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126-412: Classical Latin is the form of Literary Latin recognized as a literary standard by writers of the late Roman Republic and early Roman Empire . It formed parallel to Vulgar Latin around 75 BC out of Old Latin , and developed by the 3rd century AD into Late Latin . In some later periods, the former was regarded as good or proper Latin; the latter as debased, degenerate, or corrupted. The word Latin

252-477: A certain sense, therefore, Latin was studied as a dead language, while it was still a living." Also problematic in Teuffel's scheme is its appropriateness to the concept of classical Latin. Cruttwell addresses the issue by altering the concept of the classical. The "best" Latin is defined as "golden" Latin, the second of the three periods. The other two periods (considered "classical") are left hanging. By assigning

378-591: A close advisor of the Emperor, which probably ensured his survival after the assassination of Galba in 69. After Galba's death, and during the chaotic Year of the Four Emperors which followed, Quintilian opened a public school of rhetoric . Among his students were Pliny the Younger , and perhaps Tacitus . The Emperor Vespasian made him a consul . The emperor "in general was not especially interested in

504-433: A detailed analysis of style, whereas Teuffel was more concerned with history. Like Teuffel, Cruttwell encountered issues while attempting to condense the voluminous details of time periods in an effort to capture the meaning of phases found in their various writing styles. Like Teuffel, he has trouble finding a name for the first of the three periods (the current Old Latin phase), calling it "from Livius to Sulla ." He says

630-515: A dictionary, and several local newspapers. Persian or New Persian has been used continually as the literary language of major areas in Western Asia , the Caucasus , Central Asia and South Asia . The language written today remains essentially the same as that used by Ferdowsi despite variant colloquial dialects and forms. For many centuries, people belonging to the educated classes from

756-490: A diglossic continuum. The formal style is generally used in formal writing and speech. It is, for example, the language of textbooks, of much of Kannada literature and of public speaking and debate. Novels, even popular ones, will use the literary style for all description and narration and use the colloquial form only for dialogue, if they use it at all. In recent times, however, the modern colloquial form has been making inroads into areas that have traditionally been considered

882-587: A distinction in the English language between an elevated literary language (written) and a colloquial or vernacular language (spoken, but sometimes also represented in writing). After the Norman conquest of England , for instance, Latin and French displaced English as the official and literary languages, and standardized literary English did not emerge until the end of the Middle Ages . At this time and into

1008-475: A filthy dungeon. The influential scholar Leonardo Bruni , considered the first modern historian, greeted the news by writing to his friend Poggio: It will be your glory to restore to the present age, by your labour and diligence, the writings of excellent authors, which have hitherto escaped the researches of the learned... Oh! what a valuable acquisition! What an unexpected pleasure! Shall I then behold Quintilian whole and entire, who, even in his imperfect state,

1134-470: A form of Greek that was considered model. Before then, the term classis , in addition to being a naval fleet, was a social class in one of the diachronic divisions of Roman society in accordance with property ownership under the Roman constitution. The word is a transliteration of Greek κλῆσις (clēsis, or "calling") used to rank army draftees by property from first to fifth class. Classicus refers to those in

1260-774: A literary language in countries that were formerly part of the British Empire , for instance in India up to the present day, Malaysia in the early 20th century and Nigeria , where English remains the official language. Written in Early Modern English , the King James Bible and works by William Shakespeare from the 17th century are defined as prototype mediums of literary English and are taught in advanced English classes. Furthermore, many literary words that are used today are found in abundance in

1386-408: A literary variant, literary Finnish, and a spoken variant, spoken Finnish . Both are considered a form of non-dialectal standard language, and are used throughout the country. Literary Finnish is a consciously created fusion of dialects for use as a literary language, which is rarely spoken at all, being confined to writing and official speeches. The Georgian language has a literary liturgical form,

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1512-468: A modern colloquial form. These styles shade into each other, forming a diglossic continuum. The modern literary style is generally used in formal writing and speech. It is, for example, the language of textbooks, of much of Tamil literature and of public speaking and debate. Novels, even popular ones, will use the literary style for all description and narration and use the colloquial form only for dialogue, if they use it at all. In recent times, however,

1638-407: A phase of styles. The ancient authors themselves first defined style by recognizing different kinds of sermo , or "speech". By valuing Classical Latin as "first class", it was better to write with Latinitas selected by authors who were attuned to literary and upper-class languages of the city as a standardized style. All sermo that differed from it was a different style. Thus, in rhetoric, Cicero

1764-503: A practical model in the art he was expounding, neither Aristotle, nor any less austere among the Greek rhetoricians, has any pretensions to measure himself with Quintilian. In reality, for a triumph over the difficulties of the subject, and as a lesson on the possibility of imparting grace to the treatment of scholastic topics, naturally as intractable as that of Grammar or Prosody, there is no such chef-d'œuvre to this hour in any literature, as

1890-533: A slight alteration in approach, making it clear that his terms applied to Latin and not just to the period. He also changed his dating scheme from AUC to modern BC/AD. Though he introduces das silberne Zeitalter der römischen Literatur , (The Silver Age of Roman Literature) from the death of Augustus to the death of Trajan (14–117 AD), he also mentions parts of a work by Seneca the Elder , a wenig Einfluss der silbernen Latinität (a slight influence of silver Latin). It

2016-500: A speaker switches back and forth between the two varieties of the language, sometimes even within the same sentence. In instances in which highly educated Arabic-speakers of different nationalities engage in conversation but find their dialects mutually unintelligible (e.g. a Moroccan speaking with a Kuwaiti), they are able to code switch into MSA for the sake of communication. The Aramaic language has been diglossic for much of its history, with many different literary standards serving as

2142-470: A variety of dialects (including the Żejtun dialect , Qormi dialect and Gozitan amongst others) that co-exist alongside Standard Maltese. Literary Maltese, unlike Standard Maltese, features a preponderance of Semitic vocabulary and grammatical patterns; however, this traditional separation between Semitic and Romance influences in Maltese literature (especially Maltese poetry and Catholic liturgy on

2268-413: A well-educated man, sent him to Rome to study rhetoric early in the reign of Nero . While there, he cultivated a relationship with Domitius Afer , who died in 59. "It had always been the custom … for young men with ambitions in public life to fix upon some older model of their ambition … and regard him as a mentor". Quintilian evidently adopted Afer as his model and listened to him speak and plead cases in

2394-729: Is Cruttwell's Augustan Epoch (42 BC – 14 AD). The literary histories list includes all authors from Canonical to the Ciceronian Age—even those whose works are fragmented or missing altogether. With the exception of a few major writers, such as Cicero, Caesar, Virgil and Catullus, ancient accounts of Republican literature praise jurists and orators whose writings, and analyses of various styles of language cannot be verified because there are no surviving records. The reputations of Aquilius Gallus, Quintus Hortensius Hortalus , Lucius Licinius Lucullus , and many others who gained notoriety without readable works, are presumed by their association within

2520-548: Is also seen in Luther's contemporary Erasmus of Rotterdam. He above all shaped the implicit depth of humanism and had studied at Steyn. It has been argued by a musicologist, Ursula Kirkendale, that the composition of Johann Sebastian Bach 's Das musikalische Opfer ( The Musical Offering , BWV 1079), was closely connected with the Institutio Oratoria . Among Bach's duties during his tenure at Leipzig (1723–1750)

2646-496: Is believed to have died sometime around 100 AD, not having long survived Domitian, who was assassinated in 96. The only extant work of Quintilian is a twelve-volume textbook on rhetoric entitled Institutio Oratoria (generally referred to in English as the Institutes of Oratory ), written around 95 AD. This work deals not only with the theory and practice of rhetoric, but also with the foundational education and development of

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2772-442: Is clear that his mindset had shifted from Golden and Silver Ages to Golden and Silver Latin, also to include Latinitas , which at this point must be interpreted as Classical Latin. He may have been influenced in that regard by one of his sources E. Opitz, who in 1852 had published specimen lexilogiae argenteae latinitatis , which includes Silver Latinity. Though Teuffel's First Period was equivalent to Old Latin and his Second Period

2898-476: Is given to him. Quintilian believed that "his style is for the most part corrupt and extremely dangerous because it abounds in attractive faults". Seneca was regarded as doubly dangerous because his style was sometimes attractive. This reading of Seneca "has heavily coloured subsequent judgments of Seneca and his style". Quintilian also made an impression on Martial , the Latin poet. A short poem, written in 86 AD,

3024-402: Is his criticism of the orator Seneca the Younger . Quintilian was attempting to modify the prevailing imperial style of oratory with his book, and Seneca was the principal figure in that style's tradition. He was more recent than many of the authors mentioned by Quintilian, but his reputation within the post-classical style necessitated both his mention and the criticism or back-handed praise that

3150-472: Is not that of the golden age... Evidently, Teuffel received ideas about golden and silver Latin from an existing tradition and embedded them in a new system, transforming them as he thought best. In Cruttwell's introduction, the Golden Age is dated 80 BC – AD 14 (from Cicero to Ovid ), which corresponds to Teuffel's findings. Of the "Second Period", Cruttwell paraphrases Teuffel by saying it "represents

3276-433: Is now understood by default to mean "Classical Latin"; for example, modern Latin textbooks almost exclusively teach Classical Latin. Cicero and his contemporaries of the late republic referred to the Latin language, in contrast to other languages such as Greek, as lingua latina or sermo latinus . They distinguished the common vernacular , however, as Vulgar Latin ( sermo vulgaris and sermo vulgi ), in contrast to

3402-552: Is often mentioned by writers like Montaigne and Lessing ... but he made no major contribution to intellectual history, and by the nineteenth century he seemed to be... rather little read and rarely edited". However, in his celebrated Autobiography, John Stuart Mill (arguably the nineteenth-century's most influential English intellectual) spoke highly of Quintilian as a force in his early education. He wrote that Quintilian, while little-read in Mill's day due to "his obscure style and to

3528-451: Is some dispute over the real writer of these texts: "Some modern scholars believe that the declamations circulated in his name represent the lecture notes of a scholar either using Quintilian's system or actually trained by him". Institutio Oratoria (English: Institutes of Oratory ) is a twelve-volume textbook on the theory and practice of rhetoric by Roman rhetorician Quintilian. It was written around year 95 AD. The work deals also with

3654-601: Is that period in which the climax was reached in the perfection of form, and in most respects also in the methodical treatment of the subject-matters. It may be subdivided between the generations, in the first of which (the Ciceronian Age) prose culminated, while poetry was principally developed in the Augustan Age. The Ciceronian Age was dated 671–711 AUC (83–43 BC), ending just after the death of Marcus Tullius Cicero. The Augustan 711–67 AUC (43 BC – 14 AD) ends with

3780-578: Is the country's national language and one of two official languages, alongside English. Today, Filipino is considered the proper term for the language of the Philippines, especially by Filipino-speakers who are not of Tagalog origin, with many referring to the Filipino language as "Tagalog-based". The language is taught in schools throughout the country and is the official language of education and business. Native Tagalog-speakers meanwhile comprise one of

3906-586: Is the first known reference (possibly innovated during this time) to Classical Latin applied by authors, evidenced in the authentic language of their works. Imitating Greek grammarians, Romans such as Quintilian drew up lists termed indices or ordines modeled after the ones created by the Greeks, which were called pinakes . The Greek lists were considered classical, or recepti scriptores ("select writers"). Aulus Gellius includes authors like Plautus , who are considered writers of Old Latin and not strictly in

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4032-481: Is the only form of Arabic taught in schools at all stages . The sociolinguistic situation of Arabic in modern times provides a prime example of the linguistic phenomenon of diglossia —the use of two distinct varieties of the same language, usually in different social contexts. Educated Arabic speakers are usually able to communicate in MSA in formal situations. This diglossic situation facilitates code-switching in which

4158-526: Is to be distinguished by: until 75 BC Old Latin 75 BC – 200 AD Classical Latin 200–700 Late Latin 700–1500 Medieval Latin 1300–1500 Renaissance Latin 1300– present Neo-Latin 1900– present Contemporary Latin Literary language The understanding of the term differs from one linguistic tradition to another and is dependent on the terminological conventions adopted. For much of its history, there has been

4284-618: The Antonines ), and the 3rd through 6th centuries. Of the Silver Age proper, Teuffel points out that anything like freedom of speech had vanished with Tiberius : ...the continual apprehension in which men lived caused a restless versatility... Simple or natural composition was considered insipid; the aim of language was to be brilliant... Hence it was dressed up with abundant tinsel of epigrams, rhetorical figures and poetical terms... Mannerism supplanted style, and bombastic pathos took

4410-738: The Bosphorus to the Bay of Bengal would be expected to know some Persian. It was once the language of culture (especially of poetry), from the Balkans to the Deccan , functioning as a lingua franca . Until the late 18th century, Persian was the dominant literary language of Georgia 's elite. Persian was the second major vehicle after Arabic in transmitting Islamic culture and has a particularly prominent place in Sufism. Slavonic-Serbian ( slavenosrpski )

4536-761: The Classical period , it was the language of the Mai State , Tondo Dynasty (according to the Laguna Copperplate Inscription ) and southern Luzon . It was written using Baybayin , a syllabary which is a member of the Brahmic family, before the Spanish Romanised the alphabet beginning in the late 15th century. Tagalog was also the spoken language of the 1896 Philippine Revolution . The 1987 Constitution maintains that Filipino

4662-475: The Institutio Oratoria than Cicero: "For who can instruct with greater thoroughness, or more deeply stir the emotions? Who has ever possessed such a gift of charm?". Quintilian's definition of rhetoric shares many similarities with that of Cicero, one being the importance of the speaker's moral character. Like Cicero, Quintilian also believes that "history and philosophy can increase an orator's command of copia and style;" they differ in that Quintilian "features

4788-496: The Javanese language , alphabet characters derived from the alphabets used to write Sanskrit , no longer in ordinary use, are used in literary words as a mark of respect. Kannada exhibits a strong diglossia , like Tamil , also characterised by three styles: a classical literary style modelled on the ancient language, a modern literary and formal style, and a modern colloquial form. These styles shade into each other, forming

4914-773: The Mande languages of West Africa . It blends the principal elements of the partially mutually intelligible Manding languages . The movement promoting N'Ko literacy was instrumental in shaping the Maninka cultural identity in Guinea, and has also strengthened the Mande identity in other parts of West Africa. N'Ko publications include a translation of the Qur'an , a variety of textbooks on subjects such as physics and geography , poetic and philosophical works, descriptions of traditional medicine,

5040-905: The Meiji period , some authors started to use the colloquial form of the language in their literature. Following the government policy after the World War II , the standard form of contemporary Japanese language is used for most literature published since the 1950s. The standard language is based on the colloquial language in Tokyo area, and its literary stylistics in polite form differs little from its formal speech. Notable characteristics of literary language in contemporary Japanese would include more frequent use of Chinese origin words, less use of expressions against prescriptive grammar (such as " ら抜き言葉 "), and use of non-polite normal form (" -だ / -である ") stylistics that are rarely used in colloquial language. In

5166-523: The Old Georgian language , while the vernacular spoken varieties are the Georgian dialects and other related Kartvelian languages like Svan language , Mingrelian language , and Laz language . German differentiates between Hochdeutsch / Standarddeutsch ( Standard German ) and Umgangssprache (everyday/vernacular language). Amongst the differences is the regular use of the genitive case or

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5292-661: The Präteritum is considered somewhat declamatory. The German Konjunktiv I / II ("er habe" / "er hätte") is also used more regularly in written form being replaced by the conditional ("er würde geben") in spoken language, although in some southern German dialects the Konjunktiv II is used more often. Generally there is a continuum between more dialectical varieties to more standard varieties in German, while colloquial German nonetheless tends to increase analytic elements at

5418-462: The Renaissance , the practice of aureation (the introduction of terms from classical languages , often through poetry) was an important part of the reclamation of status for the English language, and many historically aureate terms are now part of general common usage . Modern English no longer has quite the same distinction between literary and colloquial registers. English has been used as

5544-605: The Vulgate Bible , whose theories on education are clearly influenced by Quintilian's. The Middle Ages saw a decline in knowledge of his work, since existing manuscripts of Institutio Oratoria were fragmented, but the Italian humanists revived interest in the work after the discovery by Poggio Bracciolini in 1416 of a forgotten, complete manuscript in the Abbey of Saint Gall , which he found "buried in rubbish and dust" in

5670-483: The classici scriptores declined in the medieval period as the best form of the language yielded to medieval Latin , inferior to classical standards. The Renaissance saw a revival in Roman culture, and with it, the return of Classic ("the best") Latin. Thomas Sébillet 's Art Poétique (1548), "les bons et classiques poètes françois", refers to Jean de Meun and Alain Chartier , who the first modern application of

5796-512: The orator , providing advice that ran from the cradle to the grave. An earlier text, De Causis Corruptae Eloquentiae ("On the Causes of Corrupted Eloquence") has been lost, but is believed to have been "a preliminary exposition of some of the views later set forth in [ Institutio Oratoria ]". In addition, there are two sets of declamations, Declamationes Maiores and Declamationes Minores , which have been attributed to Quintilian. However, there

5922-465: The prima classis ("first class"), such as the authors of polished works of Latinitas , or sermo urbanus . It contains nuances of the certified and the authentic, or testis classicus ("reliable witness"). It was under this construct that Marcus Cornelius Fronto (an African - Roman lawyer and language teacher) used scriptores classici ("first-class" or "reliable authors") in the second century AD. Their works were viewed as models of good Latin. This

6048-570: The spoken language . At the same time, Literary Chinese was based largely upon the Classical Chinese, and writers frequently borrowed from the classical language into their literary writings. Literary Chinese therefore shows a great deal of similarity to Classical Chinese, even though the similarity decreased over the centuries. Starting from early 20th century, written vernacular Chinese ( simplified Chinese : 白话文 ; traditional Chinese : 白話文 ; pinyin : báihuàwén ) became

6174-742: The "high" liturgical languages, including Syriac language , Jewish Palestinian Aramaic , Jewish Babylonian Aramaic , Samaritan Aramaic language and Mandaic language , while the vernacular Neo-Aramaic languages serve as the vernacular language spoken by the common people like Northeastern Neo-Aramaic ( Assyrian Neo-Aramaic , Bohtan Neo-Aramaic , Chaldean Neo-Aramaic , Hértevin language , Koy Sanjaq Syriac language , Senaya language ), Western Neo-Aramaic , Northeastern Neo-Aramaic , Central Neo-Aramaic ( Mlahsô language , Turoyo language ), Neo-Mandaic , Hulaulá language , Lishana Deni , Lishanid Noshan , Lishán Didán , Betanure Jewish Neo-Aramaic , and Barzani Jewish Neo-Aramaic . The Armenian language

6300-684: The 3rd century AD, while Vulgar Latin was the common, spoken variety used across the Roman Empire . The Latin brought by Roman soldiers to Gaul , Iberia , or Dacia was not identical to the Latin of Cicero , and differed from it in vocabulary, syntax, and grammar. Some literary works with low-register language from the Classical Latin period give a glimpse into the world of early Vulgar Latin. The works of Plautus and Terence , being comedies with many characters who were slaves , preserve some early basilectal Latin features, as does

6426-531: The Classical Arabic of the Qur'an and early Islamic (7th to 9th centuries) literature ; and Modern Standard Arabic (MSA), the standard language in use today. The modern standard language is closely based on the Classical language, and most Arabs consider the two varieties to be two registers of the same language. Literary Arabic or classical Arabic is the official language of all Arab countries and

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6552-408: The English translation of A History of Roman Literature gained immediate success. In 1877, Charles Thomas Cruttwell produced a similar work in English. In his preface, Cruttwell notes "Teuffel's admirable history, without which many chapters in the present work could not have attained completeness." He also credits Wagner. Cruttwell adopts the time periods found in Teuffel's work, but he presents

6678-421: The Golden Age. A list of canonical authors of the period whose works survived in whole or in part is shown here: The Golden Age is divided by the assassination of Julius Caesar . In the wars that followed, a generation of Republican literary figures was lost. Cicero and his contemporaries were replaced by a new generation who spent their formative years under the old constructs, and forced to make their mark under

6804-602: The Imperial Period, and is divided into die Zeit der julischen Dynastie ( 14–68); die Zeit der flavischen Dynastie (69–96), and die Zeit des Nerva und Trajan (96–117). Subsequently, Teuffel goes over to a century scheme: 2nd, 3rd, etc., through 6th. His later editions (which came about towards the end of the 19th century) divide the Imperial Age into parts: 1st century (Silver Age), 2nd century (the Hadrian and

6930-542: The Institutions of Quintilian". In more recent times, Quintilian appears to have made another upward turn. He is frequently included in anthologies of literary criticism, and is an integral part of the history of education. He is believed to be the "earliest spokesman for a child-centered education", which is discussed above under his early childhood education theories. As well, he has something to offer students of speech, professional writing , and rhetoric, because of

7056-421: The Latin used in different periods deviated from "Classical" Latin, efforts were periodically made to relearn and reapply the models of the Classical period, for instance by Alcuin during the reign of Charlemagne , and later during the Renaissance , producing the highly classicising form of Latin now known as Neo-Latin . "Good Latin" in philology is known as "classical" Latin literature . The term refers to

7182-492: The Roman Empire . Once again, Cruttwell evidences some unease with his stock pronouncements: "The Natural History of Pliny shows how much remained to be done in fields of great interest." The idea of Pliny as a model is not consistent with any sort of decline. Moreover, Pliny did his best work under emperors who were as tolerant as Augustus had been. To include some of the best writings of the Silver Age, Cruttwell extended

7308-472: The Second Period in his major work, das goldene Zeitalter der römischen Literatur ( Golden Age of Roman Literature ), dated 671–767 AUC (83 BC – AD 14), according to his own recollection. The timeframe is marked by the dictatorship of Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix and the death of the emperor Augustus . Wagner's translation of Teuffel's writing is as follows: The golden age of the Roman literature

7434-430: The advance would be perceptible by us." In time, some of Cruttwell's ideas become established in Latin philology. While praising the application of rules to classical Latin (most intensely in the Golden Age, he says "In gaining accuracy, however, classical Latin suffered a grievous loss. It became cultivated as distinct from a natural language... Spontaneity, therefore, became impossible and soon invention also ceased... In

7560-399: The ancient definition, and some of the very best writing of any period in world history was deemed stilted, degenerate, unnatural language. The Silver Age furnishes the only two extant Latin novels: Apuleius's The Golden Ass and Petronius's Satyricon . Writers of the Silver Age include: Of the additional century granted by Cruttwell to Silver Latin, Teuffel says: "The second century

7686-471: The arts, but … was interested in education as a means of creating an intelligent and responsible ruling class". This subsidy enabled Quintilian to devote more time to the school. In addition, he appeared in the courts of law, arguing on behalf of clients. Of his personal life, little is known. In the Institutio Oratoria , he mentions a wife who died young, as well as two sons who predeceased him. Quintilian retired from teaching and pleading in 88 AD, during

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7812-491: The canonical relevance of literary works written in Latin in the late Roman Republic , and early to middle Roman Empire . "[T]hat is to say, that of belonging to an exclusive group of authors (or works) that were considered to be emblematic of a certain genre." The term classicus (masculine plural classici ) was devised by the Romans to translate Greek ἐγκριθέντες (encrithentes), and "select" which refers to authors who wrote in

7938-512: The character of the orator, as well as the art". In Book II, Quintilian sides with Plato 's assertion in the Phaedrus that the rhetorician must be just: "In the Phaedrus , Plato makes it even clearer that the complete attainment of this art is even impossible without the knowledge of justice, an opinion in which I heartily concur". Their views are further similar in their treatment of "(1)

8064-518: The dead to Quintilian, and for many he "provided the inspiration for a new humanistic philosophy of education". This enthusiasm for Quintilian spread with humanism itself, reaching northern Europe in the 15th and 16th centuries. Martin Luther , the German theologian and ecclesiastical reformer, "claimed that he preferred Quintilian to almost all authors, 'in that he educates and at the same time demonstrates eloquence, that is, he teaches in word and in deed most happily'". The influence of Quintilian's works

8190-421: The death of Augustus. The Ciceronian Age is further divided by the consulship of Cicero in 691 AUC (63 BC) into a first and second half. Authors are assigned to these periods by years of principal achievements. The Golden Age had already made an appearance in German philology, but in a less systematic way. In a translation of Bielfeld's Elements of universal erudition (1770): The Second Age of Latin began about

8316-404: The emperor did not seem to mind. The emperor was so impressed with Quintilian's devotion to education that he hired him to be a tutor for his family. Domitian was in the harshest period of his rule at that time and almost no one had the courage to speak any idea that was unlike his, but Quintilian did. He spoke as an orator in the tradition of Cicero, such as had not been seen since the beginning of

8442-446: The expense of synthetic elements . From the early nineteenth century until the mid-20th century, Katharevousa , a form of Greek , was used for literary purposes. In later years, Katharevousa was used only for official and formal purposes (such as politics, letters, official documents, and newscasting) while Dimotiki , 'demotic' or popular Greek, was the daily language. This created a diglossic situation until in 1976, Dimotiki

8568-443: The extinction of freedom... Hence arose a declamatory tone, which strove by frigid and almost hysterical exaggeration to make up for the healthy stimulus afforded by daily contact with affairs. The vein of artificial rhetoric, antithesis and epigram... owes its origin to this forced contentment with an uncongenial sphere. With the decay of freedom, taste sank... In Cruttwell's view (which had not been expressed by Teuffel), Silver Latin

8694-417: The foundational education and development of orators . In this work, Quintilian establishes that the perfect orator is first a good man, and after that he is a good speaker. He also believed that a speech should stay genuine to a message that is "just and honorable". This came to be known as his good man theory , embracing the message that if one cannot be genuinely good, then one cannot be a good speaker for

8820-422: The fundamental characteristics of a language. The latter provides unity, allowing it to be referred to by a single name. Thus Old Latin, Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin , etc., are not considered different languages, but are all referred to by the term, Latin . This is an ancient practice continued by moderns rather than a philological innovation of recent times. That Latin had case endings is a fundamental feature of

8946-440: The great detail with which he covers the rhetorical system. His discussions of tropes and figures also formed the foundation of contemporary works on the nature of figurative language, including the post-structuralist and formalist theories. For example, the works of Jacques Derrida on the failure of language to impart the truth of the objects it is meant to represent would not be possible without Quintilian's assumptions about

9072-680: The high register in Mongolia itself while in Inner Mongolia a standard Mongolian based on Chakhar Mongolian serves as the high register for all Mongols in China. The Buryat language, which is seen by some as part of the Mongolian language, has been turned into a standard literary form itself in Russia. N'Ko is a literary language devised by Solomana Kante in 1949 as a writing system for

9198-470: The higher register that they called latinitas , sometimes translated as "Latinity". Latinitas was also called sermo familiaris ("speech of the good families"), sermo urbanus ("speech of the city"), and in rare cases sermo nobilis ("noble speech"). Besides the noun Latinitas , it was referred to with the adverb latine ("in (good) Latin", literally "Latinly") or its comparative latinius ("in better Latin", literally "more Latinly"). Latinitas

9324-579: The highest excellence in prose and poetry." The Ciceronian Age (known today as the "Republican Period") is dated 80–42 BC, marked by the Battle of Philippi . Cruttwell omits the first half of Teuffel's Ciceronian, and starts the Golden Age at Cicero's consulship in 63 BC—an error perpetuated in Cruttwell's second edition. He likely meant 80 BC, as he includes Varro in Golden Latin. Teuffel's Augustan Age

9450-502: The inseparability, in more respects than one, of wisdom, goodness, and eloquence; and (2) the morally ideological nature of rhetoric. [...] For both, there are conceptual connections between rhetoric and justice which rule out the possibility of [an] amorally neutral conception of rhetoric. For both, rhetoric is 'speaking well,' and for both 'speaking well' means speaking justly". The influence of Quintilian's masterwork, Institutio Oratoria , can be felt in several areas. First of all, there

9576-482: The island) is changing. Standard Manchu was based on the language spoken by the Jianzhou Jurchens during Nurhaci's time, while other unwritten Manchu dialects such as that of Aigun and Sanjiazi were also spoken in addition to the related Xibe language . The Classical Mongolian language was the high register used for religious and official purposes, while the various Mongolian dialects served as

9702-457: The language "is marked by immaturity of art and language, by a vigorous but ill-disciplined imitation of Greek poetical models, and in prose by a dry sententiousness of style, gradually giving way to a clear and fluent strength..." These abstracts have little meaning to those not well-versed in Latin literature. In fact, Cruttwell admits "The ancients, indeed, saw a difference between Ennius , Pacuvius , and Accius , but it may be questioned whether

9828-511: The language. Whether a given form of speech prefers to use prepositions such as ad , ex , de, for "to", "from" and "of" rather than simple case endings is a matter of style. Latin has a large number of styles. Each and every author has a style, which typically allows his prose or poetry to be identified by experienced Latinists. Problems in comparative literature have risen out of group styles finding similarity by period, in which case one may speak of Old Latin, Silver Latin, Late Latin as styles or

9954-485: The largest linguistic and cultural groups of the Philippines, numbering an estimated 14 million. Notably, in Eastern European and Slavic linguistics, the term "literary language" has also been used as a synonym of " standard language ". Tamil exhibits a strong diglossia , characterised by three styles: a classical literary style modelled on the ancient language, a modern literary and formal style and

10080-476: The law courts. Afer has been characterized as a more austere, classical, Ciceronian speaker than those common at the time of Seneca the Younger , and he may have inspired Quintilian's love of Cicero . Sometime after Afer's death, Quintilian returned to Hispania, possibly to practice law in the courts of his own province. However, in 68, he returned to Rome as part of the retinue of Emperor Galba , Nero's short-lived successor. Quintilian does not appear to have been

10206-630: The literary standard and had the Uzbek language standardized as a literary language for, and the Taranchi dialect of Ili was chosen as the literary standard for Modern Uyghur, while other dialects like the Kashgar and Turpan dialects continue to be spoken. Standard Yoruba is the literary form of the Yoruba language of West Africa , the standard variety learnt at school and that spoken by newsreaders on

10332-577: The literary standard. This is mostly aligned with a standardized form of Mandarin Chinese , which however means there exists considerable divergence between written vernacular Chinese and other Chinese variants like Cantonese , Shanghainese , Hokkien and Sichuanese . Some of these variants have their own literary form, but none of them are currently used in official formal registers, although they may be used in legal transcription, and in certain media and entertainment settings. The Finnish language has

10458-646: The low register, like Khalkha Mongolian , Chakhar Mongolian , Khorchin Mongolian , Kharchin Mongolian , Baarin Mongolian , Ordos Mongolian and the Buryat language . The Tibetan Buddhist canon was translated into Classical Mongolian. The Oirat Mongols who spoke the Oirat Mongol language and dialects like Kalmyk language or Torgut Oirat used a separate standard written with the Clear script . The Mongolian language , based on Khalkha Mongolian, now serves as

10584-805: The modern colloquial form has been making inroads into areas that have traditionally been considered the province of the modern literary style: for instance most cinema , theatre and popular entertainment on television and radio. Classical Tibetan was the high register used universally by all Tibetans while the various mutually unintelligible Tibetic languages serve as the low register vernacular, like Central Tibetan language in Ü-Tsang (Tibet proper), Khams Tibetan in Kham , Amdo Tibetan in Amdo , Ladakhi language in Ladakh and Dzongkha in Bhutan . Classical Tibetan

10710-446: The orator I am training to be a sort of Roman Wise Man". Quintilian also "insists that his ideal orator is no philosopher because the philosopher does not take as a duty participation in civic life; this is constitutive of Quintilian's (and Isocrates ' and Cicero 's) ideal orator". Though he calls for imitation , he also urges the orator to use this knowledge to inspire his own original invention. No author receives greater praise in

10836-447: The other, would savour of artificial restriction rather than that of a natural classification." The contradiction remains—Terence is, and is not a classical author, depending on the context. Teuffel's definition of the "First Period" of Latin was based on inscriptions, fragments, and the literary works of the earliest known authors. Though he does use the term "Old Roman" at one point, most of these findings remain unnamed. Teuffel presents

10962-400: The people. This theory also revolves around being of service to the people. He asserts that a good man is one who works for the good of the people and the prosperity of society. Quintilian wrote Institutio Oratoria in the last years of Domitian 's rule of the Roman Empire . He had worked alongside Domitian, but as he began to write more and ease away from Emperor Domitian's complete power,

11088-510: The period of classical Latin. The classical Romans distinguished Old Latin as prisca Latinitas and not sermo vulgaris . Each author's work in the Roman lists was considered equivalent to one in the Greek. In example, Ennius was the Latin Homer , Aeneid was the equivalent of Iliad , etc. The lists of classical authors were as far as the Roman grammarians went in developing a philology . The topic remained at that point while interest in

11214-410: The period through the death of Marcus Aurelius (180 AD). The philosophic prose of a good emperor was in no way compatible with either Teuffel's view of unnatural language, or Cruttwell's depiction of a decline. Having created these constructs, the two philologists found they could not entirely justify them. Apparently, in the worst implication of their views, there was no such thing as Classical Latin by

11340-583: The philological notion of classical Latin through a typology similar to the Ages of Man , setting out the Golden and Silver Ages of classical Latin. Wilhem Wagner, who published Teuffel's work in German, also produced an English translation which he published in 1873. Teuffel's classification, still in use today (with modifications), groups classical Latin authors into periods defined by political events rather than by style. Teuffel went on to publish other editions, but

11466-418: The place of quiet power. The content of new literary works was continually proscribed by the emperor, who exiled or executed existing authors and played the role of literary man, himself (typically badly). Artists therefore went into a repertory of new and dazzling mannerisms, which Teuffel calls "utter unreality." Cruttwell picks up this theme: The foremost of these [characteristics] is unreality, arising from

11592-939: The political fragmentation of the time. Now, it is the standard language of Italy. Until the late 1940s, the prominent literary language in Japan was the Classical Japanese language ( 文語 , bungo ) , which is based on the language spoken in Heian period ( Late Old Japanese ) and is different from the contemporary Japanese language in grammar and some vocabulary. It still has relevance for historians, literary scholars, and lawyers (many Japanese laws that survived World War II are still written in bungo , although there are ongoing efforts to modernize their language). Bungo grammar and vocabulary are occasionally used in modern Japanese for effect, and fixed form poetries like Haiku and Tanka are still mainly written in this form. In

11718-463: The popular language, known as Serbo-Croatian . Tagalog was the basis of the Filipino language ; both share the same vocabulary and grammatical system and are mutually intelligible. However, there is a significant political and social history that underlies the reasons for differentiating between Tagalog and Filipino. Modern Tagalog is derived from Archaic Tagalog , which was likely spoken during

11844-413: The province of the modern literary style: for instance most cinema , theatre and popular entertainment on television and radio. There are also many dialects of Kannada, Which are Dharwad Kannada of North Karnataka , Arebhashe of Dakshina Kannada and Kodagu, Kundakannada of Kundapura, Havyaka Kannada are major dialects. Classical Latin was the literary register used in writing from 75 BC to

11970-528: The radio. Standard Yoruba has its origin in the 1850s, when Samuel A. Crowther , native Yoruba and the first African Anglican Bishop in Nigeria, published a Yoruba grammar and started his translation of the Bible. Though for a large part based on the Ọyọ and Ibadan dialects, Standard Yoruba incorporates several features from other dialects. Additionally, it has some features peculiar to itself only, for example

12096-658: The recorded speech of the freedmen in the Cena Trimalchionis by Petronius Arbiter . At the Third Council of Tours in 813, priests were ordered to preach in the vernacular language—either in the rustica lingua romanica (Vulgar Latin), or in the Germanic vernaculars —since the common people could no longer understand formal Latin. The Malay language exists in a classical variety, two modern standard variety and several vernacular dialects. Maltese has

12222-493: The reign of Augustus . Rather than pleading cases, as an orator of his era might have been expected to do, he concentrated on speaking in more general terms about how sound rhetoric influences the education of the people. Quintilian cites many authors in the Institutio Oratoria before providing his own definition of rhetoric . His rhetoric is chiefly defined by Cato the Elder 's vir bonus, dicendi peritus , or "the good man skilled at speaking". Later he states: "I should like

12348-514: The reign of Domitian . His retirement may have been prompted by his achievement of financial security and his desire to become a gentleman of leisure. Quintilian survived several emperors; the reigns of Vespasian and Titus were relatively peaceful, but that of Domitian was reputed to be difficult. Domitian's cruelty and paranoia may have prompted the rhetorician to distance himself quietly. The emperor does not appear to have taken offence as he made Quintilian tutor of his two grand-nephews in 90 AD. He

12474-427: The scholastic details of which many parts of his treatise are made up", was "seldom sufficiently appreciated." "His book," Mill continued, "is a kind of encyclopaedia of the thoughts of the ancients on the whole field of education and culture; and I have retained through life many valuable ideas which I can distinctly trace to my reading of him...". He was also highly praised by Thomas De Quincey : "[F]or elegance and as

12600-399: The simple past tense Präteritum in written language. In vernacular German, genitive phrases ("des Tages") are frequently replaced with a construction of "von" + dative object ("von dem Tag") - comparable to English "the dog's tail" vs. "the tail of the dog" - likewise the Präteritum ("ich ging") can be substituted with the perfect ("ich bin gegangen") to a certain degree. Nevertheless,

12726-618: The simplified vowel harmony system, as well as foreign structures, such as calques from English which originated in early translations of religious works. The first novel in the Yorùbá language was Ogboju Ode ninu Igbo Irunmale ( The Forest of A Thousand Demons ), written in 1938 by Chief Daniel O. Fagunwa (1903–1963). Other writers in the Yorùbá language include: Senator Afolabi Olabimtan (1932–1992) and Akinwunmi Isola . Quintilian Marcus Fabius Quintilianus ( Latin: [kᶣiːn.tɪ.li.ˈaː.nʊs] ; c. 35 – c. 100 AD)

12852-597: The standard official language learned are now the unrelated languages Urdu and English, and in Baltistan , the Tibetan Balti language serves as the low register while the unrelated Urdu is the official language. The Turkic Chagatai language served as the high register literary standard for Central Asian Turkic peoples, while the vernacular low register languages were the Uzbek language and Eastern Turki (Modern Uyghur) . The Soviet Union abolished Chagatai as

12978-437: The term "pre-classical" to Old Latin and implicating it to post-classical (or post-Augustan) and silver Latin, Cruttwell realized that his construct was not accordance with ancient usage and assertions: "[T]he epithet classical is by many restricted to the authors who wrote in it [golden Latin]. It is best, however, not to narrow unnecessarily the sphere of classicity; to exclude Terence on the one hand or Tacitus and Pliny on

13104-420: The time of Caesar [his ages are different from Teuffel's], and ended with Tiberius. This is what is called the Augustan Age, which was perhaps of all others the most brilliant, a period at which it should seem as if the greatest men, and the immortal authors, had met together upon the earth, in order to write the Latin language in its utmost purity and perfection... and of Tacitus, his conceits and sententious style

13230-417: The two forms are identical; differing forms, such as verb conjugations, are easily converted from one form to another. However, the vocabulary is quite different from one form to the other and must be learned separately. Among the works of Rabindranath Tagore are examples of both shadhubhasha (especially among his earlier works) and chôlitôbhasha (especially among his later works). The national anthem of India

13356-404: The use of neither the Präteritum nor especially the genitive case is totally unusual in daily language, though it is considered rare, and might be dependent on a region's dialect and/or the grade of education of the speaker. People of higher education use the genitive more regularly in their casual speech and the use of perfect instead of Präteritum is especially common in southern Germany, where

13482-555: The watchful eye of a new emperor. The demand for great orators had ceased, shifting to an emphasis on poetry. Other than the historian Livy , the most remarkable writers of the period were the poets Virgil , Horace , and Ovid . Although Augustus evidenced some toleration to republican sympathizers, he exiled Ovid, and imperial tolerance ended with the continuance of the Julio-Claudian dynasty . Augustan writers include: In his second volume, Imperial Period , Teuffel initiated

13608-487: The words. According to Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary , the term classical (from classicus) entered modern English in 1599, some 50 years after its re-introduction to the continent. In Governor William Bradford 's Dialogue (1648), he referred to synods of a separatist church as "classical meetings", defined by meetings between "young men" from New England and "ancient men" from Holland and England. In 1715, Laurence Echard 's Classical Geographical Dictionary

13734-506: The works of Shakespeare and as well as in King James Bible, hence the literary importance of early modern English in contemporary English literature and English studies . Modern Standard Arabic is the contemporary literary and standard register of Classical Arabic used in writing across all Arabic -speaking countries and any governing body with Arabic as an official language. Many western scholars distinguish two varieties:

13860-589: Was a Roman educator and rhetorician born in Hispania , widely referred to in medieval schools of rhetoric and in Renaissance writing . In English translation, he is usually referred to as Quintilian ( / k w ɪ n ˈ t ɪ l i ən / ), although the alternate spellings of Quintillian and Quinctilian are occasionally seen, the latter in older texts. Quintilian was born c. 35 AD in Calagurris ( Calahorra , La Rioja ) in Hispania . His father,

13986-441: Was a "rank, weed-grown garden," a "decline." Cruttwell had already decried what he saw as a loss of spontaneity in Golden Latin. Teuffel regarded the Silver Age as a loss of natural language, and therefore of spontaneity, implying that it was last seen in the Golden Age. Instead, Tiberius brought about a "sudden collapse of letters." The idea of a decline had been dominant in English society since Edward Gibbon 's Decline and Fall of

14112-531: Was a diglossic language for much of its history, with Classical Armenian serving as the "high" literary standard and liturgical language, and the Western Armenian and Eastern Armenian dialects serving as the vernacular language of the Armenian people. Western Armenian and Eastern Armenian were eventually standardized into their own literary forms. Standard Bengali has two forms: Grammatically,

14238-429: Was a form of sermo (spoken language), and as such, retains spontaneity. No texts by Classical Latin authors are noted for the type of rigidity evidenced by stylized art, with the exception of repetitious abbreviations and stock phrases found on inscriptions. The standards, authors and manuals from the Classical Latin period formed the model for the language taught and used in later periods across Europe and beyond. While

14364-482: Was a happy period for the Roman State, the happiest indeed during the whole Empire... But in the world of letters the lassitude and enervation, which told of Rome's decline, became unmistakeable... its forte is in imitation." Teuffel, however, excepts the jurists; others find other "exceptions", recasting Teuffels's view. Style of language refers to repeatable features of speech that are somewhat less general than

14490-457: Was able to define sublime, intermediate, and low styles within Classical Latin. St. Augustine recommended low style for sermons. Style was to be defined by deviation in speech from a standard. Teuffel termed this standard "Golden Latin". John Edwin Sandys , who was an authority in Latin style for several decades, summarizes the differences between Golden and Silver Latin as follows: Silver Latin

14616-548: Was addressed to him, and opened, "Quintilian, greatest director of straying youth, / you are an honour, Quintilian, to the Roman toga". However, one should not take Martial's praise at face value, since he was known for his sly and witty insults. The opening lines are all that are usually quoted, but the rest of the poem contains lines such as "A man who longs to surpass his father's census rating" (6). This speaks of Quintilian's ambitious side and his drive for wealth and position. After his death, Quintilian's influence fluctuated. He

14742-400: Was equal to the Golden Age, his Third Period die römische Kaiserheit encompasses both the Silver Age and the centuries now termed Late Latin , in which the forms seemed to break loose from their foundation and float freely. That is, men of literature were confounded about the meaning of "good Latin." The last iteration of Classical Latin is known as Silver Latin. The Silver Age is the first of

14868-574: Was made the official language. During the revival of the Hebrew language , spoken and literary Hebrew were revived separately, causing a dispersion between the two. The dispersion started to narrow sometime after the two movements merged, but substantial differences between the two still exist. When Italy unified in 1860, Italian existed mainly as a literary language. Different languages were spoken throughout Italy, almost all of which were Romance languages which had developed in every region, due to

14994-400: Was mentioned by his pupil, Pliny, and by Juvenal , who may have been another student, "as an example of sobriety and of worldly success unusual in the teaching profession". During the 3rd to 5th centuries, his influence was felt among such authors as St. Augustine of Hippo , whose discussion of signs and figurative language certainly owed something to Quintilian, and to St. Jerome , editor of

15120-461: Was originally written in the shadhubhasha form of Bengali. Literary Chinese ( 文言文 ; wényánwén ; 'written-speech writing') is the form of written Chinese used from the end of the Han dynasty to the early 20th century. Literary Chinese continually diverged from Classical Chinese , as the dialects of China became more disparate and as the classical written language became less representative of

15246-682: Was published. In 1736, Robert Ainsworth 's Thesaurus Linguae Latinae Compendarius turned English words and expressions into "proper and classical Latin." In 1768, David Ruhnken 's Critical History of the Greek Orators recast the molded view of the classical by applying the word "canon" to the pinakes of orators after the Biblical canon , or list of authentic books of the Bible. In doing so, Ruhnken had secular catechism in mind. In 1870, Wilhelm Sigismund Teuffel 's Geschichte der Römischen Literatur ( A History of Roman Literature ) defined

15372-541: Was so rich a source of delight?... But Quintilian is so consummate a master of rhetoric and oratory, that when, after having delivered him from his long imprisonment in the dungeons of the barbarians, you transmit him to this country, all the nations of Italy ought to assemble to bid him welcome... Quintilian, an author whose works I will not hesitate to affirm, are more an object of desire to the learned than any others, excepting only Cicero's dissertation De Republica. The Italian poet Petrarch addressed one of his letters to

15498-410: Was spoken and written. It was the language taught in schools. Prescriptive rules therefore applied to it, and when special subjects like poetry or rhetoric were taken into consideration, additional rules applied. Since spoken Latinitas has become extinct (in favor of subsequent registers), the rules of politus (polished) texts may give the appearance of an artificial language. However, Latinitas

15624-696: Was teaching Latin; his early training included rhetoric. (Philologist and Rector of the Leipzig Thomasschule, Johann Matthias Gesner , for whom Bach composed a cantata in 1729, published a substantial Quintilian edition with a long footnote in Bach's honor.) After this high point, Quintilian's influence seems to have lessened somewhat, although he is mentioned by the English poet Alexander Pope in his versified An Essay on Criticism : In grave Quintilian's copious works we find The justest rules and clearest method join'd (lines 669–70). In addition, "he

15750-511: Was the literary language of Serbs in the Habsburg monarchy used from the mid-18th century to 1825. It was a linguistic blend of Church Slavonic of the Russian recension, vernacular Serbian ( Štokavian dialect ), and Russian . At the beginning of the 19th century, it was severely attacked by Vuk Karadžić and his followers, whose reformatory efforts formed modern literary Serbian based on

15876-693: Was used for official and religious purposes, such as in Tibetan Buddhist religious texts like the Tibetan Buddhist canon and taught and learned in monasteries and schools in Tibetan Buddhist regions. Now, Standard Tibetan , based on the Lhasa dialect, serves as the high register in China. In Bhutan, the Tibetan Dzongkha language has been standardised and replaced Classical Tibetan for official purposes and education, in Ladakh ,

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