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135-614: Despite similar names and somewhat similar goals, the institutions in Germany and Sweden are quite different from those in Denmark and Norway. Folk high schools in Germany and Sweden are in fact much closer to the institutions known as folkeuniversitet in Norway and Denmark, which provide adult education. However, unlike the folkeuniversitet folk high schools in Sweden are not connected with

270-438: A board of trustees; a president, chancellor , or rector ; at least one vice president, vice-chancellor, or vice-rector; and deans of various divisions. Universities are generally divided into a number of academic departments, schools or faculties . Public university systems are ruled over by government-run higher education boards . They review financial requests and budget proposals and then allocate funds for each university in

405-498: A broader consideration within a global context. Although there are antecedents, the modern university is generally regarded as a formal institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian tradition. European higher education took place for hundreds of years in cathedral schools or monastic schools ( scholae monasticae ), in which monks and nuns taught classes; evidence of these immediate forerunners of

540-404: A certain field (e.g. music, fine arts, business). They might or might not have the power to award PhD degrees, depending on the respective government legislation. If they award PhD degrees, their rank is considered equivalent to that of universities proper (Universität), if not, their rank is equivalent to universities of applied sciences. Colloquially, the term university may be used to describe

675-573: A folk high school in rural Appalachia based on observations of European folk high schools. The John C. Campbell Folk School opened in 1925 in Brasstown, North Carolina , and it is still offering classes today. Students can learn American traditional arts and crafts, including blacksmithing, ceramics, cooking, jewelry, dance and music. Myles Horton , who co-founded the civil rights-focused Highlander Folk School in New Market, Tennessee in 1932,

810-566: A higher education institution which is similar to the former polytechnics in the British education system, the English term used for these German institutions is usually 'university of applied sciences'. They can confer master's degrees but no PhDs. They are similar to the model of teaching universities with less research and the research undertaken being highly practical. Hochschule can refer to various kinds of institutions, often specialised in

945-461: A large number of them are owned by a foundation and some are owned by the county. Most courses last for one year, but a few schools give a second year course. Common course options include outdoor skills, land use skills, the arts such as photography or painting, music such as jazz or rock, Norwegian language and culture, and travel skills. In 1910, the Przegląd Oświatowy magazine published by

1080-410: A law school teaching the ius gentium or Roman law of peoples which was in demand across Europe for those defending the right of incipient nations against empire and church. The University of Bologna, or Alma Mater Studiorum , is widely recognized as the oldest university that is independent of any direct authority, such as kings, emperors, or religious organizations. Bologna's claim to being

1215-515: A license. Lifelong learning institutes are educational organisations specifically for lifelong learning purposes. Informal lifelong learning communities also exist around the world. In some contexts, the term "lifelong learning" evolved from the term "life-long learners", created by Leslie Watkins and used by Clint Taylor, professor at CSULA and Superintendent for the Temple City Unified School District, in

1350-427: A local level and provide non-credit courses for adults in: This type of folk high school is currently most widespread in Germany. Because they offer preparatory classes for school exams, in Germany these schools also function as the equivalent of adult high schools in other countries. Germany also has folk high schools that are boarding schools, called Heimvolkshochschulen . Iceland is home to only two folk schools,

1485-594: A more equal and laic higher education system. Universities created by bilateral or multilateral treaties between states are intergovernmental . An example is the Academy of European Law , which offers training in European law to lawyers, judges, barristers, solicitors, in-house counsel and academics. EUCLID (Pôle Universitaire Euclide, Euclid University) is chartered as a university and umbrella organization dedicated to sustainable development in signatory countries, and

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1620-537: A new responsibility to the adult reader. The Adult Education Act of 1966 linked literacy education and adult basic education programs. This occurred at the same time that the Library Services and Construction Act was being passed. Twenty-five years after the U.S. Adult Education Act was passed, the U.S. Office of Education published Partners for Lifelong Learning, Public Libraries and Adult Education . The Institute of Museum and Library Services (IMLS)

1755-417: A personal, civic, social and/or employment-related perspective". It is often considered learning that occurs after the formal education years of childhood and into adulthood. It is sought out naturally through life experiences as the learner seeks to gain knowledge for professional or personal reasons. These natural experiences can come about on purpose or accidentally. Lifelong learning has been described as

1890-862: A phase in one's life: "When I was at university..." (in the United States and Ireland, college is often used instead: "When I was in college..."). In Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, the United Kingdom, Nigeria, the Netherlands, Spain and the German-speaking countries , university is often contracted to uni . In Ghana, New Zealand, Bangladesh and in South Africa it is sometimes called "varsity" (although this has become uncommon in New Zealand in recent years). "Varsity"

2025-486: A process that includes people learning in different contexts. These environments do not only include schools but also homes, workplaces, and locations where people pursue leisure activities. However, while the learning process can be applied to learners of all ages, there is a focus on adults who are returning to organized learning. There are programs based on its framework that address the different needs of learners, such as United Nations' Sustainable Development Goal 4 and

2160-442: A regular university . The Finnish adult education centers called työväenopisto and kansalaisopisto (Swedish: arbetarinstitut , literally 'workers' institute') are also part of the adult education tradition. Other countries have also been inspired by Grundtvig's concept of popular education. In Nigeria, the United States, and India, a few schools have been built upon Grundtvig's principles for education. Grundtvig , regarded as

2295-481: A religious focus but most of them are secular. The schools are still Grundtvigian folk high schools which means that their focus is on enlightenment, ethics , morality and democracy although they are not taught explicitly. The Grundtvigian philosophy is embedded in the teaching of various subjects, e.g. the arts , gymnastics , and journalism . Most of the schools have an area of expertise, for example sports , music , art or writing . Since no degree or diploma

2430-429: A significant factor in driving many scientists away from the university and toward private benefactors, usually in princely courts, and associations with newly forming scientific societies. Other historians find incongruity in the proposition that the very place where the vast number of the scholars that influenced the scientific revolution received their education should also be the place that inhibits their research and

2565-558: A spirit of inquiry into natural processes that had already begun to emerge in the 12th century. Some scholars believe that these works represented one of the most important document discoveries in Western intellectual history. Richard Dales, for instance, calls the discovery of Aristotle's works "a turning point in the history of Western thought." After Aristotle re-emerged, a community of scholars, primarily communicating in Latin, accelerated

2700-540: A state autonomic institution which functions as a completely independent body inside of the same state. Some national universities are closely associated with national cultural , religious or political aspirations, for instance the National University of Ireland , which formed partly from the Catholic University of Ireland which was created almost immediately and specifically in answer to

2835-426: A sufficient reward. The essential element was and is the life at the schools. A folk high school becomes what it is because of the individuals of which it is made. Learning happens across social positions and differences – the teacher learns from the student and vice versa in a living exchange and mutual teaching. For Grundtvig dialogue across differences was essential – the ideal was that people must learn to bear with

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2970-556: A very high standard in specific area of study, can be declared by the Central Government on the advice of the University Grants Commission as an Institution (Deemed-to-be-university). Institutions that are 'deemed-to-be-university' enjoy the academic status and the privileges of a university. Through this provision many schools that are commercial in nature and have been established just to exploit

3105-627: Is an institution of higher (or tertiary ) education and research which awards academic degrees in several academic disciplines . University is derived from the Latin phrase universitas magistrorum et scholarium , which roughly means "community of teachers and scholars". Universities typically offer both undergraduate and postgraduate programs. The first universities in Europe were established by Catholic monks . The University of Bologna ( Università di Bologna ), Italy , which

3240-654: Is awarded the teaching is freer and more informal than at ordinary educational institutions. Most Scandinavian folk high schools are boarding schools where the students live for from two to six months., and some schools offer programs for an entire year. The movement started as a row with the old school. Grundtvig fought for a public education as an alternative to the university elite. The folk high schools should be for those wanting to learn in general and to help people form part of human relations and society . The folk high schools have changed naturally – some also radically – through time, but many of Grundtvig's core ideas about

3375-687: Is founded on a different conceptualization of knowledge and its acquisition. It is explained not only as the possession of discrete pieces of information or factual knowledge but also as a generalized scheme of making sense of new events, including the use of tactics in order to effectively deal with them. Reflective learning and critical thinking can help a learner to become more self-reliant through learning how to learn, thus making them better able to direct, manage, and control their own learning process. Sipe studied experimentally "open" teachers and found that they valued self-directed learning, collaboration, reflection, and challenge; risk taking in their learning

3510-573: Is possible, however, that the development of cathedral schools into universities was quite rare, with the University of Paris being an exception. Later they were also founded by kings - but with prior papal approval. ( University of Naples Federico II , Charles University in Prague , Jagiellonian University in Kraków ) or municipal administrations ( University of Cologne , University of Erfurt ). In

3645-481: Is the "ongoing, voluntary, and self-motivated " pursuit of learning for either personal or professional reasons. Lifelong learning is important for an individual's competitiveness and employability, but also enhances social inclusion , active citizenship , and personal development. Professions typically recognize the importance of developing practitioners becoming lifelong learners. Many licensed professions mandate that their members continue learning to maintain

3780-420: Is transferred from faculty to managers, economic justifications dominate, and the familiar 'bottom line' eclipses pedagogical or intellectual concerns". Academics' understanding of time, pedagogical pleasure, vocation, and collegiality have been cited as possible ways of alleviating such problems. A national university is generally a university created or run by a national state but at the same time represents

3915-683: Is typically around 1300 Danish kroner per week, including board and lodging. In recent history, globalization has exercised an increasingly important influence on Danish schools. Many courses are open to foreigners as well as Danes, and many courses include travelling or voluntary stays in other countries as part of the curriculum. In 1889, Sofia Hagman started the first folk high school in Finland in Kangasala . Public, private, secular and religious folk high schools are common in Finland, and there are also worker's high schools, which are governed by

4050-569: Is unique among the Danish folk high schools in that it is the most international one in Denmark, with classes taught in English and teachers and students from countries all around the world attending. There are around 70 folk high schools in Denmark. The principal subjects of instruction vary from the creative arts such as music, arts, design, writing, to intellectual courses such as religion, philosophy, literature and psychology. Some schools even have courses that specialize in sports. Tuition varies, but

4185-655: The 20th arrondissement of Paris (and is still active), Oslo Experimental High School , which opened in 1967 in Norway, and Saint-Nazaire Experimental High School, which opened six months before the LAP. Theoretical influences include the works of Célestin Freinet , Raymond Fonvieille , Fernand Oury , and other theoreticians of the institutional pedagogy , institutional analysis ( René Lourau in particular), and institutional psychotherapeutic movements. Folk high schools in Germany, Switzerland and Austria are usually funded on

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4320-774: The LungA School , an artist-run art school in Seyðisfjörður , which opened in 2014 and the The Flateyri Folk School in Flateyri , which opened in 2018. Folk high schools ( Lithuanian : liaudies universitetas which translates as people's university) were first established in the early 20th century in Lithuania. They became more popular in the interwar Lithuania . In 1937, there were 56 people's universities attended by 160,000 students. Some of

4455-579: The People's Libraries Society featured an article by Idzi Świtała, in which he reported on the success of Danish folk high schools in fostering the prosperity of the Danish countryside. This inspired Polish activist Antoni Ludwiczak to establish a similar school in partitioned Poland, also for Polish patriotic education in view of the Germanisation policy of the German authorities. The establishment of

4590-759: The Second Empire , Jean Macé founded the Ligue de l'enseignement ("Teaching League"), which was devoted to popular instruction. Following the split between the Anarchists and the Marxists at the 1872 Hague Congress , popular education remained an important part of the workers' movement , especially in the anarcho-syndicalist movement which set up, with Fernand Pelloutier , various Bourses du travail centres, where workers gathered and discussed politics and sciences. The Jules Ferry laws that were passed in

4725-1346: The Soviet occupation of Lithuania in 1940 , the number of people's universities was reduced to eight attended by about 6,000 students. The schools were completely closed after the German occupation in 1941. The people's universities were reestablished in 1958 by the Ministry of Culture of the Lithuanian SSR . They were supervised by a council under the Lithuanian chapter of the Znanie Society  [ ru ] . In 1964, there were 18 people's universities in Vilnius that prepared training materials for other people's universities based in cities and districts. The curriculum reflected Soviet ideology. After Lithuania regained independence in 1990, people's universities were closed. Instead, cultural organizations (such as museums or libraries) organize educational activities (lectures, seminars, conferences, etc.). The first folk high school in Norway , Sagatun ,

4860-960: The UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning , which caters to the needs of the disadvantaged and marginalized learners. Lifelong learning is distinguished from the concept of continuing education in the sense that it has a broader scope. Unlike the latter, which is oriented towards adult education developed for the needs of schools and industries, this type of learning is concerned with the development of human potential in individuals generally. Lifelong learning focuses on holistic education and it has two dimensions, namely, lifelong and broad options for learning. These indicate learning that integrates traditional education proposals and modern learning opportunities. It also entails an emphasis on encouraging people to learn how to learn and to select content, process, and methodologies that pursue autodidacticism . Some authors highlight that lifelong learning

4995-654: The United Nations University engages in efforts to resolve the pressing global problems that are of concern to the United Nations, its peoples and member states. The European University Institute , a post-graduate university specialized in the social sciences, is officially an intergovernmental organization, set up by the member states of the European Union . Although each institution is organized differently, nearly all universities have

5130-573: The countryside , often in remote areas. Tuition is free, and the students are eligible for normal financial aid for expenses such as accommodation and other school costs. Students can either study for a general qualification, which makes them eligible to study at university, or a specific subject such as arts, crafts, film, theatre, music or design to gain practical experience. Some schools, for example Södra Vätterbygdens Folkhögskola near Jönköping , cooperate with schools in other countries and have an exchange student program. A comprehensive overview of

5265-447: The early medieval period , most new universities were founded from pre-existing schools, usually when these schools were deemed to have become primarily sites of higher education. Many historians state that universities and cathedral schools were a continuation of the interest in learning promoted by monasteries . Pope Gregory VII was crucial in promoting and regulating the concept of modern university, as his 1079 Papal Decree ordered

5400-666: The 'Academy of Lifelong Learning' is an administrative unit at the University of Delaware . Another example is the Jagiellonian University Extension (Wszechnica Uniwersytetu Jagiellonskiego), which is one of the most comprehensive Polish centers for lifelong learning (open learning, organizational learning, community learning). In recent years, 'lifelong learning' has been adopted in the UK as an umbrella term for post-compulsory education that falls outside of

5535-646: The 17th century was rife with events that adversely affected university expansion. Many wars, and especially the Thirty Years' War , disrupted the university landscape throughout Europe at different times. War , plague , famine , regicide , and changes in religious power and structure often adversely affected the societies that provided support for universities. Internal strife within the universities themselves, such as student brawling and absentee professors, acted to destabilize these institutions as well. Universities were also reluctant to give up older curricula, and

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5670-597: The 1880s established free, secular , mandatory public education as one of the founding principles of the Third Republic . In addition, many teachers were strong supporters of Alfred Dreyfus during the Dreyfus Affair of the 1890s. Afterward, some teachers set up free educational lectures on humanist topics in order to struggle against the spread of antisemitism in France. In more recent times, following

5805-477: The 1981 presidential election Minister of Education Alain Savary supported Jean Lévi 's initiative to create a public high school that would deliver the baccalauréat but would be organized on the principles of workers' self-management (or "autogestion"). This high school took the name Lycée autogéré de Paris (LAP). The LAP was explicitly inspired by the secondary school Vitruve , which opened in 1962 in

5940-673: The 1990s, this pattern began to change. Nine folk schools were founded in the late 1990s and by 2010 an additional twenty-two. As of 2019, the Folk Education Association of America reported over ninety-four active folk schools in twenty-five states. These new folk schools, largely modeled after the John C Campbell Folk School, work to strengthen their communities through the practice and sharing of place-based cultural traditions and craft. University A university (from Latin universitas  'a whole')

6075-501: The 19th century, religion played a significant role in university curriculum; however, the role of religion in research universities decreased during that century. By the end of the 19th century, the German university model had spread around the world. Universities concentrated on science in the 19th and 20th centuries and became increasingly accessible to the masses. In the United States, the Johns Hopkins University

6210-460: The 19th century, the German and the French university models had arisen. The German, or Humboldtian model, was conceived by Wilhelm von Humboldt and based on Friedrich Schleiermacher 's liberal ideas pertaining to the importance of freedom , seminars , and laboratories in universities. The French university model involved strict discipline and control over every aspect of the university. Until

6345-536: The Early Modern period, as the term is applied to a burgeoning number of institutions. In fact, the term "university" was not always used to designate a higher education institution. In Mediterranean countries , the term studium generale was still often used, while "Academy" was common in Northern European countries. The propagation of universities was not necessarily a steady progression, as

6480-508: The Education Services for Overseas Students Act (ESOS). In the United States there is no nationally standardized definition for the term university , although the term has traditionally been used to designate research institutions and was once reserved for doctorate-granting research institutions. Some states, such as Massachusetts , will only grant a school "university status" if it grants at least two doctoral degrees . In

6615-528: The Higher Learning: the Madrasah. Significantly, the institutional adjustments of the madrasahs affected both the structure and the content of these institutions. In terms of structure, the adjustments were twofold: the reorganization of the available original madaris and the creation of new institutions. This resulted in two different types of Islamic teaching institutions in al-Maghrib. The first type

6750-479: The Middle Ages, though other guilds stood in the way of developing commerce and therefore were eventually abolished, the scholars guild did not. According to historian Elliot Krause, "The university and scholars' guilds held onto their power over membership, training, and workplace because early capitalism was not interested in it." By the 18th century, universities published their own research journals and by

6885-643: The UK higher education system— further education , community education , work-based learning and similar voluntary, public sector and commercial settings. In Canada, the federal government's Lifelong Learning Plan allows Canadian residents to withdraw funds from their Registered Retirement Savings Plan to help pay for lifelong learning, but the funds can only be used for formal learning programs at designated educational institutions. Priorities for lifelong and lifewide learning have different priorities in different countries, some placing more emphasis on economic development and some on social development. For example,

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7020-581: The United Kingdom, the Privy Council is responsible for approving the use of the word university in the name of an institution, under the terms of the Further and Higher Education Act 1992 . In India, a new designation deemed universities has been created for institutions of higher education that are not universities, but work at a very high standard in a specific area of study ("An Institution of Higher Education, other than universities, working at

7155-613: The United States offer students the opportunity to apply for financial scholarships to help pay for tuition based on academic achievement. There are several major exceptions on tuition fees. In many European countries, it is possible to study without tuition fees. Public universities in Nordic countries were entirely without tuition fees until around 2005. Denmark, Sweden and Finland then moved to put in place tuition fees for foreign students. Citizens of EU and EEA member states and citizens from Switzerland remain exempted from tuition fees, and

7290-727: The United States, librarians have understood lifelong learning as an essential service of libraries since the early part of the 20th century. In 1924, William S. Learned, wrote of the potential of the American public library as an agency for adult education in The American Public Library and the Diffusion of Knowledge . Two decades later, in 1942, the American Library Association Adult Education Board established

7425-528: The United States, many chose the name "lifelong learning institute" to be inclusive of nonretired persons in the same age range. Traditional colleges and universities are beginning to recognize the value of lifelong learning outside of the credit and degree attainment model. Lifelong learners, including persons with academic or professional credentials, tend to find higher-paying occupations, leaving monetary, cultural, and entrepreneurial impressions on communities, according to educator Cassandra B. Whyte. In

7560-587: The University Grants Committee) and Sir Samuel Curran , with the formation of the University of Strathclyde . The British also established universities worldwide, and higher education became available to the masses not only in Europe. In 1963, the Robbins Report on universities in the United Kingdom concluded that such institutions should have four main "objectives essential to any properly balanced system: instruction in skills;

7695-492: The University of Bologna. Among the southern universities, a further distinction has been noted between those of northern Italy, which followed the pattern of Bologna as a "self-regulating, independent corporation of scholars" and those of southern Italy and Iberia, which were "founded by royal and imperial charter to serve the needs of government." During the Early Modern period (approximately late 15th century to 1800),

7830-408: The acquisition of knowledge to the detriment of other types of learning essential to sustaining human development, stressing the need to think of learning over the lifespan, and to address how everyone can develop relevant skills, knowledge and attitudes for work, citizenship and personal fulfillment. The four pillars of learning are: The four pillars of learning were envisaged against the backdrop of

7965-473: The advancement of science. In fact, more than 80% of the European scientists between 1450 and 1650 included in the Dictionary of Scientific Biography were university trained, of which approximately 45% held university posts. It was the case that the academic foundations remaining from the Middle Ages were stable, and they did provide for an environment that fostered considerable growth and development. There

8100-439: The amounts of public grants granted to promising foreign students were increased to offset some of the impact. The situation in Germany is similar; public universities usually do not charge tuition fees apart from a small administrative fee. For degrees of a postgraduate professional level sometimes tuition fees are levied. Private universities, however, almost always charge tuition fees. The Adjustments of Original Institutions of

8235-445: The books of Aristotle for logic, natural philosophy , and metaphysics ; while Hippocrates , Galen , and Avicenna were used for medicine. Outside of these commonalities, great differences separated north and south, primarily in subject matter. Italian universities focused on law and medicine, while the northern universities focused on the arts and theology. The quality of instruction in the different areas of study varied, depending on

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8370-664: The brain may preserve it, forestalling mental decline." Some research has shown that people with higher cognitive reserves , attained through lifelong learning, were better able to avoid the cognitive decline that often accompanies age-related neurodegenerative diseases . Even when subjects had dementia, some studies show that they were able to persist in a normal mental state for a longer period than subjects who were not involved in some type of lifelong learning. Studies so far have lacked large, randomized controlled trials . In "Education and Alzheimer's Disease: A Review of Recent International Epidemiological Studies" published in 1997 in

8505-550: The city from many lands entering into a contract to gain this knowledge, eventually organising themselves into Nationes , divided between that of the Cismontanes and that of the Ultramontanes. The students "had all the power ... and dominated the masters". All over Europe, rulers and city governments began to create universities to satisfy a European thirst for knowledge, and the belief that society would benefit from

8640-520: The confines of the university, the connection has been commonly perceived as having been severed by the changing nature of science during the Scientific Revolution . Historians such as Richard S. Westfall have argued that the overt traditionalism of universities inhibited attempts to re-conceptualize nature and knowledge and caused an indelible tension between universities and scientists. This resistance to changes in science may have been

8775-581: The continued reliance on the works of Aristotle defied contemporary advancements in science and the arts. This era was also affected by the rise of the nation-state . As universities increasingly came under state control, or formed under the auspices of the state, the faculty governance model (begun by the University of Paris) became more and more prominent. Although the older student-controlled universities still existed, they slowly started to move toward this structural organization. Control of universities still tended to be independent, although university leadership

8910-469: The courses, but in 1861 young women also gained access to folk high schools when teaching began being offered from May to July. The men still only attended during winter. The breakthrough for the idea was the Second War of Schleswig in 1864 when Denmark had to surrender a large part of its territory. This incident allowed the growth of a new Danish consciousness and nationalism based on enlightenment of

9045-712: The demand for higher education have sprung up. In Canada, college generally refers to a two-year, non-degree-granting institution, while university connotes a four-year, degree-granting institution. Universities may be sub-classified (as in the Macleans rankings ) into large research universities with many PhD-granting programs and medical schools (for example, McGill University ); "comprehensive" universities that have some PhDs but are not geared toward research (such as Waterloo ); and smaller, primarily undergraduate universities (such as St. Francis Xavier ). In Germany, universities are institutions of higher education which have

9180-612: The differences of each other before enlightenment can be realized. The character of folk high schools differ from country to country, but usually institutions have the following common features: Especially in non-German speaking countries, the folk high schools may be boarding schools or may mainly offer courses for adults age 18–30. In addition to the Nordic countries and Germany there are also folk high schools in Switzerland, Austria, Poland, and France. The first folk high school

9315-460: The district's mission statement in 1993, the term recognizes that learning is not confined to childhood or the classroom but takes place throughout life and in a range of situations. In other contexts, the term "lifelong learning" evolved organically. The first lifelong learning institute began at The New School for Social Research (now The New School ) in 1962 as an experiment in "learning in retirement". Later, after similar groups formed across

9450-545: The entire curriculum, there emerged a type of scholar that put science first and viewed it as a vocation in itself. The divergence between those focused on science and those still entrenched in the idea of a general scholar exacerbated the epistemological tensions that were already beginning to emerge. The epistemological tensions between scientists and universities were also heightened by the economic realities of research during this time, as individual scientists, associations and universities were vying for limited resources. There

9585-436: The expertise of their own members in the pursuit of knowledge and shared experience. In Sweden, the concept of study circles , an idea launched almost a century ago, still represents a large portion of the adult education provision. The concept has since spread, and for instance, is a common practice in Finland as well. Formal administrative units devoted to lifelong learning exist in a number of universities . For example,

9720-510: The fatherland, its constitution and main industries (farming) along with folk songs should be the guiding principles for an education based on a Christian framework. The first folk high school was established in 1844 in Rødding , Denmark. The school in Rødding, however, was somewhat aristocratic as chiefly civil servants and rich farmers were enrolled. Another pioneer for the folk high school

9855-461: The first folk high school for females was founded by Fredrique Paijkull . Swedish folk high schools receive public funding from the Swedish government to support four goals: strengthening democracy, personal development, creating educational equality, and promoting interest and participation in culture. As of 2023, there are 156 folk high schools throughout the country, most of which are situated in

9990-481: The folk high school are still to be found in the way they are run today. The folk high school of today is engaged in a complex modern reality and influenced both by national, international and global questions. One of the main concepts still to be found at the folk high schools today is " lifelong learning ". The schools should educate for life. They should shed light on basic questions surrounding life of people both as individuals and as members of society. To Grundtvig

10125-401: The founder of the folk high school, received inspiration for the concept from the English boarding schools , but Grundtvig's focus was not on formal education but on popular education . The idea was to give the peasantry and other people from the lower echelons of society a higher educational level through personal development; what Grundtvig called "the living word". The language and history of

10260-485: The highest concentrations in the German Empire (34), Italian countries (26), France (25), and Spain (23) – this was close to a 500% increase over the number of universities toward the end of the Middle Ages. This number does not include the numerous universities that disappeared, or institutions that merged with other universities during this time. The identification of a university was not necessarily obvious during

10395-401: The ideal was to give the students a sense of a common best and focusing on life as it really is. Therefore, Grundtvig never set down guidelines for the future schools or a detailed description of how they should be run. He declared that the folk high schools should be arranged and developed according to life as it is and the schools should not hold exams because the education and enlightenment was

10530-417: The intent of the degree holder after graduation – in the north the focus tended to be on acquiring teaching positions, while in the south students often went on to professional positions. The structure of northern universities tended to be modeled after the system of faculty governance developed at the University of Paris . Southern universities tended to be patterned after the student-controlled model begun at

10665-569: The interests of education. Today, this is claimed as the origin of "academic freedom". This is now a widely accepted concept in international research. On 18 September 1988, 430 university rectors signed the Magna Charta Universitatum , marking the 900th anniversary of Bologna's foundation. The number of universities signing the Magna Charta Universitatum continues to grow, drawing from all parts of

10800-491: The labor movement. There are 184 folk high schools in Finland, with an annual course attendance of 650,000, in 2 million hours of lessons, which are substantial numbers for a country of 5.5 million people. Unlike in Finnish public education, there are tuition fees , per-course and per-lesson fees. The most common subjects are handicraft skills, music, languages, physical education, visual arts, theater and dance. In 1866, during

10935-537: The later university at many places dates back to the 6th century. In Europe, young men proceeded to university when they had completed their study of the trivium – the preparatory arts of grammar , rhetoric and dialectic or logic –and the quadrivium : arithmetic , geometry , music , and astronomy . The earliest universities were developed under the aegis of the Latin Church by papal bull as studia generalia and perhaps from cathedral schools. It

11070-722: The madrasas in Al-Andalus , the Emirate of Sicily , and the Middle East during the Crusades . Norman Daniel, however, views this argument as overstated. In 2013, Roy Lowe and Yoshihito Yasuhara claimed that the influences of scholarship from the Islamic world on the universities of Western Europe requires a reconsideration of the development of higher education, turning away from a concern with local institutional structures to

11205-613: The more prominent schools included the People's University of Vincas Kudirka (established in 1923), People's University of Motiejus Valančius (established in 1924 by the Catholic youth organization Pavasaris ), People's University of Povilas Višinskis (established in 1926 by Kltūra Company  [ lt ] ), People's University of Jonas Basanavičius (established in 1928 by the Lithuanian Teachers' Union). After

11340-467: The most part been displaced and the humanities had become a fixture, and a new openness was beginning to take hold in the construction and dissemination of knowledge that were to become imperative for the formation of the modern state. Modern universities constitute a guild or quasi-guild system. This facet of the university system did not change due to its peripheral standing in an industrialized economy; as commerce developed between towns in Europe during

11475-838: The non-denominational universities which had been set up in Ireland in 1850. In the years leading up to the Easter Rising , and in no small part a result of the Gaelic Romantic revivalists, the NUI collected a large amount of information on the Irish language and Irish culture . Reforms in Argentina were the result of the University Revolution of 1918 and its posterior reforms by incorporating values that sought for

11610-527: The notion of 'lifelong learning', itself an adaptation of the concept of 'lifelong education' as initially conceptualized in the 1972 Faure publication Learning to Be . The emergence of internet technologies has great potential to support lifelong learning endeavors, allowing for informal day-to-day learning. In India and elsewhere, the " University of the Third Age " (U3A) is an almost spontaneous movement comprising autonomous learning groups accessing

11745-474: The oldest university is based on its unique characteristics, such as its autonomy and its ability to grant degrees. The conventional date for the start of teaching at Bologna of 1088, or 1087 according to some, records when Irnerius commenced teaching Emperor Justinian's 6th-century codification of Roman law, the Corpus Iuris Civilis , recently discovered at Pisa. Lay students arrived in

11880-478: The people. Denmark's loss of territory to Prussia hit the Danish national consciousness hard, which became a catalyst for a new Danish identity. They established folk high schools all around the country and by 1867 twenty-one folk high schools had opened. Almost everyone working at the folk high schools had been an apprentice of Grundtvig. In 1918 the number of folk high schools in Denmark had reached 68. The modern folk high schools vary significantly. Some still have

12015-465: The policies of China , Republic of Korea , Singapore and Malaysia promote lifelong learning in a human resource development perspective. The governments of these countries have done much to foster training and development whilst encouraging entrepreneurship. In a 2012 New York Times article, Arthur Toga, a professor of neurology and director of the laboratory of neuroimaging at the University of California, Los Angeles , stated that "Exercising

12150-480: The popular education of theoretical and practical knowledge directly to the whole population, especially to industrial workers ( proletariat ), rural farm workers ( campisinos ), emigrants, and citizens with special needs who do not have convenient access to regular, formal educational facilities, The first folk high schools in Sweden were established in 1868. The first school was open only to men, but already in 1870,

12285-566: The power to confer bachelor, master and PhD degrees. They are explicitly recognised as such by law and cannot be founded without government approval. The term Universität (i.e. the German term for university) is protected by law and any use without official approval is a criminal offense. Most of them are public institutions, though a few private universities exist. Such universities are always research universities. Apart from these universities, Germany has other institutions of higher education (Hochschule, Fachhochschule ). Fachhochschule means

12420-434: The primary mission of lecturers, and the expectation of students. The university culture developed differently in northern Europe than it did in the south, although the northern (primarily Germany, France and Great Britain ) and southern universities (primarily Italy) did have many elements in common. Latin was the language of the university, used for all texts, lectures, disputations and examinations. Professors lectured on

12555-399: The process and practice of attempting to reconcile the thoughts of Greek antiquity, and especially ideas related to understanding the natural world, with those of the church. The efforts of this " scholasticism " were focused on applying Aristotelian logic and thoughts about natural processes to biblical passages and attempting to prove the viability of those passages through reason. This became

12690-553: The programs offered at all Swedish folk high schools between 1952-2019 is provided in an open data repository and the central page for applying to folk high schools is folkhogskola.nu . In 1998, the Grundtvig Movement of Nigeria led by Dr. Kachi Ozumba Snr. established Grundtvig International Secondary School , an independent co-educational secondary school built upon Grundtvig's principles for education. Americans John C. Campbell and Olive Dame Campbell helped create

12825-589: The promotion of the general powers of the mind so as to produce not mere specialists but rather cultivated men and women; to maintain research in balance with teaching, since teaching should not be separated from the advancement of learning and the search for truth; and to transmit a common culture and common standards of citizenship." In the early 21st century, concerns were raised over the increasing managerialisation and standardisation of universities worldwide. Neo-liberal management models have in this sense been critiqued for creating "corporate universities (where) power

12960-556: The qualifications of their members. In modern usage, the word has come to mean "an institution of higher education offering tuition in mainly non-vocational subjects and typically having the power to confer degrees". The earlier emphasis on its corporate organization is no longer the primary feature by which a modern university is recognized. The original Latin word referred to degree-awarding institutions of learning in Western and Central Europe , where this form of legal organisation

13095-496: The regulated establishment of cathedral schools that transformed themselves into the first European universities. The first universities in Europe with a form of corporate/guild structure were the University of Bologna ( c.  1180–1190 ), the University of Paris ( c.  1208–1210 , later associated with the Sorbonne ), and the University of Oxford ( c.  1200–1214 ). The University of Bologna began as

13230-429: The resources available through private benefactors. By the end of the early modern period, the structure and orientation of higher education had changed in ways that are eminently recognizable for the modern context. Aristotle was no longer a force providing the epistemological and methodological focus for universities and a more mechanistic orientation was emerging. The hierarchical place of theological knowledge had for

13365-538: The scholarly expertise generated from these institutions. Princes and leaders of city governments perceived the potential benefits of having a scholarly expertise developed with the ability to address difficult problems and achieve desired ends. The emergence of humanism was essential to this understanding of the possible utility of universities as well as the revival of interest in knowledge gained from ancient Greek texts. The recovery of Aristotle 's works – more than 3000 pages of it would eventually be translated – fuelled

13500-717: The school was delayed by World War I . The first Polish folk high school was eventually established in 1921 in Dalki after the restoration of independent Poland. The second folk high school was founded in 1924 in Szyce near Kraków , and many more were founded in the interbellum and after World War II . As of May 1948, there were 63 folk high schools in Poland. A Universidad popular means any competent educational institution such as those established by municipalities, interest groups, charitable associations and social organizations to promote

13635-441: The scientific changes through providing a stable environment for instruction and material resources. Regardless of the way the tension between universities, individual scientists, and the scientific revolution itself is perceived, there was a discernible impact on the way that university education was constructed. Aristotelian epistemology provided a coherent framework not simply for knowledge and knowledge construction, but also for

13770-470: The source of their finances. The funding and organization of universities varies widely between different countries around the world. In some countries universities are predominantly funded by the state, while in others funding may come from donors or from fees which students attending the university must pay. In some countries the vast majority of students attend university in their local town, while in other countries universities attract students from all over

13905-508: The state university system in 1947. Madrasa , in modern usage, the name of an institution of learning where the Islamic sciences are taught, i.e. a college for higher studies, as opposed to an elementary school of traditional type ( kuttab ); in medieval usage, essentially a college of law in which the other Islamic sciences, including literary and philosophical ones, were ancillary subjects only. Lifelong learning Lifelong learning

14040-564: The system. They also approve new programs of instruction and cancel or make changes in existing programs. In addition, they plan for the further coordinated growth and development of the various institutions of higher education in the state or country. However, many public universities in the world have a considerable degree of financial, research and pedagogical autonomy. Private universities are privately funded and generally have broader independence from state policies. However, they may have less independence from business corporations depending on

14175-510: The texts used at the institution came from Muslim Spain...Al Quaraouiyine began its life as a small mosque constructed in 859 C.E. by means of an endowment bequeathed by a wealthy woman of much piety, Fatima bint Muhammed al-Fahri. Higher education has always been an integral part of Morocco, going back to the ninth century when the Karaouine Mosque was established. The madrasa , known today as Al Qayrawaniyan University, became part of

14310-404: The training of scholars within the higher education setting. The creation of new scientific constructs during the scientific revolution, and the epistemological challenges that were inherent within this creation, initiated the idea of both the autonomy of science and the hierarchy of the disciplines. Instead of entering higher education to become a "general scholar" immersed in becoming proficient in

14445-400: The translation and propagation of ancient texts, but also their adaptation and expansion. For instance, Vesalius was imperative for advocating the use of Galen, but he also invigorated this text with experimentation, disagreements and further research. The propagation of these texts, especially within the universities, was greatly aided by the emergence of the printing press and the beginning of

14580-462: The universities of Europe would see a tremendous amount of growth, productivity and innovative research. At the end of the Middle Ages, about 400 years after the first European university was founded, there were 29 universities spread throughout Europe. In the 15th century, 28 new ones were created, with another 18 added between 1500 and 1625. This pace continued until by the end of the 18th century there were approximately 143 universities in Europe, with

14715-451: The university were affected by the humanist approaches to learning and their linguistic expertise in relation to ancient texts, as well as the ideology that advocated the ultimate importance of those texts. Professors of medicine such as Niccolò Leoniceno , Thomas Linacre and William Cop were often trained in and taught from a humanist perspective as well as translated important ancient medical texts. The critical mindset imparted by humanism

14850-408: The university's focus. This led scholars to travel north or south based on their interests and means. The universities also awarded different types of degrees. English, French and German universities usually awarded bachelor's degrees, with the exception of degrees in theology, for which the doctorate was more common. Italian universities awarded primarily doctorates. The distinction can be attributed to

14985-430: The university; to increase the humanist presence in professorships and chairs, syllabi and textbooks so that published works would demonstrate the humanistic ideal of science and scholarship. Although the initial focus of the humanist scholars in the university was the discovery, exposition and insertion of ancient texts and languages into the university, and the ideas of those texts into society generally, their influence

15120-402: The use of the vernacular, which allowed for the printing of relatively large texts at reasonable prices. Examining the influence of humanism on scholars in medicine, mathematics, astronomy and physics may suggest that humanism and universities were a strong impetus for the scientific revolution. Although the connection between humanism and the scientific discovery may very well have begun within

15255-516: The works of Erasmus as a highly influential guide for connecting theology back to original texts, which was important for the reform at Protestant universities. Galileo Galilei , who taught at the Universities of Pisa and Padua , and Martin Luther , who taught at the University of Wittenberg (as did Melanchthon), also had humanist training. The task of the humanists was to slowly permeate

15390-524: The world, and may provide university accommodation for their students. The definition of a university varies widely, even within some countries. Where there is clarification, it is usually set by a government agency. For example: In Australia, the Tertiary Education Quality and Standards Agency (TEQSA) is Australia's independent national regulator of the higher education sector. Students rights within university are also protected by

15525-494: The world. An early institution, often called a university, is the Harran University , founded in the late 8th century . Scholars occasionally call the University of al-Qarawiyyin (name given in 1963), founded as a mosque by Fatima al-Fihri in 859 CE, a university, although Jacques Verger  [ fr ] writes that this is done out of scholarly convenience. Several scholars consider that al-Qarawiyyin

15660-580: Was a collegiate or tutorial model based on the system at University of Oxford where teaching and organization was decentralized and knowledge was more of a generalist nature. There were also universities that combined these models, using the collegiate model but having a centralized organization. Early Modern universities initially continued the curriculum and research of the Middle Ages: natural philosophy , logic, medicine, theology, mathematics, astronomy, astrology, law, grammar and rhetoric . Aristotle

15795-452: Was also common usage in the UK in the 19th century. In many countries, students are required to pay tuition fees. Many students look to get 'student grants' to cover the cost of university. In 2016, the average outstanding student loan balance per borrower in the United States was US$ 30,000. In many U.S. states, costs are anticipated to rise for students as a result of decreased state funding given to public universities. Many universities in

15930-449: Was also competition from the formation of new colleges funded by private benefactors and designed to provide free education to the public, or established by local governments to provide a knowledge-hungry populace with an alternative to traditional universities. Even when universities supported new scientific endeavors, and the university provided foundational training and authority for the research and conclusions, they could not compete with

16065-412: Was also inspired by the Danish folk high school movement, as can be read in his autobiography The Long Haul . A contemporary wave of folk school founding in the United States began in the late 1990s and earlier 2000s. At the beginning of the 1990s, there were only twelve active folk schools. Historically in the United States, only one to two such organizations were founded each decade; however, during

16200-623: Was considerable reluctance on the part of universities to relinquish the symmetry and comprehensiveness provided by the Aristotelian system, which was effective as a coherent system for understanding and interpreting the world. However, university professors still have some autonomy, at least in the sciences, to choose epistemological foundations and methods. For instance, Melanchthon and his disciples at University of Wittenberg were instrumental for integrating Copernican mathematical constructs into astronomical debate and instruction. Another example

16335-464: Was derived from the fusion of old madaris with new universities. For example, Morocco transformed Al-Qarawiyin (859 A.D.) into a university under the supervision of the ministry of education in 1963. The Quaraouiyine Mosque, founded in 859, is the most famous mosque of Morocco and attracted continuous investment by Muslim rulers. As for the nature of its curriculum, it was typical of other major madrasahs such as al-Azhar and Al Quaraouiyine, though many of

16470-455: Was established in 1996 and incorporated responsibilities from the U.S. Office of Education's library programs, including those focused on lifelong learning. "Championing Lifelong Learning" through libraries and museums is the first goal listed in the organization's strategic plan for 2022-2026. Lifelong learning has been defined as "all learning activity undertaken throughout life, with the aim of improving knowledge, skills and competences within

16605-413: Was founded and run as a madrasa until after World War II . They date the transformation of the madrasa of al-Qarawiyyin into a university to its modern reorganization in 1963. In the wake of these reforms, al-Qarawiyyin was officially renamed "University of Al Quaraouiyine" two years later. Some scholars, including George Makdisi, have argued that early medieval universities were influenced by

16740-816: Was founded in Rødding , Denmark , in 1844. It began on the initiative of Christen Kold , who was a follower of Grundtvig . The school was inspired by the need to educate those not fortunate enough to have an education and the poor, or peasantry , who could not spare the time or the money to attend a university. Among the other old folk high schools in Denmark are Testrup Folk High School (founded 1866), Askov Højskole (founded 1865) and Ry Højskole (founded 1892) in Jutland ; Vallekilde Folk High School in Zealand (founded 1865), and Rødkilde Højskole on Møn (founded 1866). The International People's College in Helsingør

16875-573: Was founded in 1088, is the first university in the sense of: The original Latin word universitas refers in general to "a number of persons associated into one body, a society, company, community, guild, corporation , etc". As urban town life and medieval guilds developed, specialized associations of students and teachers with collective legal rights (these rights were usually guaranteed by charters issued by princes , prelates , or their towns ) became denominated by this general term. Like other guilds, they were self-regulating and determined

17010-451: Was founded in 1864. As of 2012, there were 77 folk high schools spread across the country, thirty of which were Christian schools. Folk high schools provide opportunities in general education, primarily for young adults. These schools are different from lower secondary schools, upper secondary schools, and higher education. All students are eligible for normal financial aid. Some folk high schools are connected to some sort of organization, but

17145-478: Was imperative for changes in universities and scholarship. For instance, Andreas Vesalius was educated in a humanist fashion before producing a translation of Galen, whose ideas he verified through his own dissections. In law, Andreas Alciatus infused the Corpus Juris with a humanist perspective, while Jacques Cujas humanist writings were paramount to his reputation as a jurist. Philipp Melanchthon cited

17280-428: Was increasingly appointed by the state. Although the structural model provided by the University of Paris, where student members are controlled by faculty "masters", provided a standard for universities, the application of this model took at least three different forms. There were universities that had a system of faculties whose teaching addressed a very specific curriculum; this model tended to train specialists. There

17415-485: Was prevalent and from where the institution spread around the world. An important idea in the definition of a university is the notion of academic freedom . The first documentary evidence of this comes from early in the life of the University of Bologna , which adopted an academic charter, the Constitutio Habita , in 1155 or 1158, which guaranteed the right of a traveling scholar to unhindered passage in

17550-527: Was prevalent throughout the curriculum, while medicine also depended on Galen and Arabic scholarship. The importance of humanism for changing this state-of-affairs cannot be underestimated. Once humanist professors joined the university faculty, they began to transform the study of grammar and rhetoric through the studia humanitatis . Humanist professors focused on the ability of students to write and speak with distinction, to translate and interpret classical texts, and to live honorable lives. Other scholars within

17685-434: Was seen as an opportunity, not a threat. Dunlap and Grabinger say that for higher education students to be lifelong learners, they must develop a capacity for self-direction, metacognition awareness, and a disposition toward learning. The Delors Report proposed an integrated vision of education based on two key paradigms: lifelong learning and the four pillars of learning. It argued that formal education tends to emphasize

17820-446: Was the first to adopt the (German) research university model and pioneered the adoption of that model by most American universities. When Johns Hopkins was founded in 1876, "nearly the entire faculty had studied in Germany." In Britain, the move from Industrial Revolution to modernity saw the arrival of new civic universities with an emphasis on science and engineering , a movement initiated in 1960 by Sir Keith Murray (chairman of

17955-553: Was the short-lived but fairly rapid adoption of Cartesian epistemology and methodology in European universities, and the debates surrounding that adoption, which led to more mechanistic approaches to scientific problems as well as demonstrated an openness to change. There are many examples which belie the commonly perceived intransigence of universities. Although universities may have been slow to accept new sciences and methodologies as they emerged, when they did accept new ideas it helped to convey legitimacy and respectability, and supported

18090-437: Was the teacher Christen Kold . His, for that time, highly unorthodox way of teaching gave the folk high schools a broader democratic basis in comparison to the initial religious focus. The teaching took place from November to March because students did farm work the rest of the year. Kold's goal was for students to return to the school regularly in the winter to continue their education. In the beginning only young men could attend

18225-436: Was ultimately quite progressive. The emergence of classical texts brought new ideas and led to a more creative university climate (as the notable list of scholars above attests to). A focus on knowledge coming from self, from the human, has a direct implication for new forms of scholarship and instruction, and was the foundation for what is commonly known as the humanities. This disposition toward knowledge manifested in not simply

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