethics seeks to teach those with higher desires how to become more perfect and closer to God, but Islamic law seeks to decrease criteria for perfection or pleasure in both realms that are doable for the average or even lower than average. So whatever is deemed essential or required by Islamic law is undoubtedly viewed the same way by Islamic ethics. However, there may be situations where something
3230-609: Is that it is not just good primary care physicians who are aware of the ethics of the everyday, but good clinicians (15). According to Toon (16), doctors in primary care are charged with three tasks: 1. To deliver the best possible, evidence based medical care to patients who have physical or mental illnesses that can be understood and treated or cured within a biomedical framework 2. Insofar as it lies within their power, to help prevent avoidable illness and death in their patients 3. To help those who are or who believe themselves to be ill to cope with their illnesses, real or feared, to
3325-534: Is the field of feminism; the International Journal of Feminist Approaches to Bioethics has played an important role in organizing and legitimizing feminist work in bioethics. Many religious communities have their histories of inquiry into bioethical issues and have developed rules and guidelines on how to deal with these issues from within the viewpoint of their respective faiths . The Jewish , Christian and Muslim faiths have each developed
3420-605: Is the study of moral values and judgments as they apply to medicine . The four main moral commitments are respect for autonomy, beneficence, nonmaleficence, and justice. Using these four principles and thinking about what the physicians' specific concern is for their scope of practice can help physicians make moral decisions. As a scholarly discipline, medical ethics encompasses its practical application in clinical settings as well as work on its history, philosophy, theology, and sociology. Medical ethics tends to be understood narrowly as applied professional ethics; whereas bioethics has
3515-418: Is thought to create power imbalances that favor men. These power imbalances are theorized to be created from the androcentric nature of medicine. One example of a lack of consideration of women is in clinical drug trials that exclude women due to hormonal fluctuations and possible future birth defects. This has led to a gap in the research on how pharmaceuticals can affect women. Feminist bioethicists call for
3610-511: Is unethical, and that avoiding unnecessary treatment (therapeutic parsimony) is desirable. Heath has pointed out that the primary care doctor has influence over two other “gates” between illness and health, and between self care and professional care (18). It is traditional in many countries that primary care doctors issue certificates to allow patients to be absent from work for reasons of sickness. In some countries such certificates are required even for one day’s absence from work, and this can form
3705-499: The rights and duties involved in medical practice, or how to maximise the good through the work clinicians do, or in terms of the virtues needed to flourish as a clinician or a patient. Deciding which moral framework to apply brings primary care ethics into contact with meta-ethics and epistemology. There is increasing interest in the empirical study of primary care ethics, often using qualitative research methods , which raises important metaethical and methodological questions about
3800-455: The "application of moral philosophy to concrete medical dilemmas". The discipline of bioethics has addressed a wide swathe of human inquiry; ranging from debates over the boundaries of lifestyles (e.g. abortion , euthanasia ), surrogacy, the allocation of scarce health care resources (e.g. organ donation , health care rationing ), to the right to refuse medical care for religious or cultural reasons. Bioethicists disagree among themselves over
3895-544: The Bible is often associated with the ministry of specific individuals including Elijah , Jesus and Paul . The largest group of miracles mentioned in the New Testament involves cures, the Gospels give varying amounts of detail for each episode, sometimes Jesus cures simply by saying a few words, at other times, he employs material such as spit and mud. Christian physician Reginald B. Cherry views faith healing as
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3990-600: The United States to champion precisely such goals. Examples include the Ohio State Bioethics Society and the Bioethics Society of Cornell. Professional level versions of these organizations also exist. Many bioethicists, in particular scientific scholars, accord the easiest precedence to autonomy. They trust that every affected person ought to decide which direction of motion they think about most in line with their beliefs. In other words,
4085-686: The University of Oxford , Arthur Caplan of NYU , Peter Singer of Princeton University , Frances Kamm of Rutgers University , Daniel Callahan of the Hastings Center , and Daniel Brock of Harvard University ; medically trained clinician ethicists such as Mark Siegler of the University of Chicago and Joseph Fins of Cornell University ; lawyers such as Nancy Dubler of Albert Einstein College of Medicine or Jerry Menikoff of
4180-434: The allocation of their time and resources between different problems and different patients. The three aspects of general practice are mentioned above but even within these doctors make choices that are ethical. One doctor may give priority to the care of patients with diabetes, another to women’s health, and a third to psychological problems and so on. In some countries it is common place for doctors to strike – in others this
4275-494: The areas of clinical / medical ethics and research ethics . Slowly internationalizing as a field, since the 2000s professional bioethics has expanded to include other specialties, such as organizational ethics in health systems, public health ethics, and more recently Ethics of artificial intelligence . Professional ethicists may be called consultants , ethicists , coordinators , or even analysts ; and they may work in healthcare organizations, government agencies, and in both
4370-586: The autonomy of others ought to be respected. For people unable to exercise their autonomy, special measures ought to be taken to protect their rights and interests. In US, the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research was initially established in 1974 to identify the basic ethical principles that should underlie the conduct of biomedical and behavioral research involving human subjects. However,
4465-440: The best of their ability and so to achieve their maximum potential as human beings. The first two tasks largely involve understanding the patient as a biopsychosocial system that the doctor is seeking to influence, whilst the third involves seeing the patient as a fellow human being in need. Reconciling these tasks is not easy. In many health-care systems patients can only see specialists by referral from doctors in primary care,
4560-404: The biological, issues raised in public health such as vaccination and resource allocation have also encouraged the development of novel ethics frameworks to address such challenges. A study published in 2022 based on the corpus of full papers from eight main bioethics journals demonstrated the heterogeneity of this field by distinguishing 91 topics that have been discussed in these journals over
4655-505: The circumstances are what ethics is all about. It discusses the difference between what is proper and wrong at a certain moment and a particular society. Medical ethics is concerned with the duties that doctors, hospitals, and other healthcare providers have to patients, society, and other health professionals. The health profession has a set of ethical standards that are relevant to various organizations of health workers and medical facilities. Ethics are never stagnant and always relevant. What
4750-484: The clinical practice of ethics in medical care, Hauschildt and Vries found that ethical questions were often reframed as clinical judgments to allow clinicians to make decisions. Ethicists most often put key decisions in the hands of physicians rather than patients. Communication strategies suggested by ethicists act to decrease patient autonomy. Examples include, clinicians discussing treatment options with one another prior to talking to patients or their family to present
4845-456: The complexity of initiating trials, determining dosage levels, and involving affected families. With over a third of gene therapies targeting rare, genetic, pediatric-onset, and life-limiting diseases, fair participant selection and transparent engagement with patient communities become crucial ethical considerations. Another concern involves the use of virus-derived vectors for gene transfer, raising safety and hereditary implications. Additionally,
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#17327727763044940-573: The context of marriage would be deemed immoral. Islamic bioethics is strongly against abortion and strictly prohibits it. The IOMS states that "from the moment a zygote settles inside a woman's body, it deserves a unanimously recognized degree of respect." Abortion may only be permitted in unique situations where it is considered to be the "lesser evil". Islamic bioethics may be used to find advice on practical matters relating to life in general and human life in particular. As we will see later, Islamic bioethics must take into account both moral concerns and
5035-456: The doctor of their choice at the time and place of their choosing, without waiting, and for the length of time they feel they require; however it is rarely possible for all these conditions to be met. The decisions that doctors make about how best to reconcile these conflicting demands by appointment arrangements, arrangements for emergency consultation etc. have a strong ethical as well as practical component. So too do decisions doctors make about
5130-579: The doctor tries to “serve two masters”; the patient who has a right to confidentiality and the employer or other agency that is paying for the information. Confidentiality has been identified as a key concern to general practitioners in the UK and has been described as one way in which they display their commitment to patient-centeredness (19). As the first point of contact with health services, primary care doctors have particular responsibilities with respect to access. Patients typically and understandably want to see
5225-604: The doctor-patient relationship, since the doctor cannot act solely in the interests of the individual patient (17). Others have questioned whether this is ever possible, even without gatekeeping. Much depends on the system within which gatekeeping operates, and how great the pressures are on the primary care doctor not to refer, and how strong the incentives, personal, professional and financial are for or against referral. All are agreed that “positive gatekeeping” in which doctors are rewarded for encouraging patients to have unnecessary or dubious procedures, as exists in many private systems,
5320-466: The end of life. In 1936, Ludwig Bieler argued that Jesus was stylized in the New Testament in the image of the "divine man" (Greek: theios aner ), which was widespread in antiquity. It is said that many of the famous rulers and elders of the time had divine healing powers. Contemporary bioethical and health care policy issues, including abortion, the distribution of limited resources, the nature of appropriate hospital chaplaincy, fetal experimentation,
5415-521: The ethical decisions made in primary care are often as less dramatic than those in high-tech medicine (1), their cumulative effect may be profound (2), because of the vast number of health care encounters which take place in primary care, (approximately 400.3 million in England in 2008 alone (3, 4) ). Each of these involves ethical judgements, occasionally difficult, often straightforward; often deliberate but more often unconscious. Also, since primary care
5510-505: The ethical dilemma in gene therapy explores the potential harms of human enhancement, particularly regarding the birth of disabled individuals. Addressing these challenges is vital for responsible development, application, and equitable access to gene therapies. The experience with human growth hormone further illustrates the blurred lines between therapy and enhancement, emphasizing the importance of ethical considerations in balancing therapeutic benefits and potential enhancements, especially in
5605-544: The ethics of the life sciences in general, expanded from the encounter between experts in medicine and the laity, to include organizational and social ethics, environmental ethics. As of 2019 textbooks of green bioethics existed. Gene therapy involves ethics, because scientists are making changes to genes, the building blocks of the human body. Currently, therapeutic gene therapy is available to treat specific genetic disorders by editing cells in specific body parts. For example, gene therapy can treat hematopoietic disease. There
5700-476: The fact of interconnectedness of the Islamic regulation and the Islamic ethics, the Islamic bioethics has to reflect on consideration on necessities of the Islamic regulation (Shari‘ah) in addition to ethical considerations. To react to new technological and medical advancements, informed Islamic jurists regularly will hold conferences to discuss new bioethical issues and come to an agreement on where they stand on
5795-498: The family, community, and individual are all interdependent of each other, so it is common for the family unit to collectively make decisions regarding healthcare and medical decisions for a loved one, instead of an individual making an independent decision for his or her self. Some argue that spirituality and understanding one another as spiritual beings and moral agents is an important aspect of bioethics, and that spirituality and bioethics are heavily intertwined with one another. As
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#17327727763045890-410: The federal Office for Human Research Protections ; political scientists like Francis Fukuyama ; religious studies scholars including James Childress ; and theologians like Lisa Sowle Cahill and Stanley Hauerwas. The field, formerly dominated by formally trained philosophers, has become increasingly interdisciplinary , with some critics even claiming that the methods of analytic philosophy have harmed
5985-822: The field's development. Leading journals in the field include The Journal of Medicine and Philosophy , the Hastings Center Report , the American Journal of Bioethics , the Journal of Medical Ethics , Bioethics , the Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal , Public Health Ethics , and the Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics . Bioethics has also benefited from the process philosophy developed by Alfred North Whitehead . Another discipline that discusses bioethics
6080-582: The fundamental principles announced in the Belmont Report (1979)—namely, respect for persons , beneficence and justice —have influenced the thinking of bioethicists across a wide range of issues. Others have added non-maleficence, human dignity , and the sanctity of life to this list of cardinal values. Overall, the Belmont Report has guided lookup in a course centered on defending prone topics as properly as pushing for transparency between
6175-479: The individual being deceased. On the contrary, the Islamic Organization of Medical Sciences (IOMS) states that brain death is an "intermediate state between life and death" and does not acknowledge a brain dead individual as being deceased. Islamic bioethicists look to the Qur'an and religious leaders regarding their outlook on reproduction and abortion. It is firmly believed that the reproduction of
6270-474: The issue from an Islamic perspective. This allows Islamic bioethics to stay pliable and responsive to new advancements in medicine. The standpoints taken by Islamic jurists on bioethical issues are not always unanimous decisions and at times may differ. There is much diversity among Muslims varying from country to country, and the different degrees to which they adhere by Shariah. Differences and disagreements in regards to jurisprudence, theology, and ethics between
6365-579: The law (who had elicited this parable by his self-justifying question, "And who is my neighbor?" in verse 29) to "go, and do likewise" in loving others with whom he would never ordinarily associate (verse 37). The principle of the sacredness of human life is at the basis of Catholic bioethics. On the subject of abortion , for example, Catholics and Orthodox are on very similar positions. Catholic bioethics insists on this concept, without exception, while Anglicans , Waldensians and Lutherans have positions closer to secular ones, for example with regard to
6460-489: The lens of primary care (13). Toon, by contrast argues such re-interpretations are not exclusive to general practice and primary care. Doctors in other specialities (such as psychiatry, rheumatology, HIV medicine, or where specialists take primary responsibility for a patient’s health care over a considerable period) may perform what he terms the interpretative function, but when they do so, they are acting as generalists and practising generalism (14). The extension of this argument
6555-740: The life of one, it shall be as if he saved the life of all humankind." This excerpt can be used to encourage using medicine and medical practices to save lives, but can also be looked at as a protest against euthanasia and assisted suicide. A high value and worth are placed on human life in Islam, and in turn, human life is deeply valued in the practice of Islamic bioethics as well. Muslims believe all human life, even one of poor quality, needs to be given appreciation and must be cared for and conserved. The Islamic education on sensible problems associated to existence in normal and human lifestyles in unique can be sought in Islamic bioethics. As we will see later, due to
6650-541: The life or health of another. Confidentiality can also be a problem, as patients may not understand or accept that information given to the doctor by one family member may not be divulged to others. Respect for confidentiality, and maintaining confidence amongst patients that confidentiality is respected can be difficult not just for doctors but also for other members of their staff in such situations. As in other aspects of applied ethics, different approaches may be used to understand these problems; they may be seen in terms of
6745-509: The link between biology, ecology, medicine, and human values. Sargent Shriver , the spouse of Eunice Kennedy Shriver, claimed that he had invented the term "bioethics" in the living room of his home in Bethesda, Maryland, in 1970. He stated that he thought of the word after returning from a discussion earlier that evening at Georgetown University, where he discussed with others a possible Kennedy family sponsorship of an institute focused around
6840-589: The male marking of its purportedly generic human subject and the fact that the tradition does not see women's rights as human rights, feminist bioethics challenges bioethics. This article explores how the other gender becomes mute and invisible as a result of this unseen gendering of the universal. It demonstrates how the dehumanization of "man" is a root cause of illness on a social and personal level. Finally, it makes many recommendations for how representations of women's experience and bodies could help to constructively reconsider fundamental ethical principles. Bioethics,
6935-587: The mid-1980s. During this period, unique philosophical discussions on brain death and disability appeared both in the academy and journalism. In Chinese culture and bioethics, there is not as much of an emphasis on autonomy as opposed to the heavy emphasis placed on autonomy in Western bioethics. Community, social values, and family are all heavily valued in Chinese culture, and contribute to the lack of emphasis on autonomy in Chinese bioethics. The Chinese believe that
7030-483: The necessity of feminist approaches to bioethics because the lack of diverse perspectives in bioethics and medicine can cause preventable harm to already vulnerable groups. This study first gained prevalence in the field of reproductive medicine as it was viewed as a "woman's issue". Since then, feminist approaches to bioethics has expanded to include bioethical topics in mental health, disability advocacy , healthcare accessibility, and pharmaceuticals . Lindemann notes
7125-514: The need for the future agenda of feminist approaches to bioethics to expand further to include healthcare organizational ethics, genetics , stem cell research , and more. Notable figures in feminist bioethics include Carol Gilligan , Susan Sherwin , and the creators of the International Journal of Feminist Approaches to Bioethics , Mary C. Rawlinson and Anne Donchin. Sherwin's book No Longer Patient: Feminist Ethics in Health Care (1992)
7220-502: The network and the status of members and associates. The Presidency of EPTA rotates among full members each year. The tasks of the EPTA member organization holding the presidency are to coordinate the EPTA network activities and to host the annual EPTA conference, Council meeting and Directors' meeting. Parliamentary TA is institutionalized in different ways, ranging from permanent parliamentary committees for TA; separate TA units as part of
7315-406: The official EPTA homepage, there are currently 12 associate members : EPTA organizes annual conferences targeted at Members of Parliaments and actively promotes collaboration between members and associates, including common projects occasionally. On the EPTA homepage an encompassing database lists and summarizes all TA projects of the member institutions. Bioethics Bioethics is both
7410-580: The parliamentary administration; to independent institutions with a mandate to serve as a permanent consulting institution for the parliament. The members of the EPTA network are European organizations, which carry out TA studies on behalf of parliaments. Full membership can be obtained by a unit that operates in Europe, is devoted to TA or related activities, serves a (supra-national, national or regional) parliament, has its own budget and secretariat and has an active work program including publications on issues with
7505-564: The past half a century. One of the first areas addressed by modern bioethicists was human experimentation. According to the Declaration of Helsinki published by the World Medical Association , the essential principles in medical research involving human subjects are autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, and justice. The autonomy of individuals to make decisions while assuming responsibility for them and respecting
7600-436: The patient should always have the freedom to choose their own treatment. Medical ethics is a utilized department of ethics that analyzes the exercise of clinical medicinal drug and associated scientific research. Medical ethics is based on a set of values. These values consist of the appreciation for autonomy, beneficence, and justice. Ethics affects medical decisions made by healthcare providers and patients. Medical ethics
7695-721: The patronage of the President of the European Parliament , Mr Enrique Baron Crespo . The network has a light structure, guided by the EPTA Council and by meetings of the Directors of the EPTA partner organizations. The EPTA Council is the steering committee of the EPTA network, and consists of Members of Parliament or representatives of the advisory boards for the respective EPTA organization. The Council decides on organizational matters such as co-operation within
7790-402: The police and the courts and many other bodies have interests in the health status of individuals. The primary care physician is often best placed to provide this information, but doing so can pose ethical problems, particularly in respect of confidentiality. Although patients may sign a consent form to allow information to be released, this consent is not always free, since the patient is often in
7885-399: The precise limits of their discipline, debating whether the field should concern itself with the ethical evaluation of all questions involving biology and medicine, or only a subset of these questions. Some bioethicists would narrow ethical evaluation only to the morality of medical treatments or technological innovations, and the timing of medical treatment of humans. Others would increase
7980-445: The public and private sectors. They may also be full-time employees, unbiased consultants, or have cross-appointments with educational institutions, such as lookup centres or universities. According to Igor Boyko's book "Bioethics", there are three models of bioethics in the world: Primary care ethics Primary care ethics is the study of the everyday decisions that primary care clinicians make, such as: how long to spend with
8075-540: The rapidly advancing field of genomic medicine. As gene therapies progress towards FDA approval, collaboration with clinical genetics providers becomes essential to navigate the ethical complexities of this new era in medicine. Bioethics as a subject of expert exercise (although now not a formal profession) developed at the beginning in North America in the Nineteen Eighties and Nineteen Nineties, in
8170-545: The requirements of the Islamic law (Shari'ah) due to the interdependence of Islamic law and Islamic ethics. In order to avoid making a mistake, everything must be thoroughly examined, first against moral criteria and then against legal ones. It appears that many writers on Islamic bioethics have failed to distinguish between the two. Despite the fact that Islamic law and morality are completely in agreement with one another, they may have distinct prescriptions because of their diverse ends and objectives. One distinction, for instance,
8265-402: The researcher and the subject. Research has flourished within the past 40 years and due to the advance in technology, it is thought that human subjects have outgrown the Belmont Report, and the need for revision is desired. Another essential precept of bioethics is its placement of cost on dialogue and presentation. Numerous dialogue based bioethics organizations exist in universities throughout
8360-424: The same applies to the doctor and to his staff. This can be a considerable strength of general practice, since doctors gain a fuller understanding of the social context in which their patients live and become ill. It can also pose ethical problems, however particularly in conflicts between duties to different individuals – family members, employers and employees, and even between friends, when the illness of one affects
8455-672: The scope of moral assessment to encompass the morality of all moves that would possibly assist or damage organisms successful of feeling fear. The scope of bioethics has evolved past mere biotechnology to include topics such as cloning , gene therapy , life extension , human genetic engineering , astroethics and life in space, and manipulation of basic biology through altered DNA, XNA and proteins. These (and other) developments may affect future evolution and require new principles that address life at its core, such as biotic ethics that values life itself at its basic biological processes and structures, and seeks their propagation. Moving beyond
8550-465: The topic of equality in medicine, the intersection of cultural practices and medical care, ethical distribution of healthcare resources in pandemics, and issues of bioterrorism . Medical ethical concerns frequently touch on matters of life and death. Patient rights, informed consent, confidentiality, competency, advance directives, carelessness, and many other topics are highlighted as serious health concerns. The proper actions to take in light of all
8645-621: The transfer into the community of services previously provided in hospital (such as specialist chronic disease management and mental health) may lead to the ethical dilemmas arising which were previously only encountered in secondary care (8). Spicer and Bowman argue that the ‘tertiary’ level ethical problems that dominate so much of the debate about healthcare ethics, such as genetics, cloning, organ donation and research, are experienced entirely differently in primary care. Moreover, what might be argued to be core moral principles , such as autonomy and justice , may be reinterpreted when viewed through
8740-414: The two main branches of Islam, Sunni, and Shia, lead to differences in the methods and ways in which Islamic bioethics is practiced throughout the Islamic world. An area where there is a lack of consensus is brain death. The Organization of Islamic Conferences Islamic Fiqh Academy (OIC-IFA) holds the view that brain death is equivalent to cardiopulmonary death, and acknowledges brain death in an individual as
8835-510: The use of fetal tissue in treatment, genetic engineering, the use of critical care units, distinctions between ordinary and extraordinary treatment, euthanasia, free and informed consent, competency determinations, the meaning of life, are being examined within the framework of traditional Christian moral commitments. Feminist bioethics critiques the fields of bioethics and medicine for its lack of inclusion of women's and other marginalized group's perspectives. This lack of perspective from women
8930-457: Was coined in 1927 by Fritz Jahr in an article about a "bioethical imperative" regarding the use of animals and plants in scientific research. In 1970, the American biochemist, and oncologist Van Rensselaer Potter used the term to describe the relationship between the biosphere and a growing human population. Potter's work laid the foundation for global ethics , a discipline centered around
9025-594: Was pioneered in the 1970s by the Office of Technology Assessment (OTA) of the US Congress . EPTA aims to advance the establishment of technology assessment (TA) as an integral part of policy formation in parliamentary decision-making processes in Europe, and to strengthen the links between TA units in Europe. The EPTA network was formally established in 1990, on a recommendation by the UK's parliamentary TA office – Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology , under
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