Paint is a material or mixture that, when applied to a solid material and allowed to dry, adds a film-like layer. As art, this is used to create an image or images known as a painting . Paint can be made in many colors and types. Most paints are either oil-based or water-based, and each has distinct characteristics.
113-419: A factory , manufacturing plant or production plant is an industrial facility, often a complex consisting of several buildings filled with machinery , where workers manufacture items or operate machines which process each item into another. They are a critical part of modern economic production , with the majority of the world's goods being created or processed within factories. Factories arose with
226-547: A 100,000-year-old human-made ochre -based mixture that could have been used like paint. Further excavation in the same cave resulted in the 2011 report of a complete toolkit for grinding pigments and making a primitive paint-like substance. Interior walls at the 5,000-year-old Ness of Brodgar have been found to incorporate individual stones painted in yellows, reds, and oranges, using ochre pigment made of haematite mixed with animal fat, milk or eggs. Ancient colored walls at Dendera , Egypt , which were exposed for years to
339-481: A Competitive Industrial Performance (CIP) Index, which measures the competitive manufacturing ability of different nations. The CIP Index combines a nation's gross manufacturing output with other factors like high-tech capability and the nation's impact on the world economy. Germany topped the 2020 CIP Index, followed by China, South Korea , the United States, and Japan. In 2023, the manufacturing industry in
452-411: A building or set of buildings where large amounts of goods are made using machines elsewhere: ... the utilization of machines presupposes social cooperation and the division of labour The first machine is stated by one source to have been traps used to assist with the capturing of animals, corresponding to the machine as a mechanism operating independently or with very little force by interaction from
565-537: A company called Emerton and Manby was advertising exceptionally low-priced paints that had been ground with labor-saving technology: One Pound of Colour ground in a Horse-Mill will paint twelve Yards of Work, whereas Colour ground any other Way, will not do half that Quantity. By the proper onset of the Industrial Revolution , in the mid-18th century, paint was being ground in steam-powered mills, and an alternative to lead-based pigments had been found in
678-437: A cross-linked film. Depending on composition, they may need to dry first by evaporation of solvent. Classic two-package epoxies or polyurethanes would fall into this category. The "drying oils", counter-intuitively, cure by a crosslinking reaction even if they are not put through an oven cycle and seem to dry in air. The film formation mechanism of the simplest examples involves the first evaporation of solvents followed by
791-475: A date for cooperation and factors of demand, by an increased community size and population to make something like factory level production a conceivable necessity. Archaeologist Bonnet, unearthed the foundations of numerous workshops in the city of Kerma proving that as early as 2000 BC Kerma was a large urban capital. The watermill was first made in the Persian Empire some time before 350 BC. In
904-421: A human, with a capacity for use repeatedly with operation exactly the same on every occasion of functioning. The wheel was invented c. 3000 BC , the spoked wheel c. 2000 BC . The Iron Age began approximately 1200–1000 BC. However, other sources define machinery as a means of production. Archaeology provides a date for the earliest city as 5000 BC as Tell Brak (Ur et al. 2006), therefore
1017-409: A large scale. Such goods may be sold to other manufacturers for the production of other more complex products (such as aircraft, household appliances , furniture, sports equipment or automobiles ), or distributed via the tertiary industry to end users and consumers (usually through wholesalers, who in turn sell to retailers, who then sell them to individual customers). Manufacturing engineering
1130-535: A more contemporary approach to handle design applicable to manufacturing facilities can be found in Socio-Technical Systems (STS) . In Britain, a shadow factory is one of a number of manufacturing sites built in dispersed locations in times of war to reduce the risk of disruption due to enemy air-raids and often with the dual purpose of increasing manufacturing capacity. Before World War II Britain had built many shadow factories . Production of
1243-595: A product. Some industries, such as semiconductor and steel manufacturers, use the term fabrication instead. The manufacturing sector is closely connected with the engineering and industrial design industries. The Modern English word manufacture is likely derived from the Middle French manufacture ("process of making") which itself originates from the Classical Latin manū ("hand") and Middle French facture ("making"). Alternatively,
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#17327661701951356-637: A rate sufficient to meet the needs of 80,000 persons, in the Roman Empire. The large population increase in medieval Islamic cities, such as Baghdad 's 1.5 million population, led to the development of large-scale factory milling installations with higher productivity to feed and support the large growing population. A tenth-century grain-processing factory in the Egyptian town of Bilbays , for example, milled an estimated 300 tons of grain and flour per day. Both watermills and windmills were widely used in
1469-627: A reaction with oxygen from the environment over a period of days, weeks, and even months to create a crosslinked network. Classic alkyd enamels would fall into this category. Oxidative cure coatings are catalyzed by metal complex driers such as cobalt naphthenate though cobalt octoate is more common. Recent environmental requirements restrict the use of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and alternative means of curing have been developed, generally for industrial purposes. UV curing paints, for example, enable formulation with very low amounts of solvent, or even none at all. This can be achieved because of
1582-575: A result, they make only a reactive contribution. Emerging technologies have offered new growth methods in advanced manufacturing employment opportunities, for example in the Manufacturing Belt in the United States. Manufacturing provides important material support for national infrastructure and also for national defense . On the other hand, most manufacturing processes may involve significant social and environmental costs. The clean-up costs of hazardous waste , for example, may outweigh
1695-406: A thinner oil is required. These volatile substances impart their properties temporarily—once the solvent has evaporated, the remaining paint is fixed to the surface. This component is optional: some paints have no diluent . Water is the main diluent for water-borne paints, even the co-solvent types. Solvent-borne, also called oil-based, paints can have various combinations of organic solvents as
1808-489: A wall properly and evenly. The previous coats having dried would be white whereas the new wet coat would be distinctly pink. Ashland Inc. introduced foundry refractory coatings with similar principle in 2005 for use in foundries. Electrochromic paints change color in response to an applied electric current. Car manufacturer Nissan has been reportedly working on an electrochromic paint, based on particles of paramagnetic iron oxide . When subjected to an electromagnetic field
1921-480: A white derivative of zinc oxide. Interior house painting increasingly became the norm as the 19th century progressed, both for decorative reasons and because the paint was effective in preventing the walls rotting from damp. Linseed oil was also increasingly used as an inexpensive binder. In 1866, Sherwin-Williams in the United States opened as a large paint-maker and invented a paint that could be used from
2034-649: A wood, bone, or antler punch could be used to shape a stone very finely was developed during the Upper Paleolithic , beginning approximately 40,000 years ago. During the Neolithic period, polished stone tools were manufactured from a variety of hard rocks such as flint , jade , jadeite , and greenstone . The polished axes were used alongside other stone tools including projectiles , knives, and scrapers, as well as tools manufactured from organic materials such as wood, bone, and antler. Copper smelting
2147-477: Is a misnomer because no chemical curing reactions are required to knit the film. On the other hand, thermosetting mechanisms are true curing mechanisms involving chemical reaction(s) among the polymers that make up the binder. Some films are formed by simply cooling the binder. For example, encaustic or wax paints are liquid when warm, and harden upon cooling. In many cases, they re-soften or liquify if reheated. Paints that dry by solvent evaporation and contain
2260-405: Is an opaque variant of watercolor , which is based around varying levels of translucency; both paints use gum arabic as the binder and water as a thinner. Gouache is also known as 'designer color' or 'body color'. Poster paint is a distemper paint that has been used primarily in the creation of student works, or by children. There are varying brands of poster paint and depending on the brand,
2373-432: Is applied or removed, and so they change color. Color-changing paints can also be made by adding halochromic compounds or other organic pigments. One patent cites use of these indicators for wall coating applications for light-colored paints. When the paint is wet it is pink in color but upon drying it regains its original white color. As cited in patent, this property of the paint enabled two or more coats to be applied on
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#17327661701952486-502: Is believed to have originated when the technology of pottery kiln allowed sufficiently high temperatures. The concentration of various elements such as arsenic increase with depth in copper ore deposits and smelting of these ores yields arsenical bronze , which can be sufficiently work-hardened to be suitable for manufacturing tools. Bronze is an alloy of copper with tin; the latter of which being found in relatively few deposits globally delayed true tin bronze becoming widespread. During
2599-852: Is common to call a factory building a " Shed ". Factories may either make discrete products or some type of continuously produced material, such as chemicals , pulp and paper , or refined oil products . Factories manufacturing chemicals are often called plants and may have most of their equipment – tanks , pressure vessels , chemical reactors , pumps and piping – outdoors and operated from control rooms . Oil refineries have most of their equipment outdoors. Discrete products may be final goods , or parts and sub-assemblies which are made into final products elsewhere. Factories may be supplied parts from elsewhere or make them from raw materials . Continuous production industries typically use heat or electricity to transform streams of raw materials into finished products. The term mill originally referred to
2712-484: Is conventionally defined by the widespread manufacturing of weapons and tools using iron and steel rather than bronze. Iron smelting is more difficult than tin and copper smelting because smelted iron requires hot-working and can be melted only in specially designed furnaces. The place and time for the discovery of iron smelting is not known, partly because of the difficulty of distinguishing metal extracted from nickel-containing ores from hot-worked meteoritic iron. During
2825-643: Is expressed as the volume solid . The binder is the film-forming component of paint. It is the only component that is always present among all the various types of formulations. Many binders must be thick enough to be applied and thinned. The type of thinner, if present, varies with the binder. The binder imparts properties such as gloss, durability, flexibility, and toughness. Binders include synthetic or natural resins such as alkyds , acrylics , vinyl-acrylics, vinyl acetate/ethylene (VAE), polyurethanes , polyesters , melamine resins , epoxy , silanes or siloxanes or oils . Binders can be categorized according to
2938-506: Is not an ingredient. These dispersions are prepared by emulsion polymerization . Such paints cure by a process called coalescence where first the water and then the trace, or coalescing, solvent, evaporate and draw together and soften the binder particles and fuse them together into irreversibly bound networked structures, so that the paint cannot redissolve in the solvent/water that originally carried it. The residual surfactants in paint , as well as hydrolytic effects with some polymers cause
3051-455: Is the creation or production of goods with the help of equipment, labor , machines , tools , and chemical or biological processing or formulation . It is the essence of the secondary sector of the economy . The term may refer to a range of human activity , from handicraft to high-tech , but it is most commonly applied to industrial design , in which raw materials from the primary sector are transformed into finished goods on
3164-459: Is the field of engineering that designs and optimizes the manufacturing process , or the steps through which raw materials are transformed into a final product . The manufacturing process begins with the product design , and materials specification . These materials are then modified through manufacturing to become the desired product. Contemporary manufacturing encompasses all intermediary stages involved in producing and integrating components of
3277-499: The Bronze Age , bronze was a major improvement over stone as a material for making tools, both because of its mechanical properties like strength and ductility and because it could be cast in molds to make intricately shaped objects. Bronze significantly advanced shipbuilding technology with better tools and bronze nails, which replaced the old method of attaching boards of the hull with cord woven through drilled holes. The Iron Age
3390-612: The Oldowan " industry ", date back to at least 2.3 million years ago, with the earliest direct evidence of tool usage found in Ethiopia within the Great Rift Valley , dating back to 2.5 million years ago. To manufacture a stone tool, a " core " of hard stone with specific flaking properties (such as flint ) was struck with a hammerstone . This flaking produced sharp edges that could be used as tools, primarily in
3503-496: The Supermarine Spitfire at its parent company's base at Woolston, Southampton was vulnerable to enemy attack as a high-profile target and was well within range of Luftwaffe bombers. Indeed, on 26 September 1940 this facility was completely destroyed by an enemy bombing raid. Supermarine had already established a plant at Castle Bromwich ; this action prompted them to further disperse Spitfire production around
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3616-444: The factory system ) developed in the cotton and wool textiles industry. Later generations of factories included mechanized shoe production and manufacturing of machinery, including machine tools. After this came factories that supplied the railroad industry included rolling mills, foundries and locomotive works, along with agricultural-equipment factories that produced cast-steel plows and reapers. Bicycles were mass-produced beginning in
3729-484: The milling of grain , which usually used natural resources such as water or wind power until those were displaced by steam power in the 19th century. Because many processes like spinning and weaving, iron rolling , and paper manufacturing were originally powered by water, the term survives as in steel mill , paper mill , etc. Max Weber considered production during ancient and medieval times as never warranting classification as factories, with methods of production and
3842-477: The resin binder. Most pigments used in paint tend to be spherical, but lamellar pigments, such as glass flake and MIO have overlapping plates, which impede the path of water molecules. For optimum performance MIO should have a high content of thin flake-like particles resembling mica . ISO 10601 sets two levels of MIO content. MIO is often derived from a form of hematite . Pigments can be classified as either natural or synthetic. Natural pigments are taken from
3955-422: The 1830s. This transition included going from hand production methods to machines, new chemical manufacturing and iron production processes, the increasing use of steam power and water power , the development of machine tools and the rise of the mechanized factory system . The Industrial Revolution also led to an unprecedented rise in the rate of population growth. Textiles were the dominant industry of
4068-450: The 1880s. The Nasmyth, Gaskell and Company's Bridgewater Foundry , which began operation in 1836, was one of the earliest factories to use modern materials handling such as cranes and rail tracks through the buildings for handling heavy items. Large scale electrification of factories began around 1900 after the development of the AC motor which was able to run at constant speed depending on
4181-431: The 1890s after the introduction of the practical DC motor and the AC motor , was fastest between 1900 and 1930. This was aided by the establishment of electric utilities with central stations and the lowering of electricity prices from 1914 to 1917. Electric motors allowed more flexibility in manufacturing and required less maintenance than line shafts and belts. Many factories witnessed a 30% increase in output owing to
4294-536: The 8th century. Papermaking technology was spread to Europe by the Umayyad conquest of Hispania . A paper mill was established in Sicily in the 12th century. In Europe the fiber to make pulp for making paper was obtained from linen and cotton rags. Lynn Townsend White Jr. credited the spinning wheel with increasing the supply of rags, which led to cheap paper, which was a factor in the development of printing. Due to
4407-638: The CEO of General Electric , called for the United States to increase its manufacturing base employment to 20% of the workforce, commenting that the U.S. has outsourced too much in some areas and can no longer rely on the financial sector and consumer spending to drive demand. Further, while U.S. manufacturing performs well compared to the rest of the U.S. economy, research shows that it performs poorly compared to manufacturing in other high-wage countries. A total of 3.2 million – one in six U.S. manufacturing jobs – have disappeared between 2000 and 2007. In
4520-824: The Color Index system, which is commercially significant. Besides the three main categories of ingredients (binder, diluent, pigment), paint can have a wide variety of miscellaneous additives, which are usually added in small amounts, yet provide a significant effect on the product. Some examples include additives to modify surface tension , improve flow properties, improve the finished appearance, increase wet edge, improve pigment stability, impart antifreeze properties, control foaming, control skinning, create acrylic pouring cells, etc. Other types of additives include catalysts , thickeners, stabilizers, emulsifiers , texturizers, adhesion promoters, UV stabilizers, flatteners (de-glossing agents), biocides to fight bacterial growth and
4633-443: The Egyptian pharaoh, with slave employment and no differentiation of skills within the slave group comparable to modern definitions as division of labour . According to translations of Demosthenes and Herodotus, Naucratis was a, or the only, factory in the entirety of ancient Egypt . A source of 1983 (Hopkins), states the largest factory production in ancient times was of 120 slaves within fourth century BC Athens. An article within
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4746-505: The English word may have been independently formed from the earlier English manufacture ("made by human hands") and fracture . Its earliest usage in the English language was recorded in the mid-16th century to refer to the making of products by hand. Human ancestors manufactured objects using stone and other tools long before the emergence of Homo sapiens about 200,000 years ago. The earliest methods of stone tool making, known as
4859-559: The Industrial Revolution in terms of employment, value of output and capital invested. The textile industry was also the first to use modern production methods. Rapid industrialization first began in Britain, starting with mechanized spinning in the 1780s, with high rates of growth in steam power and iron production occurring after 1800. Mechanized textile production spread from Great Britain to continental Europe and
4972-546: The Islamic world at the time. The Venice Arsenal also provides one of the first examples of a factory in the modern sense of the word. Founded in 1104 in Venice , Republic of Venice , several hundred years before the Industrial Revolution , it mass-produced ships on assembly lines using manufactured parts . The Venice Arsenal apparently produced nearly one ship every day and, at its height, employed 16,000 people. One of
5085-621: The Mediterranean basin. Early construction techniques used by the Ancient Egyptians made use of bricks composed mainly of clay, sand, silt, and other minerals. The Middle Ages witnessed new inventions, innovations in the ways of managing traditional means of production, and economic growth. Papermaking , a 2nd-century Chinese technology, was carried to the Middle East when a group of Chinese papermakers were captured in
5198-471: The New York Times article dated 13 October 2011 states: "In African Cave, Signs of an Ancient Paint Factory" – (John Noble Wilford) ... discovered at Blombos Cave , a cave on the south coast of South Africa where 100,000-year-old tools and ingredients were found with which early modern humans mixed an ochre -based paint . Although The Cambridge Online Dictionary definition of factory states:
5311-448: The UK and Latex in the United States is a water-borne dispersion of sub-micrometer polymer particles. These terms in their respective countries cover all paints that use synthetic polymers such as acrylic, vinyl acrylic ( PVA ), styrene acrylic, etc. as binders. The term "latex" in the context of paint in the United States simply means an aqueous dispersion; latex rubber from the rubber tree
5424-590: The UK, EEF the manufacturers organisation has led calls for the UK economy to be rebalanced to rely less on financial services and has actively promoted the manufacturing agenda. According to the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), China is the top manufacturer worldwide by 2023 output, producing 28.7% of the total global manufacturing output, followed by the United States of America , Germany , Japan , and India . UNIDO also publishes
5537-767: The United States accounted for 10.70% of the total national output, employing 8.41% of the workforce. The total value of manufacturing output reached $ 2.5 trillion. In 2023, Germany's manufacturing output reached $ 844.93 billion, marking a 12.25% increase from 2022. The sector employed approximately 5.5 million people, accounting for around 20.8% of the workforce. These are the top 50 countries by total value of manufacturing output in U.S. dollars for its noted year according to World Bank : Paint Primitive forms of paint were used tens of thousands of years ago in cave paintings . Clean-up solvents are also different for water-based paint than oil-based paint. Water-based paints and oil-based paints will cure differently based on
5650-527: The United States in the early 19th century, with important centres of textiles, iron and coal emerging in Belgium and the United States and later textiles in France. An economic recession occurred from the late 1830s to the early 1840s when the adoption of the Industrial Revolution's early innovations, such as mechanized spinning and weaving, slowed down and their markets matured. Innovations developed late in
5763-399: The area. The factory system was a new way of organizing workforce made necessary by the development of machines which were too large to house in a worker's cottage. Working hours were as long as they had been for the farmer, that is, from dawn to dusk, six days per week. Overall, this practice essentially reduced skilled and unskilled workers to replaceable commodities. Arkwright's factory was
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#17327661701955876-445: The benefits of a product that creates it. Hazardous materials may expose workers to health risks. These costs are now well known and there is effort to address them by improving efficiency , reducing waste, using industrial symbiosis , and eliminating harmful chemicals. The negative costs of manufacturing can also be addressed legally. Developed countries regulate manufacturing activity with labor laws and environmental laws. Across
5989-402: The binder is left on the coated surface. Thus, an important quantity in coatings formulation is the "vehicle solids", sometimes called the "resin solids" of the formula. This is the proportion of the wet coating weight that is binder, i.e., the polymer backbone of the film that will remain after drying or curing is complete. The volume of paint after it has dried, therefore only leaving the solids,
6102-520: The casting of cannon, the blast furnace came into widespread use in France in the mid 15th century. The blast furnace had been used in China since the 4th century BC. The stocking frame , which was invented in 1598, increased a knitter's number of knots per minute from 100 to 1000. The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in Europe and the United States from 1760 to
6215-568: The concept of "focus", with an implication that a business cannot perform at the highest level along all five dimensions and must therefore select one or two competitive priorities. This view led to the theory of "trade offs" in manufacturing strategy. Similarly, Elizabeth Haas wrote in 1987 about the delivery of value in manufacturing for customers in terms of "lower prices, greater service responsiveness or higher quality". The theory of "trade offs" has subsequently being debated and questioned, but Skinner wrote in 1992 that at that time "enthusiasm for
6328-451: The concepts of 'manufacturing strategy' [had] been higher", noting that in academic papers , executive courses and case studies , levels of interest were "bursting out all over". Manufacturing writer Terry Hill has commented that manufacturing is often seen as a less "strategic" business activity than functions such as marketing and finance , and that manufacturing managers have "come late" to business strategy-making discussions, where, as
6441-408: The contemporary economic situation incomparable to modern or even pre-modern developments of industry. In ancient times, the earliest production limited to the household, developed into a separate endeavor independent to the place of inhabitation with production at that time only beginning to be characteristic of industry, termed as "unfree shop industry", a situation caused especially under the reign of
6554-723: The country with many premises being requisitioned by the British Government. Connected to the Spitfire was production of its equally important Rolls-Royce Merlin engine, Rolls-Royce 's main aero engine facility was located at Derby , the need for increased output was met by building new factories in Crewe and Glasgow and using a purpose-built factory of Ford of Britain in Trafford Park Manchester . Industry (manufacturing) Manufacturing
6667-425: The difficulty in acquiring and working the materials meant that they were rarely used (and indeed, the slow drying was seen as a disadvantage ). The paint was made with the yolk of eggs , and therefore, the substance would harden and adhere to the surface it was applied to. The pigment was made from plants, sand, and different soils. Most paints use either oil or water as a base (the diluent , solvent, or vehicle for
6780-540: The diluent, including aliphatics , aromatics , alcohols , ketones and white spirit . Specific examples are organic solvents such as petroleum distillate , esters , glycol ethers, and the like. Sometimes volatile low-molecular weight synthetic resins also serve as diluents. Pigments are solid particles or flakes incorporated in the paint, usually to contribute color to the paint film. Pigments impart color by selective absorption of certain wavelengths of light and/or by scattering or reflecting light. The particle size of
6893-534: The earliest factories was John Lombe 's water-powered silk mill at Derby , operational by 1721. By 1746, an integrated brass mill was working at Warmley near Bristol . Raw material went in at one end, was smelted into brass and was turned into pans, pins, wire, and other goods. Housing was provided for workers on site. Josiah Wedgwood in Staffordshire and Matthew Boulton at his Soho Manufactory were other prominent early industrialists, who employed
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#17327661701957006-434: The earth or plant sources and include colorants such as metal oxides or carbon black, or various clays , calcium carbonate , mica , silicas , and talcs . Synthetics include a host of colorants created in the lab as well as engineered molecules, calcined clays, blanc fixe , precipitated calcium carbonate, and synthetic pyrogenic silicas. The pigments and dyes that are used as colorants are classified by chemical type using
7119-416: The elements, still possess their brilliant color, as vivid as when they were painted about 2,000 years ago. The Egyptians mixed their colors with a gummy substance and applied them separately from each other without any blending or mixture. They appear to have used six colors: white, black, blue, red, yellow, and green. They first covered the area entirely with white, then traced the design in black, leaving out
7232-564: The factory concept in the early 20th century, with the innovation of the mass production . Highly specialized laborers situated alongside a series of rolling ramps would build up a product such as (in Ford's case) an automobile . This concept dramatically decreased production costs for virtually all manufactured goods and brought about the age of consumerism . In the mid - to late 20th century, industrialized countries introduced next-generation factories with two improvements: Some speculation as to
7345-467: The factory system. The factory system began widespread use somewhat later when cotton spinning was mechanized. Richard Arkwright is the person credited with inventing the prototype of the modern factory. After he patented his water frame in 1769, he established Cromford Mill , in Derbyshire , England, significantly expanding the village of Cromford to accommodate the migrant workers new to
7458-426: The first successful cotton spinning factory in the world; it showed unequivocally the way ahead for industry and was widely copied. Between 1770 and 1850 mechanized factories supplanted traditional artisan shops as the predominant form of manufacturing institution, because the larger-scale factories enjoyed a significant technological and supervision advantage over the small artisan shops. The earliest factories (using
7571-458: The focus of labour, in general, shifted to central-city office towers or to semi-rural campus-style establishments, and many factories stood deserted in local rust belts . The next blow to the traditional factories came from globalization . Manufacturing processes (or their logical successors, assembly plants) in the late 20th century re-focussed in many instances on Special Economic Zones in developing countries or on maquiladoras just across
7684-402: The form of choppers or scrapers . These tools greatly aided the early humans in their hunter-gatherer lifestyle to form other tools out of softer materials such as bone and wood. The Middle Paleolithic , approximately 300,000 years ago, saw the introduction of the prepared-core technique , where multiple blades could be rapidly formed from a single core stone. Pressure flaking , in which
7797-427: The form of a kind of "laboratory factories", with management models that allow "producing with quality while experimenting to do it better tomorrow". Before the advent of mass transportation , factories' needs for ever-greater concentrations of labourers meant that they typically grew up in an urban setting or fostered their own urbanization . Industrial slums developed, and reinforced their own development through
7910-427: The foundation of Rome . After the lapse of so many centuries, he expressed great surprise and admiration at their freshness. In the 13th century, oil was used to detail tempera paintings. In the 14th century, Cennino Cennini described a painting technique utilizing tempera painting covered by light layers of oil. The slow-drying properties of organic oils were commonly known to early European painters. However,
8023-489: The functional pigments. These are typically used to build film thickness and/or reduce the cost of the paint, or they can impart toughness and texture to the film. Fillers are usually cheap and inert materials, such as diatomaceous earth , talc , lime , barytes , clay, etc. Floor paints that must resist abrasion may contain fine quartz sand as a filler. Sometimes, a single pigment can serve both decorative and functional purposes. For example some decorative pigments protect
8136-457: The future of the factory includes scenarios with rapid prototyping , nanotechnology , and orbital zero- gravity facilities. There is some scepticism about the development of the factories of the future if the robotic industry is not matched by a higher technological level of the people who operate it. According to some authors, the four basic pillars of the factories of the future are strategy, technology, people and habitability, which would take
8249-481: The globe, manufacturers can be subject to regulations and pollution taxes to offset the environmental costs of manufacturing activities . Labor unions and craft guilds have played a historic role in the negotiation of worker rights and wages. Environment laws and labor protections that are available in developed nations may not be available in the third world . Tort law and product liability impose additional costs on manufacturing. These are significant dynamics in
8362-613: The growth of the ancient civilizations, many ancient technologies resulted from advances in manufacturing. Several of the six classic simple machines were invented in Mesopotamia. Mesopotamians have been credited with the invention of the wheel. The wheel and axle mechanism first appeared with the potter's wheel , invented in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) during the 5th millennium BC. Egyptian paper made from papyrus , as well as pottery , were mass-produced and exported throughout
8475-402: The heating of the substrate after electrostatic application of the dry powder. So-called "catalyzed" lacquers" or "crosslinking latex" coatings are designed to form films by a combination of methods: classic drying plus a curing reaction that benefits from the catalyst. There are paints called plastisols/organosols, which are made by blending PVC granules with a plasticiser. These are stoved and
8588-602: The increasing shift to electric motors. Electrification enabled modern mass production, and the biggest impact of early mass production was in the manufacturing of everyday items, such as at the Ball Brothers Glass Manufacturing Company , which electrified its mason jar plant in Muncie, Indiana , U.S. around 1900. The new automated process used glass blowing machines to replace 210 craftsman glass blowers and helpers. A small electric truck
8701-407: The industry in the United States and other countries. According to a "traditional" view of manufacturing strategy, there are five key dimensions along which the performance of manufacturing can be assessed: cost, quality , dependability , flexibility and innovation . In regard to manufacturing performance, Wickham Skinner , who has been called "the father of manufacturing strategy ", adopted
8814-509: The interactions between factories, as when one factory's output or waste-product became the raw materials of another factory (preferably nearby). Canals and railways grew as factories spread, each clustering around sources of cheap energy, available materials and/or mass markets. The exception proved the rule: even greenfield factory sites such as Bournville , founded in a rural setting, developed their own housing and profited from convenient communications systems. Regulation curbed some of
8927-666: The introduction of machinery during the Industrial Revolution , when the capital and space requirements became too great for cottage industry or workshops. Early factories that contained small amounts of machinery, such as one or two spinning mules , and fewer than a dozen workers have been called "glorified workshops". Most modern factories have large warehouses or warehouse-like facilities that contain heavy equipment used for assembly line production. Large factories tend to be located with access to multiple modes of transportation, some having rail , highway and water loading and unloading facilities. In some countries like Australia, it
9040-405: The large-scale manufacture of machine tools and the use of increasingly advanced machinery in steam-powered factories. Building on improvements in vacuum pumps and materials research, incandescent light bulbs became practical for general use in the late 1870s. This invention had a profound effect on the workplace because factories could now have second and third shift workers. Shoe production
9153-408: The lights of the ground color. They used minium for red, generally of a dark tinge. The oldest known oil paintings are Buddhist murals created c. 650 AD . The works are located in cave-like rooms carved from the cliffs of Afghanistan's Bamiyan Valley , "using walnut and poppy seed oils." Pliny mentions some painted ceilings in his day in the town of Ardea , which had been made before
9266-648: The like. Additives normally do not significantly alter the percentages of individual components in a formulation. Various technologies exist for making paints that change color. Thermochromic ink and coatings contain materials that change conformation when heat is applied or removed, and so they change color. Liquid crystals have been used in such paints, such as in the thermometer strips and tapes used in aquaria and novelty/promotional thermal cups and straws. Photochromic materials are used to make eyeglasses and other products. Similar to thermochromic molecules, photochromic molecules change conformation when light energy
9379-727: The market towards end customers . This relative cost reduction towards the market, is how manufacturing firms secure their profit margins . Manufacturing has unique health and safety challenges and has been recognized by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) as a priority industry sector in the National Occupational Research Agenda (NORA) to identify and provide intervention strategies regarding occupational health and safety issues. Surveys and analyses of trends and issues in manufacturing and investment around
9492-419: The market with the development of acrylic and other latex paints. Milk paints (also called casein ), where the medium is derived from the natural emulsion that is milk , were common in the 19th century and are still used. Used by the earliest western artists, Egg tempera (where the medium is an emulsion of raw egg yolk mixed with oil) remains in use as well, as are encaustic wax -based paints. Gouache
9605-413: The mechanisms for film formation. Thermoplastic mechanisms include drying and coalescence. Drying refers to simply evaporating the solvent or thinner to leave a coherent film behind. Coalescence refers to a mechanism that involves drying followed by actual interpenetration and fusion of formerly discrete particles. Thermoplastic film-forming mechanisms are sometimes described as "thermoplastic cure," but that
9718-463: The mix coalesces. The main purposes of the diluent are to dissolve the polymer and adjust the viscosity of the paint. It is volatile and does not become part of the paint film. It also controls flow and application properties, and in some cases can affect the stability of the paint while in liquid state. Its main function is as the carrier for the non-volatile components. To spread heavier oils (for example, linseed) as in oil-based interior house paint,
9831-420: The monomers and oligomers used in the coating have relatively very low molecular weight, and are therefore low enough in viscosity to enable good fluid flow without the need for additional thinner. If solvent is present in significant amounts, generally it is mostly evaporated first and then crosslinking is initiated by ultraviolet light. Similarly, powder coatings contain no solvent. Flow and cure are produced by
9944-417: The nanoparticle sizes rather than picking/mixing minerals to do so. These paints weighed a tiny fraction of the weight of conventional paints, a particular advantage in air and road vehicles. They reflect heat from sunlight and do not break down outdoors. Preliminary experiments suggest it can reduce temperatures by 20 to 30 degrees Fahrenheit vs conventional paint. Its constituents are also less toxic. Making
10057-463: The national boundaries of industrialized states. Further re-location to the least industrialized nations appears possible as the benefits of out-sourcing and the lessons of flexible location apply in the future. Much of management theory developed in response to the need to control factory processes. Assumptions on the hierarchies of unskilled, semi-skilled and skilled laborers and their supervisors and managers still linger on; however an example of
10170-428: The number of poles and the current electrical frequency. At first larger motors were added to line shafts , but as soon as small horsepower motors became widely available, factories switched to unit drive. Eliminating line shafts freed factories of layout constraints and allowed factory layout to be more efficient. Electrification enabled sequential automation using relay logic . Henry Ford further revolutionized
10283-423: The ongoing process, occurring over the last few decades, of manufacture-based industries relocating operations to "developing-world" economies where the costs of production are significantly lower than in "developed-world" economies. From a financial perspective, the goal of the manufacturing industry is mainly to achieve cost benefits per unit produced, which in turn leads to cost reductions in product prices for
10396-695: The outside ambient temperature of the object being painted (such as a house). Usually, the object being painted must be over 10 °C (50 °F), although some manufacturers of external paints/primers claim they can be applied when temperatures are as low as 2 °C (35 °F). Paint was used in some of the earliest known human artworks. Some cave paintings drawn with red or yellow ochre , hematite , manganese oxide , and charcoal may have been made by early Homo sapiens as long as 40,000 years ago. Paint may be even older. In 2003 and 2004, South African archeologists reported finds in Blombos Cave of
10509-430: The paint starts with a thin double-sided mirror. The researchers deposited metallic nanoparticles on both sides of the sheet. Large sheets were ground to produce small flakes. The vehicle is composed of binder; if it is necessary to thin it with a diluent like solvent or water, it is a combination of binder and diluent. In this case, once the paint has dried or cured very nearly all of the diluent has evaporated and only
10622-408: The paint to remain susceptible to softening and, over time, degradation by water. The general term of latex paint is usually used in the United States, while the term emulsion paint is used for the same products in the UK, and the term latex paint is not used at all. Paints that cure by polymerization are generally one- or two-package coatings that polymerize by way of a chemical reaction and cure into
10735-476: The paramagnetic particles change spacing, modifying their color and reflective properties. The electromagnetic field would be formed using the conductive metal of the car body. Electrochromic paints can be applied to plastic substrates as well, using a different coating chemistry. The technology involves using special dyes that change conformation when an electric current is applied across the film itself. This new technology has been used to achieve glare protection at
10848-627: The period, such as the increasing adoption of locomotives, steamboats and steamships, hot blast iron smelting and new technologies, such as the electrical telegraph , were widely introduced in the 1840s and 1850s, were not powerful enough to drive high rates of growth. Rapid economic growth began to occur after 1870, springing from a new group of innovations in what has been called the Second Industrial Revolution . These innovations included new steel making processes , mass-production , assembly lines , electrical grid systems,
10961-536: The pigment and oil mixture would have been ground into a paste with a mortar and pestle. The painters did the process by hand, which exposed them to lead poisoning due to the white-lead powder. In 1718, Marshall Smith invented a "Machine or Engine for the Grinding of Colors" in England. It is not known precisely how it operated, but it was a device that dramatically increased the efficiency of pigment grinding. Soon,
11074-529: The pigment is critical to the light-scattering mechanism. The size of such particles can be measured with a Hegman gauge . Dyes, on the other hand, are dissolve in the paint and impart color only by the selective absorption mechanism. Paints can be formulated with only pigments, only dyes, both, or neither. Pigments can also be used to give the paint special physical or optical properties, as opposed to imparting color, in which case they are called functional pigments. Fillers or extenders are an important class of
11187-471: The pigment). The Flemish-trained or influenced Antonello da Messina , who Vasari wrongly credited with the introduction of oil paint to Italy, does seem to have improved the formula by adding litharge , or lead (II) oxide. A still extant example of 17th-century house oil painting is Ham House in Surrey , England , where a primer was used along with several undercoats and an elaborate decorative overcoat;
11300-527: The production flow and some had special carriages for rolling heavy items into machining positions. Production of the Ford Model T used 32,000 machine tools. Lean manufacturing , also known as just-in-time manufacturing, was developed in Japan in the 1930s. It is a production method aimed primarily at reducing times within the production system as well as response times from suppliers and to customers. It
11413-455: The quality will differ. More inexpensive brands will often crack or fade over time if they are left on a poster for an extended time. Paint can be applied as a solid, a gas, a gaseous suspension ( aerosol ) or a liquid. Techniques vary depending on the practical or artistic results desired. As a solid (usually used in industrial and automotive applications), the paint is applied as a very fine powder, then baked at high temperature. This melts
11526-640: The solid binder dissolved in a solvent are known as lacquers . A solid film forms when the solvent evaporates. Because no chemical crosslinking is involved, the film can re-dissolve in solvent; lacquers are unsuitable for applications where chemical resistance is important. Classic nitrocellulose lacquers fall into this category, as do non-grain raising stains composed of dyes dissolved in solvent. Performance varies by formulation, but lacquers generally tend to have better UV resistance and lower corrosion resistance than comparable systems that cure by polymerization or coalescence. The paint type known as Emulsion in
11639-442: The substrate from the harmful effects of ultraviolet light by making the paint opaque to these wavelengths, i.e. by selectively absorbing them. These hiding pigments include titanium dioxide , phthalo blue , red iron oxide , and many others. Some pigments are toxic, such as the lead pigments that are used in lead paint . Paint manufacturers began replacing white lead pigments with titanium white (titanium dioxide), before lead
11752-437: The then-well-known technique of chain or sequential production. Ford also bought or designed and built special purpose machine tools and fixtures such as multiple spindle drill presses that could drill every hole on one side of an engine block in one operation and a multiple head milling machine that could simultaneously machine 15 engine blocks held on a single fixture. All of these machine tools were arranged systematically in
11865-465: The third century BC, Philo of Byzantium describes a water-driven wheel in his technical treatises. Factories producing garum were common in the Roman Empire . The Barbegal aqueduct and mills are an industrial complex from the second century AD found in southern France. By the time of the fourth century AD, there was a water-milling installation with a capacity to grind 28 tons of grain per day,
11978-539: The tin without preparation. It was only when the stimulus of World War II created a shortage of linseed oil in the supply market that artificial resins, or alkyds, were invented. Cheap and easy to make, they held the color well and lasted for a long time. Through the 20th century, paints used pigments , typically suspended in a liquid. In the 21st century, "paints" that used structural color were created. Aluminum flakes dotted with smaller aluminum nanoparticles could be tuned to produce arbitrary colors by adjusting
12091-566: The touch of a button in passenger airplane windows. Color can also change depending on viewing angle, using iridescence , for example, in ChromaFlair . Since the time of the Renaissance , siccative (drying) oil paints, primarily linseed oil , have been the most commonly used kind of paints in fine art applications; oil paint is still common today. However, in the 20th century, new water-borne paints such acrylic paints , entered
12204-431: The world focus on such things as: In addition to general overviews, researchers have examined the features and factors affecting particular key aspects of manufacturing development. They have compared production and investment in a range of Western and non-Western countries and presented case studies of growth and performance in important individual industries and market-economic sectors. On June 26, 2009, Jeff Immelt ,
12317-468: The worst excesses of industrialization 's factory-based society, labourers of Factory Acts leading the way in Britain. Trams , automobiles and town planning encouraged the separate development of industrial suburbs and residential suburbs, with labourers commuting between them. Though factories dominated the Industrial Era, the growth in the service sector eventually began to dethrone them:
12430-743: Was banned in paint for residential use in 1978 by the US Consumer Product Safety Commission. The titanium dioxide used in most paints today is often coated with silica/alumina/zirconium for various reasons, such as better exterior durability, or better hiding performance (opacity) promoted by more optimal spacing within the paint film. Micaceous iron oxide (MIO) is another alternative to lead for protection of steel, giving more protection against water and light damage than most paints. When MIO pigments are ground into fine particles, most cleave into shiny layers, which reflect light, thus minimising UV degradation and protecting
12543-857: Was introduced in Australia in the 1950s by the British Motor Corporation (Australia) at its Victoria Park plant in Sydney, from where the idea later migrated to Toyota. News spread to western countries from Japan in 1977 in two English-language articles: one referred to the methodology as the "Ohno system", after Taiichi Ohno , who was instrumental in its development within Toyota. The other article, by Toyota authors in an international journal, provided additional details. Finally, those and other publicity were translated into implementations, beginning in 1980 and then quickly multiplying throughout
12656-426: Was mechanized during the mid 19th century. Mass production of sewing machines and agricultural machinery such as reapers occurred in the mid to late 19th century. The mass production of bicycles started in the 1880s. Steam-powered factories became widespread, although the conversion from water power to steam occurred in England earlier than in the U.S. Electrification of factories, which had begun gradually in
12769-483: Was now used to handle 150 dozen bottles at a time whereas previously used hand trucks could only carry 6 dozen bottles at a time. Electric mixers replaced men with shovels handling sand and other ingredients that were fed into the glass furnace. An electric overhead crane replaced 36 day laborers for moving heavy loads across the factory. Mass production was popularized in the late 1910s and 1920s by Henry Ford 's Ford Motor Company , which introduced electric motors to
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