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101-718: The origins of the conflict in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (known as Zaire until 1997) can be traced to the 1994 Rwandan genocide , during which millions of both Tutsi and Hutu Rwandans fled to the eastern Congo as refugees. One estimate by the UN High Commissioner of Human Rights suggests that as many as 7% of the Hutus that fled to the Congo were members of the Democratic Forces for

202-411: A "messenger of peace". He left Zaire four days later on 6 May shortly after 9 people were trampled to death trying to attend mass. In 1981, despite slow progress, Zaire launched an economic reform to revive its economy in order to keep up its rescheduled payment on the country's tremendous debt of $ 4.4 billion, which had recorded a small rate of economic growth in the last three quarters of 1980. During

303-508: A "truly national revolution, essentially pragmatic", meant "the repudiation of both capitalism and communism ". Thus, "neither right nor left" became one of the legitimising slogans of the regime, along with "authenticity". In the 1970s and 1980s, Mobutu's government relied on a selected pool of technocrats, often referred to as the "nomenklatura", from which the Head of State drew, and periodically rotated, competent individuals. They comprised

404-648: A basis for political alignment, he outlawed such ethnic associations as the Association of Lulua Brothers (Association des Lulua Frères), which had been organised in Kasai in 1953 in reaction to the growing political and economic influence in Kasai of the rival Luba people , and Liboke lya Bangala (literally, "a bundle of Bangala"), an association formed in the 1950s to represent the interests of Lingala speakers in large cities. It helped Mobutu that his ethnic affiliation

505-544: A broken ceasefire , or to enforce a peace demanded by the United Nations. Peace enforcement requires more military force than peacekeeping, and is consequently carried out by heavily armed forces. However achieving lasting peace through peace enforcement is limited, as such missions do not address the underlying problems which caused conflict. While peacekeeping missions utilize personnel from several countries, peace enforcement forces often originate from one state or

606-576: A compromise merger of the two governments into the High Council of Republic–Parliament of Transition (HCR–PT) in 1994, with Mobutu as head of state and Kengo wa Dondo as prime minister. Although presidential and legislative elections were scheduled repeatedly over the next 2 years, they never took place. By 1996, tensions from the neighbouring Rwandan Civil War and genocide had spilled over to Zaire (see History of Rwanda ). Rwandan Hutu militia forces ( Interahamwe ), who had fled Rwanda following

707-812: A major expansion of state control of civil society . It meant, to begin with, the incorporation of youth groups and worker organisations into the matrix of the MPR. In July 1967, the Political Bureau announced the creation of the Youth of the Popular Revolutionary Movement (Jeunesse du Mouvement Populaire de la Révolution—JMPR), following the launching a month earlier of the National Union of Zairian Workers (Union Nationale des Travailleurs Zaïrois—UNTZA), which brought together into

808-619: A military coup in 1965, after five years of political upheaval following independence from Belgium known as the Congo Crisis . Zaire had a strongly centralist constitution , and foreign assets were nationalized . The period is sometimes referred to as the Second Congolese Republic . A wider campaign of Authenticité , ridding the country of the influences from the colonial era of the Belgian Congo ,

909-593: A result of the offensive, the M23 rebels retreated into the Virunga mountains on the border of Rwanda in what has been considered a crushing military loss for the rebel group. With the arrival of Malawian troops earlier that month to contribute to the Force Intervention Brigade, this operation also marked the first time that all components of the Force Intervention Brigade worked together. Before

1010-407: A single framework, thereby automatically extending the role of the party to all administrative organs at the central and provincial levels, as well as to the trade unions , youth movements , and student organisations . Three years after changing the country's name to Zaire, Mobutu promulgated a new constitution that consolidated his hold on the country. Every five years (seven years after 1978),

1111-529: A single list of MPR candidates was returned to the National Assembly, with official figures showing near-unanimous support. All citizens of Zaire automatically became members of the MPR at birth. For all intents and purposes, this gave the president of the MPR—Mobutu—complete political control over the country. Translating the concept of "the nation politically organised" into reality implied

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1212-524: A single organisational framework three preexisting trade unions. Ostensibly, the aim of the merger, in the terms of the Manifesto of N'Sele, was to transform the role of trade unions from "being merely a force of confrontation" into "an organ of support for government policy", thus providing "a communication link between the working class and the state". Similarly, the JMPR was to act as a major link between

1313-650: A small coalition of states. Perhaps the two most prominent examples of peace enforcement are the Korean War and the Gulf War . In both cases, a country invaded another as part of an illegal war of aggression , only to be repulsed by a UN military coalition. Notable Peace Enforcement Missions Include: The Korean War took place between 1950-1953, the UN was involved in this peace enforcement mission by enforcing peace through military engagement. Establishing Chapter VII of

1414-587: A strictly regional level. As a result, the concept was adopted by the UN and made into an international effort under the MONUSCO mission. Ultimately authorized after 14 years of MONUSCO presence in the Congo, the Force Intervention Brigade was embraced as a radical change in UN efforts to “break the persistent cycles of violence in DRC,” and as a shift away from traditional peacekeeping and towards peace enforcement . UN Security Council resolution 2098 (2013), through which

1515-496: A striking resemblance to its colonial antecedent, except that from July 1972 provinces were called regions. With the January 1973 reform, another major step was taken in the direction of further centralisation. The aim, in essence, was to operate a complete fusion of political and administrative hierarchies by making the head of each administrative unit the president of the local party committee. Furthermore, another consequence of

1616-581: The 11th-largest country in the world from 1965 to 1997. With a population of over 23 million, Zaire was the most populous Francophone country in Africa . Zaire played a central role during the Cold War . The country was a one-party totalitarian military dictatorship , run by Mobutu Sese Seko and his Popular Movement of the Revolution . Zaire was established following Mobutu's seizure of power in

1717-679: The African Standby Force . The United Nations Security Council often proposes peace enforcement mission partnerships to the African Union for authorization, and the African Union must request permission from the Security Council to execute peace enforcement operations. The United Nations has relied on the African Union to counter conflict outbreaks and enforce stability. The United Nations is then tasked with peacetime consolidation. The UN Stabilization Mission to

1818-459: The Bank of Zaire in the final stage of Mobutu's government. His progress was fairly typical of the rotational pattern established by Mobutu, who retained the most sensitive ministerial portfolios (such as Defense) for himself. Zaire was divided into 8 regions with its capital Kinshasa . In 1988, the province of Kivu was split into three regions. They were renamed into provinces in 1997. The zaïre

1919-717: The Democratic Republic of the Congo was a peace enforcement mission targeting armed rebel groups such as M23 . Peace enforcement missions in central asia include the Afghan ISAF operation. Operation Unified Protector is a peace enforcement operation executed in Libya during the 2011 Libyan Civil War . Critics of peace enforcement using United Nations peacekeeping forces include infringement on UN peacekeeping ethical standards of impartiality, intervention violating standards to only enforce an existing peace, and

2020-695: The Kimbanguist Church , and the Roman Catholic Church . Nationalisation of the universities of Kinshasa and Kisangani , coupled with Mobutu's insistence on banning all Christian names and establishing JMPR sections in all seminaries, soon brought the Roman Catholic Church and the state into conflict. Not until 1975, and after considerable pressure from the Vatican , did the regime agree to tone down its attacks on

2121-526: The Manifesto of N'sele , which was issued from the president's rural residence at N'sele, 60 km further up the Congo River from Kinshasa . In May 1967, it was made public. Nationalism, revolution, and authenticity were identified as the major themes of what came to be known as " Mobutism ". Nationalism implied the achievement of economic and political independence. Revolution , described as

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2222-538: The Safari Club . The Battle of Kolwezi , fought in May 1978, resulted in an airborne operation in an aim of rescuing Zairian, Belgian and French miners held as hostages by pro-Communist Katangan guerrillas. Pope John Paul II made a papal trip to Zaire on 2 May 1980, on the centenary of Catholic evangelization. During his tour, he greeted over a million people, making him the first pontiff to visit Africa as

2323-632: The Union of Mobutist Democrats and the MPR- Fait privé . Several of these groups continued to use Zaire's symbols and invoke its traditions. In 2024, opposition politician Christian Malanga led a coup attempt against the Congolese government in the name of his self-proclaimed "New Zaire", raising the old flag of Zaire in Kinshasa. The coup attempt was defeated, and Malanga was killed. The country

2424-454: The 1980s, Zaire remained a one-party state. Although Mobutu maintained control during this period, opposition parties, most notably the Union for Democracy and Social Progress (Union pour la Démocratie et le Progrès Social—UDPS), were active. Mobutu's attempts to quell these groups drew significant international criticism. As the Cold War came to a close, internal and external pressures on Mobutu increased. In late 1989 and early 1990, Mobutu

2525-529: The 27 October 2013 battles, some Rooivak helicopters and drones were seen, in an effort to augment the FIB forces against M23 The Indian Army Battalion assigned to act in a supporting role during the battle at Kiwanja/Rutsuru, refused to fight and sealed themselves into their armoured vehicles until the battle was over. In August 2013, Near the Triple Towers area, near Kibati , a South African sniper took

2626-520: The AFDL, and marched unopposed into Kinshasa three days later. On 21 May, Kabila officially reverted the name of the country to the Democratic Republic of the Congo . After the collapse of Zaire, its legacy was claimed and partially continued by various factions which emerged from Mobutu's former supporter and loyalist network. These factions were headed by former "barons" of the regime as well as Mobutu's family members, and included political parties such as

2727-683: The Central African Republic's MINUSCA . [REDACTED] Media related to United Nations Force Intervention Brigade at Wikimedia Commons Zaire Other major events Zaire , officially the Republic of Zaire , was the name of the Democratic Republic of the Congo from 1971 to 18 May 1997. Located in Central Africa , it was, by area, the third-largest country in Africa after Sudan and Algeria , and

2828-412: The Congo did not want a "hasty" withdrawal of peacekeeping troops, he also stated that he was "not willing to compromise on the sovereignty of our country." The UN is now looking towards an exit strategy to reduce its peacekeeping presence in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. In 2016, through Security Council Resolution 2277, the UN called for a commitment to the “gradual and progressive” reduction of

2929-461: The Congo is so complex and so urgent that a reduction in military personnel could not be justified. Artillery Battery [REDACTED] Special Forces and Reconnaissance Company South African infantry battalion [REDACTED] Tanzanian infantry battalion [REDACTED] Malawi infantry battalion [REDACTED] The FIB was first headed by General James Aloizi Mwakibolwa of Tanzania. Mwakibolwa had had previous experience in

3030-481: The Congo. As of Resolution 2348 (2017), the MONUSCO troop ceiling was lowered to 16,215, marking a reduction of 2,600 military personnel. While many UN representatives expressed support for the reduced troop numbers in the most recent resolution, others strongly opposed the mandated change in troop numbers from the original mandate. The representative of the Russian Federation suggested that the situation in

3131-575: The Executive Council and led the full spectrum of Ministries, Departments or, as governmental terminology shifted, Commissariats. Among these individuals were internationally respected appointees such as Djamboleka Lona Okitongono who was named Secretary of Finance, under Citizen Namwisi (Minister of Finance), and later became President of OGEDEP, the National Debt Management Office. Djamboleka became Governor of

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3232-529: The FARDC has "little appetite" to carry out missions against these perpetrators. Large-scale rebel attacks occurring nearly weekly have terrorized residents of Beni and left them uncertain where to seek safety. UN and Congolese forces need to urgently coordinate their efforts and improve protection of civilians in Beni. The Force Intervention Brigade was also involved in other combat engagements including: Given that

3333-417: The FARDC to split the M23 forces and dislodge the group from its military strongholds across North Kivu. By surrounding the rebels from the western, southern and northern fronts, the combined forces of the FARDC and Force Intervention Brigade were able to push M23 out of all its previous strongholds in only four days. Notable engagements included battles at Kanyamahoro , Kiwanga , Rutshuru and Rumangabo . As

3434-547: The FARDC, in a robust, highly mobile and versatile manner and in strict compliance with international law, including international humanitarian law and with the human rights due diligence policy on UN-support to non-UN forces (HRDDP), to prevent the expansion of all armed groups, neutralize these groups, and to disarm them in order to contribute to the objective of reducing the threat posed by armed groups on state authority and civilian security in eastern DRC and to make space for stabilization activities." The Force Intervention Brigade

3535-408: The Force Intervention Brigade as expectations for future missions in different regions. While it is the first mission of its kind, the mandate of the Force Intervention Brigade stresses that it is not intended to establish “a precedent or any prejudice to the agreed principles of peacekeeping.” Still, UN peace-enforcement mandates now exist outside of the Congo, in missions including Mali's MINUSMA and

3636-450: The Force Intervention Brigade component of the MONUSCO mission. This may make it increasingly difficult for humanitarian aid to be distributed to civilians. The Congolese government has also indicated an increasing desire to remove UN troops from the country. Specifically, Foreign Minister Raymond Tshibanda indicated in 2016 that the DRC would like the UN to cut its 20,000 strong MONUSCO peacekeeping force in half. While Tshibanda noted that

3737-409: The Force Intervention Brigade consisted of 3,069 troops, with the first 2,550 hailing evenly from Tanzania, Malawi and South Africa. Artillery, special forces and reconnaissance made up the remainder of these original troops. The original troop ceiling, according to the 2013 mandate, was 19,815 military personnel. However, this figure has since been lowered as part of the UN's overall exit strategy from

3838-421: The Force Intervention Brigade mandate marks a clear divergence from the scope of duties of previous UN Peacekeeping mandates, which have historically called for the complete neutrality of peacekeepers. Moreover, it marks an important shift for the MONUSCO mission, and the UN at large, towards peace enforcement rather than peacekeeping alone. Notably, however, the UN is cautious to view the successes and failures of

3939-584: The Force Intervention Brigade played an important role in driving out the Rwanda-backed M23 rebel group in October 2013. In the first week of engagement, South African and Tanzanian forces cleared Goma's surroundings. This offensive came after intelligence reports said that, should the Kampala peace talks fail, the M23 would launch its own attacks. In response, the Force Intervention Brigade joined

4040-548: The Force Intervention Brigade was first authorized, stated that the Brigade should: "... In support of the authorities of the DRC, on the basis of information collation and analysis, and taking full account of the need to protect civilians and mitigate risk before, during and after any military operation, carry out targeted offensive operations through the Intervention Brigade... either unilaterally or jointly with

4141-633: The Liberation of Rwanda (FDLR), the rebel group responsible for the genocide. When the new Tutsi government was established following the genocide, an alliance was formed between Rwandan and Ugandan backed rebel forces to invade the eastern Congo in order to capture the FDLR rebels, starting the First Congo War (1996–97). This led to the collapse of the precarious regime of Mobutu Sese Seko who had been in power since 1965. Tensions resulting from

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4242-515: The M23 rebels' invasion and capture of Goma in North Kivu , the international community called for the UN to reconsider MONUSCO's approach to the conflict. This plea ultimately manifested itself in the approval of the Force Intervention Brigade in 2013. On 24 February 2013, the “Framework for Peace, Security and Cooperation for the DRC and the Region” was established to combat the root causes of

4343-455: The MONUSCO mandate, and thereby the Force Intervention Brigade, was again extended until March 2018. The violence in the Congo has been largely contained in the east of the country, most notably in the North and South Kivu regions. Although there have been cases of conflict-related violence across the country, rebel presence in the east is especially prevalent, especially due to its proximity to

4444-546: The MONUSCO mission at large, which was enforced in its 2017 reduction of the troop ceiling from 19,815 to 16,215. The March 2018 UN investigation report of the Beni attack highlighted the need for better regional coordination and improvements in command determination and initiative. The use of force had previously been authorized in peacekeeping operations such as UNAMSIL in Sierra Leone, UNAMID in Sudan, and UNPROFOR in

4545-438: The MPR elected a president who was simultaneously nominated as the only candidate for president of the republic; he was confirmed in office via a referendum. Under this system, Mobutu was reelected in 1977 and 1984 by implausibly high margins, claiming a unanimous or near-unanimous "yes" vote. The MPR was defined as the country's "single institution," and its president was vested with "plentitude of power exercise." Every five years,

4646-463: The Roman Catholic Church and return some of its control of the school system to the church. Meanwhile, in line with a December 1971 law, which allowed the state to dissolve "any church or sect that compromises or threatens to compromise public order", scores of unrecognised religious sects were dissolved and their leaders jailed. Mobutu was careful also to suppress all institutions that could mobilise ethnic loyalties. Avowedly opposed to ethnicity as

4747-571: The Rwandan border. These regions are largely characterized by mountainous terrain that is both difficult to control and to navigate. Many reports suggest that these rebel groups are funding their activities by exploiting the mineral-rich land in the eastern Congo and by participating in the mineral smuggling trade. As per the 2013 mandate of the Force Intervention Brigade, the operation consists of three infantry battalions, one artillery and one Special Force and Reconnaissance company. When first deployed,

4848-586: The Tutsi militias erupted in rebellion against Mobutu, triggering the First Congo War . The Tutsi militia was soon joined by various opposition groups and supported by several countries, including Rwanda and Uganda. This coalition, led by Laurent-Désiré Kabila , became known as the Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la Libération du Congo-Zaïre ( AFDL ). The AFDL, now seeking the broader goal of ousting Mobutu, made significant military gains in early 1997, and by

4949-610: The UN Charter allows the UN Security Council to authorize military action when peace is threatened. Other examples of peace enforcement missions could include, the Gulf War the primary "peace operation" involved was led by the UN and involved the international community. They sought to enforce Iraqi withdrawal via UN Security Council resolutions and international condemnation. However, these measures failed, leading to

5050-696: The ascension of an RPF -led government, had been using Hutu refugee camps in eastern Zaire as bases for incursion against Rwanda. These Hutu militia forces soon allied with the Zairian armed forces (FAZ) to launch a campaign against Congolese ethnic Tutsis in eastern Zaire, known as the Banyamulenge . In turn, these Zairian Tutsis formed a militia to defend themselves against attacks. When the Zairian government began to escalate its massacres in November 1996,

5151-403: The central government. The president had the power to issue autonomous regulations on matters other than those pertaining to the domain of law, without prejudice to other provisions of the constitution. Under certain conditions, the president was empowered to govern by executive order, which carried the force of law. The doctrinal foundation was disclosed shortly after its birth, in the form of

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5252-570: The commercial banks towards recovery and rehabilitation of Zaire's economy". Blumenthal stated that there was "no chance" that creditors would ever recover their loans. Yet the IMF and the World Bank continued to lend money that was either embezzled, stolen, or "wasted on elephant projects". "Structural adjustment programmes" implemented as a condition of IMF loans cut support for health care, education, and infrastructure. The concept of authenticity

5353-545: The conflict and to encourage decentralization, security sector reform and the consolidation of state authority. The concept of the Force Intervention Brigade was first introduced at the International Conference on the Great Lakes Region (ICGLR), during which the failures of MONUSCO to end violence in the eastern Congo were highlighted and addressed. Concerns were expressed that this instability

5454-425: The conversions are as follows: In addition, the adoption of Zairian, as opposed to Western or Christian , names in 1972 and the abandonment of Western dress in favour of the wearing of the abacost were subsequently promoted as expressions of authenticity. Peace enforcement Peace enforcement is the use of various tactics, most notably military force to compel peace in a conflict , generally against

5555-458: The country a new constitution and a single party. The new constitution was submitted to popular referendum in June 1967 and approved by 98 per cent of those voting. It provided that executive powers be centralised in the president, who was to be head of state, head of government, commander in chief of the armed forces and the police, and in charge of foreign policy. But the most far-reaching change

5656-671: The country in the aftermath of the Rwandan genocide and growing ethnic violence. In 1996, Laurent-Désiré Kabila , the head of the AFDL militia, led a popular rebellion against Mobutu. With rebel forces making gains westward, Mobutu fled the country, leaving Kabila's forces in charge. The country's name was restored to the Democratic Republic of the Congo the following year. Mobutu died less than four months later, on September 7, 1997, while in exile in Morocco . The country's name, Zaïre ,

5757-436: The current peacekeeping mission, through resolutions Resolution 1279 (1999) and Resolution 1291 (2000). This mission, with an annual budget of over one billion USD annually, has become the most expensive and extensive peacekeeping mission to date. Unfortunately, while the mission was successful in some regards, it received widespread criticism for its failure to take direct action against the rebel groups deemed responsible for

5858-500: The eastern boundary with South Irumu. THE AFD, mainly located on the border of Uganda and the DRC, was especially notorious for attacking Ugandans and Congolese civilians. The Force Intervention Brigade acted in this situation to destroy the bases of the ADF, and it was considered largely successful in this regard. However, in response to these efforts against the ADF, the ADF has specifically targeted UN officials and humanitarian aid workers in

5959-686: The economic situation began to decline, and by 1979, the purchasing power was only 4% of that in 1960. Starting in 1976 the IMF provided stabilizing loans to his regime. Much of this money was embezzled by Mobutu and his circle. According to the 1982 report by the IMF's envoy Erwin Blumenthal , it was "alarmingly clear that the corruptive system in Zaire with all its wicked and ugly manifestations, its mismanagement and fraud will destroy all endeavors of international institutions, of friendly governments, and of

6060-432: The failure of the Brigade to eliminate most rebel groups despite long-term presence in the region. Furthermore, scholars warn that the implementation of the Force Intervention Brigade under the larger MONUSCO mandate may be blurring the line between peace enforcement and peacekeeping. As a result, rebel groups may begin to target UN peacekeeping officials as well as humanitarian aid workers, even those who are not involved in

6161-572: The former Yugoslavia. However, the Force Intervention Brigade marks the first targeted offensive of the UN. As outlined in its mandate, the Force Intervention Brigade specifically condemns the M23 movement , the Lord’s Resistance Army , the Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda , Uganda's Allied Democratic Forces , as well as “all other armed groups and their continuing violence and abuses of human rights.” It calls for military action to be taken to "neutralise and disarm" these groups. Specifically targeting these groups as threats to civil security,

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6262-406: The introduction in 1973 of "obligatory civic work" (locally known as Salongo after the Lingala term for work), in the form of one afternoon a week of compulsory labor on agricultural and development projects. Officially described as a revolutionary attempt to return to the values of communalism and solidarity inherent in the traditional society, Salongo was intended to mobilise the population into

6363-414: The kidnapping and torture of civilians as well as sexual violence. The rape of women and children has become such a widespread issue that the Congo has been titled “the rape capital of the world.” In some areas, two-thirds of all women are victims of rape and other forms of sexual violence. To combat this humanitarian crisis in the Congo, the United Nations Security Council approved MONUC, the predecessor of

6464-409: The launch of Operation Desert Storm, a military coalition campaign to liberate Kuwait. NATO’s intervention in Kosovo in 1999, is seen as an example of peace enforcement despite not being directly sanctioned by the UN Security Council. The United Nations and African Union have both executed peace enforcement missions in Africa. The African Union undertakes peace enforcement operations through utilizing

6565-452: The long-promised Sovereign National Conference was staged, encompassing over 2,000 representatives from various political parties. The conference gave itself a legislative mandate and elected Archbishop Laurent Monsengwo Pasinya as its chairman, along with Étienne Tshisekedi wa Mulumba , leader of the UDPS, as prime minister. By the end of the year Mobutu had created a rival government with its own prime minister. The ensuing stalemate produced

6666-404: The mandate names specific rebel groups such as the LRA, M23 Movement, and ADF as targets, the implementation of the Force Intervention Brigade has called the UN's principle of neutrality into question. This has sparked criticism of the Force Intervention Brigade, which some believe undermines one of the fundamental values of UN peacekeeping. Some evidence also points to local civilian opposition to

6767-434: The middle of 1997 had almost completely overrun the country. The only thing that seemed to slow the AFDL forces down was the country's ramshackle infrastructure; irregularly used dirt paths and river ports were all that connected some areas to the outside world. Following failed peace talks between Mobutu and Kabila, Mobutu fled into exile in Morocco on 17 May. Kabila named himself president, consolidated power around himself and

6868-424: The most bitterly resented features of the colonial state, obligatory civic work contributed in no small way to the erosion of legitimacy suffered by the Mobutist state. In 1977 and 1978, Katangan rebels based in Angola launched two invasions, Shaba I and Shaba II , into the Katanga Province (renamed "Shaba" in 1972). The rebels were driven out with military assistance from the Western Bloc , particularly from

6969-423: The name used by the local population (i.e. derived from Portuguese usage) remained common. . In 1965, as in 1960 , the division of power in Congo-Léopoldville (a former Belgian colony ) between President and Parliament led to a stalemate and threatened the country's stability. Joseph-Désiré Mobutu again seized power. Unlike the first time , however, Mobutu assumed the presidency, rather than remaining behind

7070-426: The performance of collective work "with enthusiasm and without constraint". In reality, the conspicuous lack of popular enthusiasm for Salongo led to widespread resistance and foot dragging (causing many local administrators to look the other way). Although failure to comply carried penalties of one month to six months in jail, by the late 1970s most Zairians shirked their Salongo obligations. By resuscitating one of

7171-399: The popular epithet the “African World War." It was one of the most deadly conflicts in recent history, with most of these deaths being civilian casualties. Estimates from the International Rescue Committee suggest that fewer than 10 percent of victims of these conflict deaths were soldiers killed in direct combat. Violence remained widespread after 2003, with numerous local conflicts involving

7272-534: The presence of the Force Intervention Brigade. According to Teddy Muhindo Kataliko, president of the Civil Society in Beni Territory, "The population is very hostile to MONUSCO. Firstly because so many people are being killed, but even more so seeing all their arsenal, logistics and soldiers in the area." This opposition stems from the civilian deaths caused by the Force Intervention Brigade, as well as

7373-470: The principle of a multi-party system with elections and a constitution. As details of a reform package were delayed, soldiers began looting Kinshasa in September 1991 to protest their unpaid wages. Two thousand French and Belgian troops, some of whom were flown in on U.S. Air Force planes, arrived to evacuate the 20,000 endangered foreign nationals in Kinshasa. In 1992, after previous similar attempts,

7474-549: The programs and decisions of the president. The president also was to have the power to appoint and dismiss the governors of the provinces and the judges of all courts, including those of the Supreme Court of Justice. The bicameral parliament was replaced by a unicameral legislative body called the Legislative Council . Governors of provinces were no longer elected by provincial assemblies but appointed by

7575-557: The record of the First Republic as one of "chaos, disorder, negligence, and incompetence". Rejection of the legacy of the First Republic went far beyond rhetoric. In the first two years of its existence, the new regime turned to the urgent tasks of political reconstruction and consolidation. Creating a new basis of legitimacy for the state, in the form of a single party, came next in Mobutu's order of priority. A third imperative

7676-455: The reform was to severely curtail the power of traditional authorities at the local level. Hereditary claims to authority would no longer be recognised; instead, all chiefs were to be appointed and controlled by the state via the administrative hierarchy. By then, the process of centralisation had theoretically eliminated all preexisting centres of local autonomy. The analogy with the colonial state becomes even more compelling when coupled with

7777-530: The regime beyond the most superficial level. The trend toward co-optation of key social sectors continued in subsequent years. Women's associations were eventually brought under the control of the party, as was the press , and in December 1971 Mobutu proceeded to emasculate the power of the churches. From then on, only three churches were recognised: the Church of Christ in Zaire (L'Église du Christ au Zaïre),

7878-539: The region. He served as commander of the Military Assessment Team of the International Conference on the Great Lakes Region (ICGLR) in October 2012 to assess the military situation in eastern Congo and come up with a concept of operations. Mwakibolwa handed over command to his successor in April 2014. Brigade Commander Deputy Brigade Commander In what is widely regarded as its greatest success,

7979-595: The region. In December 2017, 15 Tanzanian soldiers were killed when the ADF attacked their base . In December 2014, media reports supported Human Rights Watch ' contentions about massacres in the Beni, North Kivu region. Human Rights Watch claimed that unidentified rebels killed more than 180 civilians in the eastern Congo between September and December 2014. The FIB's non-engagement of these attackers has been severely criticised. The MONUSCO head, Martin Kobler , conceded that

8080-798: The scenes. From 1965, Mobutu dominated the political life of the country, restructuring the state on more than one occasion, and claiming the title of "Father of the Nation". He announced the renaming of the country as the Republic of Zaire on 27 October 1971. When, under the authenticité policy of the early 1970s, Zairians were obliged to adopt "authentic" names, Mobutu dropped Joseph-Désiré and officially changed his name to Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu Wa Za Banga , or, more commonly, Mobutu Sésé Seko, roughly meaning "the all-conquering warrior, who goes from triumph to triumph". In retrospective justification of his 1965 seizure of power , Mobutu later summed up

8181-544: The student population and the state. In reality, the government was attempting to bring under its control those sectors where opposition to the regime might be centred. By appointing key labour and youth leaders to the MPR Political Bureau, the regime hoped to harness syndical and student forces to the machinery of the state. Nevertheless, as has been pointed out by numerous observers, there is little evidence that co-optation succeeded in mobilising support for

8282-539: The then 6th longest shot in history, 2,125 metres (6,972 ft). Following this defeat of the M23 Movement, the Force Intervention Brigade specifically targeted another rebel group, the Allied Democratic Forces (ADF), in 2014. By March, 2014, it was MONUSCO forces the ones who assisted the FARDC, not the FIB, in conducting operations in a triangle formed between the axis of Beni, Kamango and

8383-405: The unauthorized presence of this coalition escalated when Laurent-Désiré Kabila became the president of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. In 1998, he allied the Congo with Angola , Zimbabwe and other countries to force Rwandan and Ugandan troops out. The web of alliances and the number of conflict-related deaths, estimated around six million, gave the resulting Second Congo War (1998–2003)

8484-566: The use of non-defensive force. Distinguishing between operations conducted by the United Nations versus those which have been authorized by the United Nations Security Council has been a proposed solution. However, the use of UN peacekeeping forces for peace enforcement missions remains under scrutiny, and critics argue that regional organizations such as the African Union and the Arab League should be tasked with

8585-549: The war and violence. For example, beginning 14 May 2002, the Rwandan-backed Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD) rebel movement engaged in “widespread killings, summary executions , rapes, and pillage” in the northern town of Kisangani. In 2003, a similar event occurred in Icari in eastern Congo. In both cases, MONUC officers refused to authorize the use of force against the rebels, maintaining that force

8686-472: The will of combatants . Peace enforcement missions permit the use of non-defensive armed force, unlike peacekeeping operations. Only the United Nations , through its Security Council per Chapter VII of its charter , has the ability to authorize peace enforcement missions. Peace enforcement differs from peacekeeping in that peace enforcement activities are generally used to create a peace from

8787-503: Was also a threat to regional stability. In response to these concerns, Uganda, with the support of South Africa, proposed the establishment of the Neutral Intervention Brigade, a small offensive force composed of troops from countries in the region. Unfortunately, given the lack of experienced troops and funding to complete the estimated $ 100 million deployment of these troops, the effort could not be completed on

8888-417: Was also launched under Mobutu's direction. Weakened by the termination of American support after the end of the Cold War , Mobutu was forced to declare a new republic in 1990 to cope with demands for change. By the time of its downfall, Zaire was characterised by widespread cronyism , corruption and economic mismanagement . Zaire collapsed in the late 1990s, amid the destabilization of the eastern parts of

8989-510: Was blurred in the public mind. Nevertheless, as dissatisfaction arose, ethnic tensions surfaced again. Running parallel to the efforts of the state to control all autonomous sources of power, important administrative reforms were introduced in 1967 and 1973 to strengthen the hand of the central authorities in the provinces. The central objective of the 1967 reform was to abolish provincial governments and replace them with state functionaries appointed by Kinshasa . The principle of centralisation

9090-478: Was confirmed in office by an implausible margin of over 10,131,000 votes against only 157 who voted "no." At parliamentary elections held two weeks later, voters were presented with a single MPR list that was approved with over 99 per cent support. The president served as the head of state of Zaïre whose role was to appoint and dismiss cabinet members and determine their areas of responsibility. The ministers, as heads of their respective departments, were to execute

9191-509: Was curious, given that the name Congo , which referred both to the river Congo and to the mediaeval Kongo Empire , was fundamentally authentic to pre-colonial African roots, while Zaire is in fact a Portuguese corruption of another African word, Nzadi ("river", by Nzadi o Nzere, "the river that swallows all the other rivers", another name of the Congo river). General Mobutu became Mobutu Sésé Seko and forced all his citizens to adopt African names and many cities were also renamed. Some of

9292-477: Was derived from the MPR's professed doctrine of "authentic Zairian nationalism and condemnation of regionalism and tribalism". Mobutu defined it as being conscious of one's own personality and one's own values and of being at home in one's culture. In line with the dictates of authenticity, the name of the country was changed to the Republic of Zaire on 27 October 1971, and that of the armed forces to Zairian Armed Forces (Forces Armées Zaïroises—FAZ). This decision

9393-588: Was derived from the name of the Congo River , sometimes called Zaire in Portuguese , which in turn was derived from the Kikongo word nzere or nzadi ('river that swallows all rivers'). The use of Congo seems to have replaced Zaire gradually in English usage during the 18th century and Congo was the preferred English name in 19th-century literature, although references to Zahir or Zaire as

9494-404: Was further extended to districts and territories, each headed by administrators appointed by the central government. The only units of government that still retained a fair measure of autonomy—but not for long—were the so-called local collectivities, i.e. chiefdoms and sectors (the latter incorporating several chiefdoms). The unitary, centralised state system thus legislated into existence bore

9595-482: Was governed by the Popular Movement of the Revolution as a one-party state as the only legally permitted party in the country, though the Congo had effectively been a one-party state since the MPR's formation. Despite the constitution nominally allowing for the existence of two parties, the MPR was the only party that was allowed to nominate a candidate for the 1 November 1970 presidential election . Mobutu

9696-402: Was introduced to replace the franc as the new national currency. 100 makuta (singular likuta) equaled one zaïre. The likuta was also divided into 100 sengi. However this unit was worth very little, so the smallest coin was for 10 sengi. The currency and the cities named above had actually already been renamed between 1966 and 1971. While the country began to stabilize after Mobutu took control,

9797-467: Was only permitted in self-defence under Chapter VI of the MONUC mandate. In response to criticisms regarding the UN's failure to act in such events, the UN added “stabilisation” to the MONUC mandate, thereby reestablishing the peacekeeping operation as MONUSCO in 2010. Still, MONUSCO was criticized for its failure to take direct action using force against the rebel groups. When MONUSCO failed to act following

9898-454: Was originally authorized for a one-year period beginning in March 2013 under the MONUSCO mandate. However, since its initial approval, the Force Intervention Brigade has been reauthorized annually through Resolution 2211 (2015), which extended the MONUSCO mandate to 31 March 2016, and Resolution 2277 (2016), which extended the mandate to 31 March 2017. Most recently, through Resolution 2348 (2017),

9999-402: Was the creation of the Popular Movement of the Revolution (Mouvement Populaire de la Révolution—MPR) on 17 April 1967, marking the emergence of "the nation politically organised". Rather than government institutions being the emanation of the state , the state was henceforth defined as the emanation of the party. Thus, in October 1967, party and administrative responsibilities were merged into

10100-434: Was to expand the reach of the state in the social and political realms, a process that began in 1970 and culminated in the adoption of a new constitution in 1974. By 1976, however, this effort had begun to generate its own inner contradictions, thus paving the way for the resurrection of a Bula Matari ("the breaker of rocks") system of repression and brutality. By 1967, Mobutu had consolidated his rule and proceeded to give

10201-473: Was weakened by a series of domestic protests, by heightened international criticism of his regime's human rights practices, by a faltering economy, and by government corruption, most notably his massive embezzlement of government funds for personal use. In June 1989, Mobutu visited Washington, D.C. , where he was the first African head of state to be invited for a state meeting with newly elected U.S. President George H. W. Bush . In May 1990, Mobutu agreed to

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