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151-585: Pope Sixtus V , Philip II of Spain , and the Jesuits were all supporters of this Catholic party. Local confraternities were initially established by French Catholics to counter the Edict of Beaulieu in 1576. King Henry III placed himself at the head of these associations as a counter-balance to the ultra-Catholic League of Peronne. Following the repudiation of that edict by the Estates General , most of

302-579: A Dominican lay brother with ties to the League and enraged by the killing of the Duke, infiltrated the King's entourage dressed as a priest, and assassinated him. As he lay dying, the King begged Henry of Navarre to convert to Catholicism, calling it the only way to prevent further bloodshed. The King's death threw the army into disarray and Henry of Navarre was forced to lift the siege. Although Henry of Navarre

453-524: A Franciscan like himself. One of the things that commended his candidacy to certain cardinals may have been his physical vigour, which seemed to promise a long pontificate. His papal coronation was held on 1 May 1585 and he was crowned by the protodeacon Ferdinando de' Medici . The terrible condition in which Pope Gregory XIII had left the Papal States called for prompt and stern measures. Sixtus proceeded with an almost ferocious severity against

604-511: A body motivated purely by partisan politics or social tensions. While political and social pressures were doubtless present, and even significant in the case of the Sixteen in Paris, to focus on these factors exclusively overlooks a very different face of the League. For all its political and internecine wrangling, the League was still very much a Holy Union. Its religious role was significant, as

755-415: A brief term as procurator of his order, he was attached in 1565 to the papal legation to Spain headed by Cardinal Ugo Boncampagni (later Pope Gregory XIII ) which was sent to investigate a charge of heresy levelled against Bartolomé Carranza , Archbishop of Toledo . The violent dislike which Peretti conceived for Boncampagni had a marked influence on his subsequent actions. He hurried back to Rome upon

906-653: A captain, a knight, eight squires and ten crossbowmen, the Bastille was encircled with ditches fed by the River Seine , and faced with stone. The fortress had four sets of drawbridges, which allowed the Rue Saint-Antoine to pass eastwards through the Bastille's gates while giving easy access to the city walls on the north and south sides. The Bastille overlooked the Saint-Antoine gate, which by 1380

1057-403: A circular public space with colonnades . Director-General of Finance Jacques Necker , having examined the cost of running the Bastille, amounting to well over 127,000 livres in 1774, proposed closing the institution on the grounds of economy alone. Similarly, Pierre-François de Rivière du Puget, the Bastille's lieutenant de roi , submitted reports in 1788 suggesting that the authorities close

1208-496: A document on their release, promising not to talk about the Bastille or their time within it, but by the 1780s this agreement was frequently broken. Prisoners leaving the Bastille could be granted pensions on their release by the Crown, either as a form of compensation or as a way of ensuring future good behaviour – Voltaire was granted 1,200 livres a year, for example, while Latude received an annual pension of 400 livres. During

1359-494: A dramatic account of his detention, explaining that, despite being innocent, he had been abused and left to rot in one of the Bastille's cachot dungeons, enchained next to a corpse. More criticism followed in 1719 when the Abbé Jean de Bucquoy ( fr ) , who had escaped from the Bastille ten years previously, published an account of his adventures from the safety of Hanover . He gave a similar account to Renneville's and termed

1510-405: A far-sighted rebuilding programme that continues to provoke controversy, as it involved the destruction of antiquities. The cost of these works was met by heavy taxation which caused much suffering. His foreign policy was regarded as over-ambitious; he excommunicated King Henry IV of France and renewed the excommunication of Queen Elizabeth I of England . He is recognized as a significant figure of

1661-598: A fortune that would otherwise have been lost in the failed campaign. Sixtus had Cardinal William Allen draw up the An Admonition to the Nobility and People of England and Ireland , a proclamation to be published in England if the invasion had been successful. The extant document comprised all that could be said against Elizabeth I, and the indictment is therefore fuller and more forcible than any other put forward by

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1812-406: A protest in 1380, when Parisians shouted the phrase outside the castle, or because it was used to house prisoners who had more freedom to walk around the castle than the typical prisoner. Puits tower contained the castle well, while Coin formed the corner of the Rue Saint-Antoine. The main castle courtyard, accessed through the southern gateway, was 120 feet long by 72 feet wide (37 m by 22 m), and

1963-546: A scandal or a public trial over their misdemeanours, and the secrecy that surrounded detention at the Bastille allowed personal and family reputations to be quietly protected. The Bastille was considered one of the best prisons for an upper-class prisoner to be detained at, because of the standard of the facilities for the wealthy. In the aftermath of the notorious " Affair of the Diamond Necklace " of 1786, involving Queen Marie Antoinette and accusations of fraud, all

2114-538: A shoemaker, he was released on the orders of an admirer who was a senior member of the League. In the estates general of 1593 , the League was unable even to unite behind a single candidate for the French throne, splitting between several candidates including the Spanish princess Isabella . The League's position was further weakened, but they still securely held Paris. The stalemate was finally ended when Henry of Navarre

2265-399: A short period in 1703. These prisoners were mainly from the upper classes, and those who could afford to pay for additional luxuries lived in good conditions, wearing their own clothes, living in rooms decorated with tapestries and carpets or taking exercise around the castle garden and along the walls. By the late 17th century, there was a rather disorganised library for the use of inmates in

2416-605: A state penitentiary; by 1789, 5,279 prisoners had passed through its gates. Under Louis XV and XVI , the Bastille was used to detain prisoners from more varied backgrounds, and to support the operations of the Parisian police, especially in enforcing government censorship of the printed media. Although inmates were kept in relatively good conditions, criticism of the Bastille grew during the 18th century, fueled by autobiographies written by former prisoners. Reforms were implemented and prisoner numbers were considerably reduced. In 1789,

2567-665: A state prison by the kings of France . It was stormed by a crowd on 14 July 1789, in the French Revolution , becoming an important symbol for the French Republican movement . It was later demolished and replaced by the Place de la Bastille . The castle was built to defend the eastern approach to the city from potential English attacks during the Hundred Years' War . Construction was underway by 1357, but

2718-556: A surprise attack into Paris, almost resulting in the capture of the king. The Bastille was being used to hold prisoners once again by the reign of Louis XI , who began to use it extensively as a state penitentiary. An early escapee from the Bastille during this period was Antoine de Chabannes , Count of Dammartin and a member of the League of the Public Weal , who was imprisoned by Louis and escaped by boat in 1465. The captains of

2869-432: A symbol of arbitrary despotism. Two authors were particularly influential during that period. The first was Simon-Nicholas Linguet , who was arrested and detained at the Bastille in 1780, after publishing a critique of Maréchal Duras . After his release, he published his Mémoires sur la Bastille in 1783, a damning critique of the institution. Linguet criticised, sometimes inaccurately, the physical conditions in which he

3020-506: A useful facility for the police authorities. The Bastille was a preferred location for holding prisoners who needed extensive questioning or where a case required the analysis of extensive documents. The Bastille was also used to store the Parisian police archives; public order equipment such as chains and flags; and illegal goods, seized by order of the crown using a version of the lettre de cachet , such as banned books and illicit printing presses. Throughout this period, but particularly in

3171-451: A wider range of social backgrounds than the upper-class Calvinists detained under Louis XIV; historian Monique Cottret argues that the decline of the Bastille's social "mystique" originates from this phase of detentions. By Louis XVI, the background of those entering the Bastille and the type of offences they were detained over had changed markedly. Between 1774 and 1789, the detentions included 54 people accused of robbery; 31 of involvement in

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3322-471: A wooden walkway for the use of the guards, known as "la ronde", or the round. An outer court had grown up around the south-west side of the Bastille, adjacent to the Arsenal. This was open to the public and lined with small shops rented out by the governor for almost 10,000 livres a year, complete with a lodge for the Bastille gatekeeper; it was illuminated at night to light the adjacent street. The Bastille

3473-508: A year. Louis used the Bastille to hold not just suspected rebels or plotters but also those who had simply irritated him in some way, such as differing with him on matters of religion. The typical offences that inmates were accused of were espionage, counterfeiting and embezzlement from the state; a number of financial officials were detained in this way under Louis, most famously including Nicolas Fouquet , his supporters Henry de Guénegaud , Jeannin and Lorenzo de Tonti . In 1685 Louis revoked

3624-448: Is credited with beginning the modern transformation of the Bastille into a more formal organ of the French state, further increasing its structured use as a state prison. Richelieu broke with Henry IV's tradition of the Bastille's captain being a member of the French aristocracy, typically a Marshal of France such as François de Bassompierre , Charles d'Albert or Nicolas de L'Hospital , and instead appointed Père Joseph 's brother to run

3775-616: The Armagnacs in the 15th century, and the Wars of Religion in the 16th. The fortress was declared a state prison in 1417; this role was expanded further, first under the English occupiers of the 1420s and 1430s, and then under Louis XI in the 1460s. The defences of the Bastille were fortified in response to the Imperial threat during the 1550s, with a bastion constructed to the east of

3926-576: The Cardinal of Bourbon , Henry's uncle, as king Charles X of France. However, the Cardinal was under guard by Henry's men, and he refused to usurp the throne from his nephew; he died in May 1590. The Catholic jurist and poet Jean de La Ceppède , a Politique supporter of Henry of Navarre, was arrested in 1589 when Aix-en-Provence fell to the League's armies. After a failed attempt to escape disguised as

4077-624: The Column of Marcus Aurelius (at the time misidentified as the Column of Antoninus Pius ) were made to serve as pedestals for the statues of SS Peter and Paul; the Minerva of the Capitol was converted into an emblem of Christian Rome ; the Septizodium of Septimius Severus was demolished for building materials. The spatial organization, monumental inscriptions and restorations throughout

4228-590: The Counter-Reformation . He is the most recent pope to date to take on the pontifical name "Sixtus". Felice Piergentile was born on 13 December 1521 at Grottammare , in the Papal States , to Francesco Piergentile (also known as Peretto di Montalto, from the city of origin Montalto delle Marche ), and Mariana da Frontillo. His father had taken refuge in Grottammare to escape the oppression of

4379-627: The Day of the Barricades on 12 May 1588, when hard-line Catholics rose up in revolt against the relatively moderate Henry III . After a day's fighting had occurred across the capital, Henry III fled and the Bastille surrendered to Henry I, Duke of Guise , the leader of the Catholic League , who appointed Bussy-Leclerc as his new captain. Henry III responded by having the Duke and his brother murdered later that year, whereupon Bussy-Leclerc used

4530-613: The Duke of Urbino , finding there a job as a gardener. Felice later adopted Peretti as his family name in 1551, and as a cardinal was known as "Cardinal Montalto" (to reflect his affection for his homeland). At the age of 9 years, Felice returned to Montalto to join his uncle in the Franciscan Convent of San Francesco delle Fratte. At the age of 12, he was initiated as a novice of the Franciscan Order , assuming

4681-604: The Franciscan order , Cardinal Ghislieri (later Pope Pius V ) and Cardinal Caraffa (later Pope Paul IV ), and from that time his advancement was assured. He was sent to Venice as inquisitor general of the Venetian Holy Inquisition , but was so severe and conducted matters in such a high-handed manner that he became embroiled in quarrels. In 1560, the Venetian government asked for his recall. After

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4832-813: The House of Valois would weaken the Catholic position by attempting to appease the Huguenots. The League was also inspired by the writings of the English Catholic refugee Richard Verstegan , who published accounts of the suffering of English , Welsh, and Irish Catholic Martyrs under the Protestant monarchy of England. To the fury of the English Court, Verstegan's books, including Theatrum crudelitatum Hæreticorum nostri temporis (1587) , made

4983-495: The Porte Saint-Denis . Marcel was subsequently removed from his post and executed in 1358. In 1369, Charles V became concerned about the weakness of the eastern side of the city to English attacks and raids by mercenaries. Charles instructed Hugues Aubriot , the new provost, to build a much larger fortification on the same site as Marcel's bastille . Work began in 1370 with another pair of towers being built behind

5134-589: The bull Immensa Aeterni Dei which reorganised the Roman Curia into departments. In his larger political relations, Sixtus entertained fantastic ambitions, such as the annihilation of the Turks , the conquest of Egypt , the transport of the Holy Sepulchre to Italy, and the accession of his nephew to the throne of France. The situation in which he found himself was difficult: he could not countenance

5285-557: The "greater excommunication ." Jaroslav Pelikan , without giving any more details, says that this edition "proved to be so defective that it was withdrawn". Sixtus V created 33 cardinals in eight consistories during his reign, which included his grandnephew Alessandro Peretti di Montalto and his future successor Ippolito Aldobrandini who would later become Pope Clement VIII. During his pontificate, Sixtus V beatified Ubaldesca Taccini (1587) and canonized one saint, Didacus of Alcalá (10 July 1588). In 1588, Sixtus V published

5436-488: The 16th century the area around the Bastille developed further. Early modern Paris continued to grow, and by the end of the century it had around 250,000 inhabitants and was one of the most populous cities in Europe, though still largely contained within its old city walls – open countryside remained beyond the Bastille. The Arsenal , a large military-industrial complex tasked with the production of cannons and other weapons for

5587-453: The 1775 Famine Revolt; 11 detained for assault; 62 illegal editors, printers and writers – but relatively few detained over the grander affairs of state. Many prisoners still continued to come from the upper classes, particularly in those cases termed désordres des familles , or disorders of the family. These cases typically involving members of the aristocracy who had, as historian Richard Andrews notes, "rejected parental authority, disgraced

5738-594: The 1780s, Breteuil , the Secretary of State of the Maison du Roi , began a substantial reform of the system of lettres de cachet that sent prisoners to the Bastille: such letters were now required to list the length of time a prisoner would be detained for, and the offence for which they were being held. Meanwhile, in 1784, the architect Alexandre Brogniard proposed that the Bastille be demolished and converted into

5889-409: The 18th century, the Bastille was extensively criticised by French writers as a symbol of ministerial despotism , which ultimately resulted in reforms and plans for its abolition. The first major criticism was by Constantin de Renneville , who had been imprisoned in the Bastille for 11 years and published his accounts of the experience in 1715 in his book L'Inquisition françois . Renneville presented

6040-431: The Bastille and left the city himself. The Bastille continued to be used as a prison and a royal fortress under both Henry IV and his son, Louis XIII . When Henry clamped down on a Spanish-backed plot among the senior French nobility in 1602, for example, he detained the ringleader Charles de Gontaut, duc de Biron , in the Bastille, and had him executed in the courtyard. Louis XIII's chief minister, Cardinal Richelieu ,

6191-495: The Bastille as a base to mount a raid on the Parlement of Paris , arresting the president and other magistrates, whom he suspected of having royalist sympathies, and detaining them in the Bastille. They were not released until the intervention of Charles, Duke of Mayenne , and the payment of substantial ransoms. Bussy-Leclerc remained in control of the Bastille until December 1592, when, following further political instability, he

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6342-458: The Bastille as a form of punishment, legally a prisoner in the Bastille was only being detained for preventative or investigative reasons: the prison was not officially supposed to be a punitive measure in its own right. The average length of imprisonment in the Bastille under Louis XIV was approximately three years. Under Louis, only between 20 and 50 prisoners were usually held at the Bastille at any one time, although as many as 111 were held for

6493-500: The Bastille at the time was Bernard-René de Launay , a conscientious but minor military officer. Tensions surrounding the Bastille had been rising for several weeks. Only seven prisoners remained in the fortress, – the Marquis de Sade had been transferred to the asylum of Charenton , after addressing the public from his walks on top of the towers and, once this was forbidden, shouting from the window of his cell. Sade had claimed that

6644-417: The Bastille became the principal entrance to the castle in 1553, the other three gateways being closed. A bastion , a large earthwork projecting eastwards from the Bastille, was built to provide additional protective fire for the Bastille and the Arsenal; the bastion was reached from the fortress across a stone abutment using a connecting drawbridge that was installed in the Bastille's Comté tower. In 1573

6795-451: The Bastille by the mid-18th century were in fact relatively benign, particularly by the standards of other prisons of the time. The typical prisoner was held in one of the octagonal rooms in the mid-levels of the towers. The calottes , the rooms just under the roof that formed the upper storey of the Bastille, were considered the least pleasant quarters, being more exposed to the elements and usually either too hot or too cold. The cachots ,

6946-401: The Bastille during Louis's reign. By Louis's reign, Bastille prisoners were detained using a lettre de cachet , a letter under royal seal, issued by the king and countersigned by a minister, ordering a named person to be held. Louis, closely involved in this aspect of government, personally decided who should be imprisoned at the Bastille. The arrest itself involved an element of ceremony:

7097-661: The Bastille during the period were formally imprisoned for more anti-social, rather than strictly political, offences. In particular, many of those writers detained under Louis XVI were imprisoned for their role in producing illegal pornography, rather than political critiques of the regime. The writer Laurent Angliviel de la Beaumelle , the philosopher André Morellet and the historian Jean-François Marmontel , for example, were formally detained not for their more obviously political writings, but for libellous remarks or for personal insults against leading members of Parisian society. Contrary to its later image, conditions for prisoners in

7248-421: The Bastille during this period were primarily officers and royal functionaries; Philippe de Melun was the first captain to receive a salary in 1462, being awarded 1,200 livres a year. Despite being a state prison, the Bastille retained the other traditional functions of a royal castle, and was used to accommodate visiting dignitaries, hosting some lavish entertainments given by Louis XI and Francis I . During

7399-526: The Bastille into the faubourg. The faubourg was characterised by its built-up, densely populated areas, particularly in the north, and its numerous workshops producing soft furnishings. Paris as a whole had continued to grow, reaching slightly less than 800,000 inhabitants by the reign of Louis XVI, and many of the residents around the faubourg had migrated to Paris from the countryside relatively recently. The Bastille had its own street address, being officially known as No. 232, rue Saint-Antoine. Structurally,

7550-476: The Bastille the "hell of the living". Voltaire added to the notorious reputation of the Bastille when he wrote about the case of the " Man in the Iron Mask " in 1751, and later criticised the way he himself was treated while detained in the Bastille, labelling the fortress a "palace of revenge". In the 1780s, prison reform became a popular topic for French writers and the Bastille was increasingly condemned as

7701-581: The Bastille was transformed in the reign of Louis XIV. Paris' growing population reached 400,000 during the period, causing the city to spill out past the Bastille and the old city into the arable farmland beyond, forming more thinly populated faubourgs , or suburbs. Influenced by the events of the Fronde, Louis XIV rebuilt the area around the Bastille, erecting a new archway at the Porte Saint-Antoine in 1660, and then ten years later pulling down

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7852-571: The Bastille's governor, Bernard-René de Launay , was killed by the crowd. The Bastille was demolished by order of the Committee of the Hôtel de Ville . Souvenirs of the fortress were transported around France and displayed as icons of the overthrow of despotism . Over the next century, the site and historical legacy of the Bastille featured prominently in French revolutions , political protests and popular fiction, and it remained an important symbol for

8003-435: The Bastille, although its origins remain unclear. Louis reformed the administrative structure of the Bastille, creating the post of governor, although this post was still often referred to as the captain-governor. During Louis's reign the policing of marginal groups in Paris was greatly increased: the wider criminal justice system was reformed, controls over printing and publishing extended, new criminal codes were issued and

8154-580: The Catholic confraternities and leagues were united as the Catholic League under the leadership of Henry I, Duke of Guise. The Catholic League aimed to preempt any seizure of power by the Huguenots , who made up nearly half of the French nobility , and to protect French Catholics' right to worship. The Catholic League's cause was fueled by the doctrine Extra Ecclesiam nulla salus . It feared that

8305-536: The Chevalier de Maisonrouge, the governor's deputy, who had fallen in love with her himself. By the late 18th century, the Bastille had come to separate the more aristocratic quarter of The Marais in the old city from the working class district of the faubourg Saint-Antoine that lay beyond the Louis XIV boulevard. The Marais was a fashionable area, frequented by foreign visitors and tourists, but few went beyond

8456-550: The Duke and his brother Louis II , while the Duke's son Charles of Lorraine was imprisoned in the Bastille . This move did little to consolidate the King's power and enraged both the surviving Guises and their followers. The King again fled Paris to join Henry of Navarre, and began building an army to besiege the capital. On 1 August 1589, as the two Henrys sat before the city preparing for their final assault, Jacques Clément ,

8607-520: The Duke of Guise increasingly used it not only to defend the Catholic cause, but as a political tool in an attempt to usurp the French throne. Catholic Leaguers saw their fight against Calvinism (the primary branch of Protestantism in France) as a Crusade against heresy and to defend French Catholics from Elizabethan-style persecution. The League's pamphleteers blamed any natural disaster as God's way of punishing France for tolerating heretics. Both

8758-449: The Duke of Mercœur in person, but instead received his submission, as the last remaining military leader of the Catholic League, at Angers on 20 March 1598. King Henry IV then assured his dynasty's future inheritance of Brittany by arranging the marriage of his illegitimate son, César Duc de Vendôme , to Mercœur's daughter Francoise. In April 1598, the King issued the Edict of Nantes , granting religious toleration and limited autonomy to

8909-458: The Edict of Nantes , which had previously granted various rights to French Protestants; the subsequent royal crackdown was driven by the king's strongly anti-Protestant views. The Bastille was used to investigate and break up Protestant networks by imprisoning and questioning the more recalcitrant members of the community, in particular upper-class Calvinists ; some 254 Protestants were imprisoned in

9060-685: The English and from the rival factions of the Burgundians and the Armagnacs . The Bastille was strategically vital during the period, both because of its role as a royal fortress and safe-haven inside the capital, and because it controlled a critical route in and out of Paris. In 1418, for example, the future Charles VII took refuge in the Bastille during the Burgundian-led "Massacre of the Armagnacs" in Paris, before successfully fleeing

9211-409: The English for the next sixteen years. Henry V appointed Thomas Beaufort, Duke of Exeter , as the new captain of the Bastille. The English made more use of the Bastille as a prison; in 1430 there was a minor rebellion when some prisoners overpowered a sleeping guard and attempted to seize control of the fortress; this incident includes the first reference to a dedicated gaoler at the Bastille. Paris

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9362-400: The French Republican movement . Almost nothing is left of the Bastille, except some remains of its stone foundation that were relocated to the side of Boulevard Henri IV. Historians were critical of the Bastille in the early 19th century, and believe the fortress to have been a relatively well-administered example of French policing and political control during the 18th century. The Bastille

9513-602: The French defeat at the Battle of Poitiers , and in his absence the Provost of Paris , Étienne Marcel , took steps to improve the capital's defences. In 1357, Marcel expanded the city walls and protected the Porte Saint-Antoine with two high stone towers and a 78-foot-wide (24 m) ditch. A fortified gateway of this sort was called a bastille , and was one of two created in Paris, the other being built outside

9664-626: The Huguenots, while retaining the Catholic Church in France as the Established Church of the realm, and finally ended the civil war. Historian Mack Holt argues that historians have sometimes overemphasised the political role of the League at the expense of its religious and devotional character: What is the final judgement on the Catholic League? It would be a mistake to treat it, as so many historians have, as nothing more than

9815-546: The King canceled the Peace of La Rochelle , re-criminalizing Protestantism and beginning a new chapter in the French Wars of Religion . However, Henry III also feared the growing power of the Duke of Guise , the head of the Catholic League. On the Day of the Barricades , Henry III was forced to flee Paris, leaving Guise as de facto ruler of France. To recover the King's position, on 23 December 1588 royal guardsmen assassinated

9966-484: The League and the hardline Calvinists scorned Henry III's attempts to mediate peaceful coexistence between Catholics and Protestants. The League also opposed the pragmatic French jurists and intellectuals known as Politiques , who recoiled from the murderous sectarian loathing and sought a strong monarchy to rise above religious differences. The League immediately began to exert pressure on King Henry III and his heir Henry of Navarre. Faced with this mounting opposition,

10117-585: The League was the conduit between the Tridentine spirituality of the Catholic Reformation and the seventeenth century devots . Often overlooked is the emphasis the League placed on the internal and spiritual renewal of the earthly city. Moving beyond the communal religion of the later Middle Ages, the League focused on internalizing faith as a cleansing and purifying agent. New religious orders and confraternities were founded in League towns, and

10268-482: The Parisian forces to act, before she then entered the Bastille and personally ensured that the commander turned the fortress's cannon on Turenne's army, causing significant casualties and enabling Condé's army's safe withdrawal. Later in 1652, Condé was finally forced to surrender Paris to the royalist forces in October, effectively bringing the Fronde to an end: the Bastille returned to royal control. The area around

10419-411: The Porte Saint-Antoine was also altered – the drawbridges were replaced with a fixed bridge, and the medieval gatehouse was replaced with a triumphal arch . The Bastille was involved in the numerous wars of religion fought between Protestant and Catholic factions with support from foreign allies during the second half of the 16th century. Religious and political tensions in Paris initially exploded in

10570-475: The Porte-Neuve rather than the Saint-Antoine and seized the capital, including the Arsenal complex that neighboured the Bastille. The Bastille was now an isolated League stronghold, with the remaining members of the League and their allies clustering around it for safety. After several days of tension, an agreement was finally reached for this rump element to leave safely, and on 27 March du Bourg surrendered

10721-545: The accession of Pius V, who made him apostolic vicar of his order and then, in 1570, cardinal . During the pontificate of his political enemy Gregory XIII (1572–1585), Cardinal Montalto, as he was generally called, lived in enforced retirement, occupied with the care of his property, the Villa Montalto, erected by Domenico Fontana close to the cardinal's beloved church on the Esquiline Hill , overlooking

10872-538: The advance of the royalist forces under the command of Turenne . Condé's forces became trapped against the city walls and the Porte Saint-Antoine, which the Parlement refused to open; he was coming under increasingly heavy fire from the Royalist artillery and the situation looked bleak. In a famous incident, La Grande Mademoiselle , the daughter of Gaston, Duke of Orléans , convinced her father to issue an order for

11023-541: The ancient Baths of Diocletian . The first phase (1576–1580) of the building was enlarged after Peretti became pope and was able to clear buildings to open four new streets in 1585–86. The villa contained two residences, the Palazzo Sistino or "Palazzo di Termini" and the casino, called the Palazzetto Montalto e Felice . This clearance programme was an undoubted gain in the relief it brought to

11174-489: The authorities planned to massacre the prisoners in the castle, which resulted in the governor removing him to an alternative site in early July. At de Launay's request, an additional force of 32 soldiers from the Swiss Salis-Samade regiment had been assigned to the Bastille on 7 July, adding to the existing 82 invalides pensioners who formed the regular garrison. De Launay had taken various precautions, raising

11325-483: The campaign against French Protestants and the annual cost of running the Bastille rose to 232,818 livres. Between 1715 – the year of Louis's death – and 1723, power transferred to the Régence ; the regent, Philippe d'Orléans , maintained the prison but the absolutist rigour of Louis XIV's system began to weaken somewhat. Although Protestants ceased to be kept in the Bastille, the political uncertainties and plots of

11476-480: The city and the royal government fled in September, leaving a garrison of 22 men behind in the Bastille. On 11 January 1649, the Fronde decided to take the Bastille, giving the task to Elbeuf, one of their leaders. Elbeuf's attack required only a token effort: five or six shots were fired at the Bastille, before it promptly surrendered on 13 January. Pierre Broussel , one of the Fronde leaders, appointed his son as

11627-618: The city reinforced the control, surveillance, and authority that alluded to his power. The subsequent administrative system of the Catholic Church owed much to Sixtus. He limited the College of Cardinals to seventy. He doubled the number of the congregations and enlarged their functions, assigning to them the principal role in the transaction of business (1588). He regarded the Jesuits with disfavour and suspicion. He considered radical changes to their constitution, but death prevented

11778-403: The city through the Porte Saint-Antoine. The Bastille was occasionally used to hold prisoners, including its creator, Hugues Aubriot , who was the first person to be imprisoned there. In 1417, in addition to being a royal fortress, it formally became a state prison. Despite the improved Parisian defences, Henry V of England captured Paris in 1420 and the Bastille was seized and garrisoned by

11929-401: The city walls and their supporting fortifications to replace them with an avenue of trees, later called Louis XIV's boulevard, which passed around the Bastille. The Bastille's bastion survived the redevelopment, becoming a garden for the use of the prisoners. Louis XIV made extensive use of the Bastille as a prison, with 2,320 individuals being detained there during his reign, approximately 43

12080-418: The commoners, this sum was around twice the daily wage of a labourer and provided for an adequate diet, while the upper classes ate very well: even critics of the Bastille recounted many excellent meals, often taken with the governor himself. Prisoners who were being punished for misbehaviour, however, could have their diet restricted as a punishment. The medical treatment provided by the Bastille for prisoners

12231-773: The completion of the dome of St. Peter's ; the loggia of Sixtus in the Basilica di San Giovanni in Laterano ; the chapel of the Praesepe in Santa Maria Maggiore ; additions or repairs to the Quirinal , Lateran and Vatican palaces; the erection of four obelisks , including that in Saint Peter's Square ; the opening of six streets; the restoration of the aqueduct of Septimius Severus (" Acqua Felice ");

12382-574: The comprehensive planning that had come to fruition during his retirement, bringing water to the waterless hills via his new aqueduct , the Acqua Felice which fed twenty-seven new fountains; laying out new arteries in Rome, which connected the great basilicas, even setting his engineer-architect Domenico Fontana to replan the Colosseum as a silk-spinning factory housing its workers. Inspired by

12533-451: The congestion of the crowded medieval city. Clearly, however, Romans displaced by it were furious, and resentment was still felt centuries later until the decision was taken to build Roma Termini railway station , inaugurated by Pope Pius IX in 1863, on the site of the Villa, which became doomed to destruction. Cardinal Montalto's other occupation at this period was with his studies, one of

12684-403: The courtyard held the Bastille's archives. A clock was installed by Antoine de Sartine , the lieutenant general of police between 1759 and 1774, on the side of the office wing, depicting two chained prisoners. New kitchens and baths were built just outside the main gate to the Bastille in 1786. The ditch around the Bastille, now largely dry, supported a 36-foot (11 m) high stone wall with

12835-480: The designs of those he considered as heretical princes, and yet he mistrusted King Philip II of Spain and viewed with apprehension any extension of his power. Sixtus agreed to renew the excommunication of Queen Elizabeth I of England , and to grant a large subsidy to the Armada of Philip II, but, knowing the slowness of Spain, would give nothing until the expedition actually landed in England. This way, he saved

12986-504: The drawbridge in the Comté tower and destroying the stone abutment that linked the Bastille to its bastion to prevent anyone from gaining access from that side of the fortress. The shops in the entranceway to the Bastille had been closed and the gates locked. The Bastille was defended by 30 small artillery pieces, but nonetheless, by 14 July de Launay was very concerned about the Bastille's situation. The Bastille, already hugely unpopular with

13137-465: The eleven suspects were held in the Bastille, significantly increasing the notoriety surrounding the institution. Increasingly, however, the Bastille became part of the system of wider policing in Paris. Although appointed by the king, the governor reported to the lieutenant general of police: the first of these, Gabriel Nicolas de la Reynie , made only occasional visits to the Bastille, but his successor, Marquis d'Argenson , and subsequent officers used

13288-411: The end of Louis's reign. It contained ten prisoners in September 1782 and, despite a small increase at the beginning of 1788, by July 1789 only seven prisoners remained in custody. Before any official scheme to close the prison could be enacted, however, disturbances across Paris brought a more violent end to the Bastille. By July 1789, revolutionary sentiment was rising in Paris. The Estates-General

13439-553: The establishment of a new "Monti" and by levying new taxes, he accumulated a vast surplus, which he stored up against certain specified emergencies, such as a crusade or the defence of the Holy See . Sixtus prided himself upon his hoard, but the method by which it had been amassed was financially unsound: some of the taxes proved ruinous, and the withdrawal of so much money from circulation could not fail to cause distress. Immense sums were spent upon public works, in carrying through

13590-652: The execution of his purpose. In 1588, he established the 15 congregations by his constitution Immensa Aeterni Dei . In May 1587, the Sixtine Septuagint was published under the auspices of Sixtus V. In May 1590 the Sixtine Vulgate was issued. The edition was preceded by the Bull Aeternus ille , in which the Pope declared the authenticity of the new Bible. The bull stipulated "that it

13741-562: The facility extensively and took a close interest in inspections of the prison. The lieutenant general reported in turn to the secretary of the Maison du Roi , largely responsible for order in the capital; in practice together they controlled the issuing of the lettres in the king's name. The Bastille was unusual among Parisian prisons in that it acted on behalf of the king – prisoners could therefore be imprisoned secretly, for longer, and without normal judicial processes being applied, making it

13892-528: The facility. The first surviving documentary records of prisoners at the Bastille also date from this period. In 1648, the Fronde insurrection broke out in Paris, prompted by high taxes, increased food prices and disease. The Parlement of Paris , the Regency government of Anne of Austria and rebellious noble factions fought for several years to take control of the city and wider power. On 26 August, during

14043-410: The family reputation, manifested mental derangement, squandered capital or violated professional codes." Their families – often their parents, but sometimes husbands and wives taking action against their spouses – could apply for individuals to be detained at one of the royal prisons, resulting in an average imprisonment of between six months and four years. Such a detention could be preferable to facing

14194-462: The family's domestic life continued on inside the prison relatively normally. The prisoners' library had grown during the 18th century, mainly through ad hoc purchases and various confiscations by the Crown, until by 1787 it included 389 volumes. The length of time that a typical prisoner was kept at the Bastille continued to decline, and by Louis XVI's reign the average length of detention was only two months. Prisoners would still be expected to sign

14345-418: The first bastille , followed by two towers to the north, and finally two towers to the south. The fortress was probably not finished by the time Charles died in 1380, and was completed by his son, Charles VI . The resulting structure became known simply as the Bastille, with the eight irregularly built towers and linking curtain walls forming a structure 223 feet (68 m) wide and 121 feet (37 m) deep,

14496-530: The five years before his death in 1590, but there were reputedly 27,000 more at liberty throughout Central Italy . Bastille The Bastille ( / b æ ˈ s t iː l / , French: [bastij] ) was a fortress in Paris , known as the Bastille Saint-Antoine . It played an important role in the internal conflicts of France and for most of its history was used as

14647-490: The fortress. The Bastille played a key role in the rebellion of the Fronde and the Battle of the Faubourg St Antoine , which was fought beneath its walls in 1652. Louis XIV used the Bastille as a prison for upper-class members of French society who had opposed or angered him including, after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes , French Protestants . From 1659 onwards, the Bastille functioned primarily as

14798-417: The fruits of which was an edition of the works of Ambrose . As pope he would personally supervise the printing of an improved edition of Jerome's Vulgate . Though not neglecting to follow the course of affairs, Felice carefully avoided every occasion of offence. This discretion contributed not a little to his election to the papacy on 24 April 1585, with the title of Sixtus V to honour Pope Sixtus IV , also

14949-526: The governor and the Fronde retained it even after the ceasefire that March. During the Second Fronde, between 1650 and 1653, Louis , the Prince of Condé, controlled much of Paris alongside the Parlement, while Broussel, through his son, continued to control the Bastille. In July 1652, the Battle of the Faubourg St Antoine took place just outside the Bastille. Condé had sallied out of Paris to prevent

15100-526: The gulf separating laity and clergy was often bridged as clerics joined aldermen in the Hotel de Ville where both became the epitome of goodly magistrates. To overlook the religious side of the League is to overlook the one bond that did keep the Holy Union holy as well as united. Pope Sixtus V Pope Sixtus V ( Italian : Sisto V ; 13 December 1521 – 27 August 1590), born Felice Piergentile ,

15251-428: The height of summer or winter, although the garden in the bastion and the castle walls were also used for recreation. The governor received money from the Crown to support the prisoners, with the amount varying on rank: the governor received 19 livres a day for each political prisoner – with conseiller -grade nobles receiving 15 livres – and, at the other end of the scale, three livres a day for each commoner. Even for

15402-518: The ideal of the Renaissance city, Pope Sixtus V's ambitious urban reform programme transformed the old environment to emulate the "long straight streets, wide regular spaces, uniformity and repetitiveness of structures, lavish use of commemorative and ornamental elements, and maximum visibility from both linear and circular perspective." The Pope set no limit to his plans, and achieved much in his short pontificate, always carried through at top speed:

15553-429: The individual would be tapped on the shoulder with a white baton and formally detained in the name of the king. Detention in the Bastille was typically ordered for an indefinite period and there was considerable secrecy over who had been detained and why: the legend of the " Man in the Iron Mask ", a mysterious prisoner who finally died in 1703, symbolises this period of the Bastille. Although in practice many were held at

15704-633: The integration of the Leonine City in Rome as XIV rione ( Borgo ). Besides numerous roads and bridges, he improved the city's air by financing the reclamation of the Pontine Marshes . Good progress was made, with more than 9,500 acres (38 km ) reclaimed and opened to agriculture and manufacture. The project was abandoned upon his death. Sixtus had no appreciation of antiquities, which were employed as raw material to serve his urbanistic and Christianising programs: Trajan's Column and

15855-424: The late-18th century Bastille was not greatly changed from its 14th-century predecessor. The eight stone towers had gradually acquired individual names: running from the north-east side of the external gate, these were La Chapelle, Trésor, Comté, Bazinière, Bertaudière, Liberté, Puits and Coin. La Chapelle contained the Bastille's chapel, decorated with a painting of Saint Peter in chains. Trésor took its name from

16006-477: The latter would be that the soul of the unborn child would be denied Heaven. Sixtus also attempted in 1586 to introduce into the secular law in Rome the Old Testament penalty for adultery , which is death. The measure ultimately failed. Sixtus V died on 27 August 1590 from malaria . The pope became ill with a fever on 24 August which intensified the following day. As Sixtus V lay on his deathbed, he

16157-524: The local leagues were disbanded. In June 1584, the illness and death of Henry III's heir François, Duke of Anjou made the Protestant Henry of Navarre the new heir presumptive under Salic law . Faced with the prospect of a Protestant king, Catholic nobles gathered at Nancy in December 1584, and the League drew up a treaty with Philip II's ambassadors at Joinville . Following this agreement,

16308-450: The local vermin. The Marquis de Sade , for example, arrived with an elaborate wardrobe, paintings, tapestries, a selection of perfume, and a collection of 133 books. Card games and billiards were played among the prisoners, and alcohol and tobacco were permitted. Servants could sometimes accompany their masters into the Bastille, as in the cases of the 1746 detention of the family of Lord Morton and their entire household as British spies:

16459-416: The main construction occurred from 1370 onwards, creating a strong fortress with eight towers that protected the strategic gateway of the Porte Saint-Antoine heading out to the east. The innovative design proved influential in both France and England and was widely copied. The Bastille figured prominently in France's domestic conflicts, including the fighting between the rival factions of the Burgundians and

16610-409: The middle of the 18th century, the Bastille was used by the police to suppress the trade in illegal and seditious books in France. In the 1750s, 40% of those sent to the Bastille were arrested for their role in manufacturing or dealing in banned material; in the 1760s, the equivalent figure was 35%. Seditious writers were also often held in the Bastille, although many of the more famous writers held in

16761-540: The name of Fra Felice (Friar Felix) in 1535, maintaining his birth name. From this year, he started philosophical and theological studies, moving between different convents of the Order. He finally completed his studies in the Franciscan Magna Domus of Bologna on September 1544. Three years earlier he had been ordained as a deacon. About 1552 he was noticed by Cardinal Rodolfo Pio da Carpi , Protector of

16912-446: The nearby faubourg Saint-Antoine, but also including some mutinous soldiers and local traders. The crowd had gathered in an attempt to commandeer the gunpowder stocks known to be held in the Bastille, and at 10:00 am de Launay let in two of their leaders to negotiate with him. Just after midday, another negotiator was let in to discuss the situation, but no compromise could be reached: the revolutionary representatives now wanted both

17063-588: The penalty of excommunication relating to the Roman Catholic Church's teaching on contraception and on abortion . While the Church taught that abortion and contraception were gravely sinful actions, it did not apply to all mortal sins the additional penalty of excommunication . Some theologians argued that only after proof of the "quickening" (when the mother can feel the fetus's movement in her womb, usually about 20 weeks into gestation) that there

17214-464: The period kept the prison busy and 1,459 were imprisoned there under the Regency, an average of around 182 a year. During the Cellamare conspiracy , the alleged enemies of the Regency were imprisoned in the Bastille, including Marguerite De Launay . While in the Bastille, de Launay fell in love with a fellow prisoner, the Chevalier de Ménil; she also infamously received an invitation of marriage from

17365-529: The period known as the First Fronde, Anne ordered the arrest of some of the leaders of the Parlement of Paris; violence flared as a result, and the 27 August became known as another Day of the Barricades . The governor of the Bastille loaded and readied his guns to fire on the Hôtel de Ville , controlled by the parliament, although the decision was eventually taken not to shoot. Barricades were erected across

17516-404: The period, and the most important fortification in late medieval Paris. The Bastille's design was highly innovative: it rejected both the 13th-century tradition of more weakly fortified quadrangular castles , and the contemporary fashion set at Vincennes , where tall towers were positioned around a lower wall, overlooked by an even taller keep in the centre. In particular, building the towers and

17667-599: The period, such as Hans-Jürgen Lüsebrink, Simon Schama and Monique Cottret ( fr ) , concur that the actual treatment of prisoners in Bastille was much better than the public impression left through those writings. Nonetheless, fuelled by the secrecy that still surrounded the Bastille, official as well as public concern about the prison, and the system that supported it, also began to mount, prompting reforms. As early as 1775, Louis XVI's minister Malesherbes had authorised all prisoners to be given newspapers to read, and to be allowed to correspond with their family and friends. In

17818-431: The police archives; and the capitaine des portes , who ran the entrance to the Bastille. Four warders divided up the eight towers between them. From an administrative perspective, the prison was generally well run during the period. These staff were supported by an official surgeon, a chaplain and could, on occasion, call upon the services of a local midwife to assist pregnant prisoners. A small garrison of " invalides "

17969-414: The post of the Parisian lieutenant general of police was created in 1667, all of which would enable the Bastille's later role in support of the Parisian police during the 18th century. By 1711, a 60-strong French military garrison had been established at the Bastille. It continued to be an expensive institution to run, particularly when the prison was full, such as during 1691 when numbers were inflated by

18120-466: The prevailing lawlessness. Thousands of brigands were brought to justice: within a short time, the country was again quiet and safe. It was claimed that there were more heads on spikes across the Ponte Sant'Angelo than melons for sale in the marketplace. And clergy and nuns were executed if they broke their vows of chastity. Next Sixtus set to work to repair the finances. By the sale of offices,

18271-488: The prison, demolish the fortress and sell the real estate off. In June 1789, the Académie royale d'architecture proposed a similar scheme to Brogniard's, in which the Bastille would be transformed into an open public area, with a tall column at the centre surrounded by fountains, dedicated to Louis XVI as the "restorer of public freedom". The number of prisoners held in the Bastille at any one time declined sharply towards

18422-411: The prospect of his conversion to Catholicism raised Sixtus V's hopes, and to a corresponding degree determined Philip II to tighten his grip upon his wavering ally. The Pope's negotiations with Henry's representative evoked a bitter and menacing protest and a categorical demand for the performance of promises. Sixtus took refuge in evasion and temporised until his death on 27 August 1590. Sixtus extended

18573-474: The reign of Henry IV, when it had contained the royal treasury. The origins of the name of Comté tower are unclear; one theory is that the name refers to the County of Paris. Bazinière was named after Bertrand de La Bazinière, a royal treasurer who was imprisoned there in 1663. Bertaudière was named after a medieval mason who died building the structure in the 14th century. Liberté tower took its name either from

18724-535: The reign of Louis XV and only 306 under Louis XVI up until the Revolution, annual averages of around 23 and 20 respectively. A second trend was a slow shift away from the Bastille's 17th-century role of detaining primarily upper-class prisoners, towards a situation in which the Bastille was essentially a location for imprisoning socially undesirable individuals of all backgrounds – including aristocrats breaking social conventions, criminals, pornographers, thugs – and

18875-482: The religious exiles, who were generally reticent in their complaints. Allen carefully consigned his publication to the fire, and it is only known of through one of Elizabeth's spies, who had stolen a copy. Sixtus excommunicated King Henry III of Navarre , who was the heir presumptive to the throne of France, and contributed to the Catholic League , but he chafed under his forced alliance with King Philip II of Spain, and looked for an escape. The victories of Henry and

19026-447: The revolutionary crowds, was now the only remaining royalist stronghold in central Paris, in addition to which he was protecting a recently arrived stock of 250 barrels of valuable gunpowder. To make matters worse, the Bastille had only two days' supply of food and no source of water, making it impossible to withstand a long siege. On the morning of 14 July around 900 people formed outside the Bastille, primarily working-class members of

19177-448: The royal armies, was established to the south of the Bastille by Francis I, and substantially expanded under Charles IX . An arms depot was later built above the Porte Saint-Antoine, all making the Bastille part of a major military centre. During the 1550s, Henry II became concerned about the threat of an English or Holy Roman Empire attack on Paris, and strengthened the defences of the Bastille in response. The southern gateway into

19328-540: The royal government's financial crisis and the formation of the National Assembly gave rise to a swelling of republican sentiments among city-dwellers. On 14 July, the Bastille was stormed by a revolutionary crowd, primarily residents of the Faubourg Saint-Antoine who sought to commandeer the valuable gunpowder held within the fortress. Seven remaining prisoners were found and released and

19479-419: The underground dungeons, had not been used for many years except for holding recaptured escapees. Prisoners' rooms each had a stove or a fireplace, basic furniture, curtains and in most cases a window. A typical criticism of the rooms was that they were shabby and basic rather than uncomfortable. Like the calottes , the main courtyard, used for exercise, was often criticised by prisoners as being unpleasant at

19630-405: The walls and towers 78 feet (24 m) high and 10 feet (3.0 m) thick at their bases. Built to the same height, the roofs of the towers and the tops of the walls formed a broad, crenellated walkway all the way around the fortress. Each of the six newer towers had underground cachots , or dungeons , at its base, and curved calotte , literally "shell", rooms in their roofs. Garrisoned by

19781-428: The walls of the Bastille at the same height allowed the rapid movement of forces around the castle, as well as giving more space to move and position cannons on the wider walkways. The Bastille design was copied at Pierrefonds and Tarascon in France, while its architectural influence extended as far as Nunney Castle in south-west England. During the 15th century the French kings continued to face threats both from

19932-474: The whole of Catholic Europe aware of the religious persecution under the rule of Queen Elizabeth I . In 1588, Verstegan was briefly imprisoned by Henri III at the insistence of the English ambassador Sir Francis Walsingham , but soon released at the insistence of the Catholic League and the Papal Nuncio . By this time "the League in Paris had fallen from its first ideals into mere partisanship", and

20083-472: Was a soldier who was imprisoned in the Bastille following a sequence of complex misadventures, including the sending of a letter bomb to Madame de Pompadour , the King's mistress. Latude became famous for managing to escape from the Bastille by means of climbing up the chimney of his cell and then descending the walls with a home-made rope ladder, before being recaptured in Amsterdam by French agents. Latude

20234-537: Was a strong, square building with turrets and protected by two drawbridges of its own. Charles V chose to live close to the Bastille for his own safety and created a royal complex to the south of the fortress called the Hôtel Saint-Pol , stretching from the Porte Saint-Paul up to the Rue Saint-Antoine. Historian Sidney Toy has described the Bastille as "one of the most powerful fortifications" of

20385-423: Was appointed in 1749 to guard the interior and exterior of the fortress; these were retired soldiers and were regarded locally, as Simon Schama describes, as "amiable layabouts" rather than professional soldiers. The role of the Bastille as a prison changed considerably during the reigns of Louis XV and XVI. One trend was a decline in the number of prisoners sent to the Bastille, with 1,194 imprisoned there during

20536-455: Was built in response to a threat to Paris during the Hundred Years' War between England and France. Prior to the Bastille, the main royal castle in Paris was the Louvre , in the west of the capital, but the city had expanded by the middle of the 14th century and the eastern side was now exposed to an English attack. The situation worsened after the imprisonment of John II in England following

20687-721: Was convened in May and members of the Third Estate proclaimed the Tennis Court Oath in June, calling for the king to grant a written constitution. Violence between loyal royal forces, mutinous members of the royal Gardes Françaises and local crowds broke out at Vendôme on 12 July, leading to widespread fighting and the withdrawal of royal forces from the centre of Paris. Revolutionary crowds began to arm themselves during 13 July, looting royal stores, gunsmiths and armourers' shops for weapons and gunpowder. The commander of

20838-413: Was divided from the smaller northern yard by a three-office wing, built around 1716 and renovated in 1761 in a modern, 18th-century style. The office wing held the council room that was used for interrogating prisoners, the Bastille's library, and servants' quarters. The upper stories included rooms for the senior Bastille staff, and chambers for distinguished prisoners. An elevated building on one side of

20989-441: Was excellent by the standards of the 18th century; the prison also contained a number of inmates suffering from mental illnesses and took, by the standards of the day, a very progressive attitude to their care. Although potentially dangerous objects and money were confiscated and stored when a prisoner first entered the Bastille, most wealthy prisoners continued to bring in additional luxuries, including pet dogs or cats to control

21140-539: Was finally recaptured by Charles VII of France in 1436. When the French king re-entered the city, his enemies in Paris fortified themselves in the Bastille; after a siege, they eventually ran out of food, surrendered and were allowed to leave the city after the payment of a ransom. The castle remained a key Parisian fortress, but was successfully seized by the Burgundians in 1464, when they convinced royal troops to surrender: once taken, this allowed their faction to make

21291-431: Was forced to surrender the castle to Charles and flee the city. It took Henry IV several years to retake Paris. By the time he succeeded in 1594, the area around the Bastille formed the main stronghold for the Catholic League and their foreign allies, including Spanish and Flemish troops. The Bastille itself was controlled by a League captain called du Bourg. Henry entered Paris early on the morning of 23 March, through

21442-477: Was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 24 April 1585 to his death, in August 1590. As a youth, he joined the Franciscan order, where he displayed talents as a scholar and preacher, and enjoyed the patronage of Pius V , who made him a cardinal . As a cardinal, he was known as Cardinal Montalto . As Pope, he energetically rooted out corruption and lawlessness across Rome, and launched

21593-478: Was incontrovertible evidence that ensoulment had already occurred. Until Sixtus V, canon lawyers had applied the code from Gratian whereby excommunications were only given to abortions after the quickening. In 1588 the pope issued a papal bull, Effraenatam or Effrenatam ("Without Restraint"), which declared that the canonical penalty of excommunication would be levied for any form of contraception and for abortions at any stage in fetal development. The reasoning on

21744-426: Was kept, but went further by capturing in detail the more psychological effects of the prison regime upon an inmate. Linguet also encouraged Louis XVI to destroy the Bastille, publishing an engraving depicting the king announcing to the prisoners "may you be free and live!", a phrase borrowed from Voltaire. Linguet's work was followed by another prominent autobiography, Henri Latude's Le despotisme dévoilé . Latude

21895-448: Was loathed by his political subjects, but history has recognized him as one of the most important popes. On the negative side, he could be impulsive, obstinate, severe, and autocratic. On the positive side, he was open to large ideas and threw himself into his undertakings with energy and determination; this often led to success. His pontificate saw great enterprises and great achievements. About 5,000 bandits were executed by Sixtus V in

22046-415: Was now the legitimate King of France, the League's armies forced him to retreat south. Using arms and military advisors provided by Queen Elizabeth I of England, he achieved several military victories. However, he was unable to overcome the superior forces of the League, which commanded the loyalty of most Frenchmen and had the support of Philip II of Spain. On 21 November 1589 the League attempted to declare

22197-566: Was received into the Catholic Church on 25 July 1593, and was welcomed into Paris as King Henry IV on 27 February 1594. The Catholic League, now lacking the threat of a Calvinist king, continued to disintegrate. The last remaining senior leader of the League was Philippe Emmanuel, Duke of Mercœur , who, with Spanish backing, was also fighting to restore the political independence of the Duchy of Brittany under his own rule. With reinforcements sent from England, King Henry at last marched against

22348-446: Was released in 1777, but was rearrested following his publication of a book entitled Memoirs of Vengeance . Pamphlets and magazines publicised Latude's case until he was finally released in 1784. Latude became a popular figure with the Académie française , or French Academy, and his autobiography, although inaccurate in places, did much to reinforce the public perception of the Bastille as a despotic institution. Modern historians of

22499-399: Was run by the governor, sometimes called the captain-governor, who lived in a 17th-century house alongside the fortress. The governor was supported by various officers, in particular his deputy, the lieutenant de roi , or lieutenant of the king, who was responsible for general security and the protection of state secrets; the major, responsible for managing the Bastille's financial affairs and

22650-541: Was to be considered as the authentic edition recommended by the Council of Trent , that it should be taken as the standard of all future reprints, and that all copies should be corrected by it." "This edition was not to be reprinted for 10 years except at the Vatican, and after that any edition must be compared with the Vatican edition, so that "not even the smallest particle should be altered, added or removed" under pain of

22801-479: Was used to support police operations, particularly those involving censorship, across Paris. Despite these changes, the Bastille remained a state prison, subject to special authorities, answering to the monarch of the day and surrounded by a considerable and threatening reputation. Under Louis XV, around 250 Catholic convulsionnaires , often called Jansenists , were detained in the Bastille for their religious beliefs. Many of these prisoners were women and came from

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