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89-612: The building that had the greatest influence on the Fagus factory design was the 1909 AEG turbine factory in Berlin, designed by Peter Behrens . Gropius and Meyer had both worked on the project and with the Fagus factory they presented their interpretation and criticism of their teacher’s work. The Fagus main building can be seen as an inversion of the AEG turbine factory. Both have corners free of supports, and glass surfaces between piers that cover

178-433: A rusticated appearance, and the firm's logo is cast in the concrete of the gable. In 1939, Jacob Schallberger and Paul Schmidt designed an extension of the hall to the north extending it to 207m. The whole building was developed to function as a production site for turbines. It is now part of Siemens , which still operates a gas turbine plant there. This factory was actually designed with such foresight that it still serves

267-419: A wind tunnel study is performed on large or unusually-shaped buildings. A scale model of the building and the surrounding vicinity is built and placed in a wind tunnel to determine the wind pressures acting on the structure in question. These studies take into account vortex shedding around corners and the effects of surrounding topography and buildings. Seismic loads in a curtain wall system are limited to

356-535: A "crenellated castle-cities" with a dowdy coat of historicist design, hiding the technology within. Peter Behrens created an architecture for industry that came out of hiding behind historicist facades for the first time, transformed by a new self-confidence, creating a suitably impressive and sophisticated image for the public face of the Moabit industrial site. Franz Hessel wrote, "There is no lovelier building than that monumental hall of glass and reinforced concrete:

445-416: A U-value of 0.2 or higher, which is equivalent to an R-value of 5 or lower. Infill refers to the large panels that are inserted into the curtain wall between mullions. Infills are typically glass but may be made up of nearly any exterior building element. Some common infills include metal panels, louvers, and photovoltaic panels. Infills are also referred to as spandrels or spandrel panels. Float glass

534-421: A base of about 40 cm of black brick and the rest is built of yellow bricks. The combined effect is a feeling of lightness or as Gropius called it "etherealization". In order to enhance this feeling of lightness, Gropius and Meyer used a series of optical refinements like greater horizontal than vertical elements on the windows, longer windows on the corners and taller windows on the last floor. The design of

623-538: A building more difficult to control. Other common infills include stone veneer , metal panels, louvres , and operable windows or vents. Unlike storefront systems, curtain wall systems are designed to span multiple floors, taking into consideration building sway and movement and design requirements such as thermal expansion and contraction; seismic requirements; water diversion; and thermal efficiency for cost-effective heating, cooling, and interior lighting. Historically, buildings were constructed of timber, masonry, or

712-504: A combination of both. Their exterior walls were load-bearing , supporting much or all of the load of the entire structure. The nature of the materials resulted in inherent limits to a building's height and the maximum size of window openings. The development and widespread use of structural steel and later reinforced concrete allowed relatively small columns to support large loads. The exterior walls could be non-load bearing, and thus much lighter and more open than load-bearing walls of

801-404: A curtain wall. Water penetration is defined as water passing from the exterior of the building to the interior of the curtain wall system. Sometimes, depending on the building specifications , a small amount of controlled water on the interior is deemed acceptable. Controlled water penetration is defined as water that penetrates beyond the inner most vertical plane of the test specimen, but has

890-426: A designed means of drainage back to the exterior. AAMA Voluntary Specifications allow for controlled water penetration while the underlying ASTM E1105 test method would define such water penetration as a failure. To test the ability of a curtain wall to withstand water penetration in the field, an ASTM E1105 water spray rack system is placed on the exterior side of the test specimen, and a positive air pressure difference

979-403: A given curtain wall is anchored at 12-foot (144 in) floor heights. The allowable deflection would then be 144/175 = 0.823 inches, which means the wall is allowed to deflect inward or outward a maximum of 0.823 inches at the maximum wind pressure. However, some panels require stricter movement restrictions, or certainly those that prohibit a torque-like motion. Deflection in mullions

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1068-465: A harmony of opposites in a manner best expressed as a pictorial or visual structure created from the perspective of the railroad tracks." AEG turbine factory The AEG turbine factory was built in 1909, at Huttenstraße 12–16 in the Moabit district of Berlin . It is the best-known work of architect Peter Behrens . The 100 m long steel-framed building with 15 m tall glass windows on either side

1157-422: A high heat transfer coefficient, meaning that aluminum is a very good conductor of heat. This translates into high heat loss through aluminum (or steel) curtain wall mullions. There are several ways to compensate for this heat loss, the most common way being the addition of thermal breaks . These are barriers between exterior metal and interior metal, usually made of polyvinyl chloride (PVC). These breaks provide

1246-407: A shop, but installation and glazing is typically performed at the jobsite. Very similar to a stick system, a ladder system has mullions which can be split and then either snapped or screwed together consisting of a half box and plate. This allows sections of curtain wall to be fabricated in a shop, effectively reducing the time spent installing the system onsite. The drawbacks of using such a system

1335-403: A significant decrease in the thermal conductivity of the curtain wall. However, since the thermal break interrupts the aluminum mullion, the overall moment of inertia of the mullion is reduced and must be accounted for in the structural analysis and deflection analysis of the system. Thermal conductivity of the curtain wall system is important because of heat loss through the wall, which affects

1424-481: A thin plastic interlayer; copper wall cladding , and panels consisting of metal sheets bonded to rigid insulation, with or without an inner metal sheet to create a sandwich panel. Other opaque panel materials include fiber-reinforced plastic (FRP) and terracotta . Terracotta curtain wall panels were first used in Europe, but only a few manufacturers produce high quality modern terracotta curtain wall panels. A louver

1513-407: A wall is quite noticeable, public perception may raise undue concern that the wall is not strong enough. Deflection limits are typically expressed as the distance between anchor points divided by a constant number. A deflection limit of L/175 is common in curtain wall specifications, based on experience with deflection limits that are unlikely to cause damage to the glass held by the mullion. Say that

1602-403: Is transparent , translucent , or opaque, or in varying degrees thereof. Transparent glass usually refers to vision glass in a curtain wall. Spandrel or vision glass may also contain translucent glass, which could be for security or aesthetic purposes. Opaque glass is used in areas to hide a column or spandrel beam or shear wall behind the curtain wall. Another method of hiding spandrel areas

1691-414: Is 25.6 m wide (the lower one 12.5 m), with a height of 25 m and a length of 123 m, with a body formed by 22 steel frames, placed every 9 meters. The steel columns appear on the outside unadorned, with bolts and joints visible, with huge glass windows between, angled slightly inwards towards the top. The gable ends are constructed of reinforced concrete, with metal strapping on the piers either side creating

1780-404: Is a normal force acting on the building as the result of wind blowing on the building. Wind pressure is resisted by the curtain wall system since it envelops and protects the building. Wind loads vary greatly throughout the world, with the largest wind loads being near the coast in hurricane -prone regions. For each project location, building codes specify the required design wind loads. Often,

1869-403: Is a separate criterion in curtain wall design and analysis . This often affects the selection of materials and sizes for design of the system. The allowable bending strength for certain aluminum alloys, such as those typically used in curtain wall framing, approaches the allowable bending strength of steel alloys used in building construction. Relative to other building components, aluminum has

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1958-418: Is accounted for by cutting horizontal mullions slightly short and allowing a space between the horizontal and vertical mullions. In unitized curtain wall, a gap is left between units, which is sealed from air and water penetration by gaskets. Vertically, anchors carrying wind load only (not dead load) are slotted to account for movement. Incidentally, this slot also accounts for live load deflection and creep in

2047-417: Is an exterior covering of a building in which the outer walls are non-structural, instead serving to protect the interior of the building from the elements. Because the curtain wall façade carries no structural load beyond its own dead load weight, it can be made of lightweight materials. The wall transfers lateral wind loads upon it to the main building structure through connections at floors or columns of

2136-440: Is applied to the system. This set up simulates a wind driven rain event on the curtain wall to check for field performance of the product and of the installation. Field quality control and assurance checks for water penetration has become the norm as builders and installers apply such quality programs to help reduce the number of water damage litigation suits against their work. One of the disadvantages of using aluminum for mullions

2225-409: Is by far the most common curtain wall glazing type. It can be manufactured in an almost infinite combination of color, thickness, and opacity . For commercial construction, the two most common thicknesses are 1 ⁄ 4 inch (6.4 mm) monolithic and 1 inch (25 mm) insulating glass . 1/4 inch glass is typically used only in spandrel areas, while insulating glass is used for the rest of

2314-453: Is commonly referred to as the Fagus building is the main building. It was constructed in 1911 according to Werner's plan but with the glass facades designed by Gropius and Meyer and then expanded in 1913. The Fagus building has a 40-centimeter high, dark brick base that projects from the facade by 4 centimeters. The entrance with the clock is part of the 1913 expansion. The interiors of the building, which contained mainly offices, were finished in

2403-576: Is considered the first attempt to introduce restrained modern design to industrial architecture. It was a bold move, and world first that would have a durable impact on architecture as a whole. Since 1892, the site was occupied by the Union-Elektricitäts-Gesellschaft (UEG), which was an electrical company founded by August Thyssen and the Thomson Houston Electric Company . The company's goal

2492-427: Is controlled by different shapes and depths of curtain wall members. The depth of a given curtain wall system is usually controlled by the area moment of inertia required to keep deflection limits under the specification. Another way to limit deflections in a given section is to add steel reinforcement to the inside tube of the mullion. Since steel deflects at one-third the rate of aluminum, the steel will resist much of

2581-408: Is defined as the weight of structural elements and the permanent features on the structure. In the case of curtain walls, this load is made up of the weight of the mullions, anchors and other structural components of the curtain wall, as well as the weight of the infill material. Additional dead loads imposed on the curtain wall may include sunshades or signage attached to the curtain wall. Wind load

2670-500: Is left out from many of the photographs. Apart from them, the site contains various small buildings designed by Gropius and Meyer. Gropius and Meyer were able to enforce only minor changes in the overall layout of the factory complex. Overall, Werner's intended layout for the individual buildings within the complex was carried out; greater uniformity and coherence were achieved, however, through Gropius and Meyer's reductionism in form, material, and color. For many years, people thought that

2759-478: Is now common. In Scandinavia, the first curtain walls with quadruple-pane have been built. Larger thicknesses are typically employed for buildings or areas with higher thermal, relative humidity , or sound transmission requirements, such as laboratory areas or recording studios . In residential construction, thicknesses commonly used are 1 ⁄ 8 inch (3.2 mm) monolithic and 5 ⁄ 8 inch (16 mm) insulating glass. Glass may be used which

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2848-403: Is provided in an area where mechanical equipment located inside the building requires ventilation or fresh air to operate. They can also serve as a means of allowing outside air to filter into the building to take advantage of favorable climatic conditions and minimize the usage of energy-consuming HVAC systems. Curtain wall systems can be adapted to accept most types of louver systems to maintain

2937-598: Is reduced structural performance and visible joint lines down the length of each mullion. Unitized curtain walls entail factory fabrication and assembly of panels and may include factory glazing. These completed units are installed on the building structure to form the building enclosure. Unitized curtain wall has the advantages of: speed; lower field installation costs; and quality control within an interior climate-controlled environment. The economic benefits are typically realized on large projects or in areas of high field labor rates. A common feature in curtain wall technology,

3026-455: Is that its modulus of elasticity is about one-third that of steel. This translates to three times more deflection in an aluminum mullion compared to a similar steel section under a given load. Building specifications set deflection limits for perpendicular (wind-induced) and in-plane (dead load-induced) deflections. These deflection limits are not imposed due to strength capacities of the mullions. Rather, they are designed to limit deflection of

3115-525: Is the 1988 First Interstate Tower fire in Los Angeles, California . The fire leapfrogged up the tower by shattering the glass and then consuming the aluminum framing holding the glass. Aluminum's melting temperature is 660 °C, whereas building fires can reach 1,100 °C. The melting point of aluminum is typically reached within minutes of the start of a fire. Fireman knock-out glazing panels are often required for venting and emergency access from

3204-469: Is the air which passes through the curtain wall from the exterior to the interior of the building. The air is infiltrated through the gaskets, through imperfect joinery between the horizontal and vertical mullions, through weep holes , and through imperfect sealing. The American Architectural Manufacturers Association (AAMA) is an industry trade group in the U.S. that has developed voluntary specifications regarding acceptable levels of air infiltration through

3293-424: Is through shadow box construction (providing a dark enclosed space behind the transparent or translucent glass). Shadow box construction creates a perception of depth behind the glass that is sometimes desired. Thin blocks (3 to 4 inches (76 to 102 millimetres)) of stone can be inset within a curtain wall system. The type of stone used is limited only by the strength of the stone and the ability to manufacture it in

3382-406: The perimeter slab edge , which is a gap between the floor and the curtain wall, is essential to slow the passage of fire and combustion gases between floors. Spandrel areas must have non-combustible insulation at the interior face of the curtain wall. Some building codes require the mullion to be wrapped in heat-retarding insulation near the ceiling to prevent the mullions from melting and spreading

3471-413: The rainscreen principle theorizes that equilibrium of air pressure between the outside and inside of the "rainscreen" prevents water penetration into the building. For example, the glass is captured between an inner and an outer gasket in a space called the glazing rebate. The glazing rebate is ventilated to the exterior so that the pressure on the inner and outer sides of the outer gasket is the same. When

3560-516: The Peter Behrens turbine factory on Huttenstrasse." Since 1956 the building has been classified as a protected historical monument, and it underwent a restoration in 1978. On the south side there is a plaque with information about the construction, architects, and heritage status. 52°31′42″N 13°19′28″E  /  52.52833°N 13.32444°E  / 52.52833; 13.32444 Curtain wall (architecture) A curtain wall

3649-439: The U.S. and all U.S. embassies built on foreign soil must have some provision for resistance to bomb blasts. Since the curtain wall is at the exterior of the building, it becomes the first line of defense in a bomb attack. As such, blast resistant curtain walls are designed to withstand such forces without compromising the interior of the building to protect its occupants. Since blast loads are very high loads with short durations,

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3738-516: The architect Eduard Werner (1847–1923), whom he knew from an earlier renovation of the Behrens factory. Although Werner was a specialist in factory design, Benscheidt was not pleased with the outside appearance of his design. His factory was separated from Behrens’s by a train line and Benscheidt thought of the building's elevation on that side (north) as a permanent advertisement for his factory. In January 1911 he contacted Walter Gropius and offered him

3827-431: The building (sometimes spandrel glass is specified as insulating glass as well). The 1 inch insulation glass is typically made up of two 1/4-inch lites of glass with a 1 ⁄ 2 inch (13 mm) airspace. The air inside is usually atmospheric air, but some inert gases , such as argon or krypton , may be used in order to offer better thermal transmittance values. In Europe, triple-pane insulating glass infill

3916-462: The building blocks of structural understanding were laid for the development of curtain walls. Oriel Chambers (1864) and 16 Cook Street (1866), both built in Liverpool , England , by local architect and civil engineer Peter Ellis , are characterised by their extensive use of glass in their facades. Toward the courtyards they boasted metal-framed glass curtain walls, which makes them two of

4005-403: The building was oriented to the railroad side. Benscheidt considered that the point of view of the passengers on the trains was the one that determined the image of the building and placed great weight on the facade on that side. It was already noted by Peter Behrens (with whom Gropius and Meyer were working one year before starting work on the Fagus factory) that architects should take account of

4094-456: The building. Curtain walls may be designed as "systems" integrating frame, wall panel, and weatherproofing materials. Steel frames have largely given way to aluminum extrusions. Glass is typically used for infill because it can reduce construction costs, provide an architecturally pleasing look, and allow natural light to penetrate deeper within the building. However, glass also makes the effects of light on visual comfort and solar heat gain in

4183-417: The buildings on the site give a common image and appear as a unified whole. The architects achieved this by the use of some common elements in all the buildings. The first one is the use of floor-to-ceiling glass windows on steel frames that go around the corners of the buildings without a visible (most of the time without any) structural support. The other unifying element is the use of brick. All buildings have

4272-462: The company, which was on its way to being one of the biggest in that sector in Germany. In October 1910, he resigned from his position because of differences with Behrens's son. After his resignation Benscheidt immediately started his own company. He established a partnership with an American company acquiring both capital and expertise. He bought the land directly opposite Behrens's factory and hired

4361-413: The completion of the compartment (or envelope). The use of fire sprinklers has been shown to mitigate this matter. As such, unless the building is sprinklered , fire may still travel up the curtain wall, if the glass on the exposed floor is shattered from heat, causing flames to lick up the outside of the building. Falling glass can endanger pedestrians, firefighters and firehoses below. An example of this

4450-608: The curtain wall at 900–910 Lake Shore Drive, where the curtain is an autonomous aluminum and glass skin. After 900–910, Mies's curtain wall appeared on all of his subsequent high-rise building designs, including the Seagram Building in New York. The widespread use of aluminium extrusions for mullions began during the 1970s. Aluminum alloys offer the unique advantage of being able to be easily extruded into nearly any shape required for design and aesthetic purposes. Today,

4539-398: The curtain wall response should be analyzed in a dynamic load analysis, with full-scale mock-up testing performed prior to design completion and installation. Blast resistant glazing consists of laminated glass , which is meant to break but not separate from the mullions. Similar technology is used in hurricane-prone areas for impact protection from wind-borne debris. Air infiltration

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4628-615: The design complexity and shapes available are nearly limitless. Custom shapes can be designed and manufactured with relative ease. The Omni San Diego Hotel curtain wall in California, designed by architectural firm Hornberger and Worstel and developed by JMI Realty, is an example of a unitized curtain-wall system with integrated sunshades. The vast majority of ground-floor curtain walls are installed as long pieces (referred to as sticks ) between floors vertically and between vertical members horizontally. Framing members may be fabricated in

4717-617: The exterior. Knock-out panels are generally fully tempered glass to allow full fracturing of the panel into small pieces and relatively safe removal from the opening. Curtain walls and perimeter sealants require maintenance to maximize service life. Perimeter sealants, properly designed and installed, have a typical service life of 10 to 15 years. Removal and replacement of perimeter sealants require meticulous surface preparation and proper detailing. Aluminum frames are generally painted or anodized . Care must be taken when cleaning areas around anodized material as some cleaning agents will destroy

4806-815: The finish. Factory applied fluoropolymer thermoset coatings have good resistance to environmental degradation and require only periodic cleaning. Recoating with an air-dry fluoropolymer coating is possible but requires special surface preparation and is not as durable as the baked-on original coating. Anodized aluminum frames cannot be "re-anodized" in place but can be cleaned and protected by proprietary clear coatings to improve appearance and durability. Stainless steel curtain walls require no coatings, and embossed, as opposed to abrasively finished, surfaces maintain their original appearance indefinitely without cleaning or other maintenance. Some specially textured matte stainless steel surface finishes are hydrophobic and resist airborne and rain-borne pollutants. This has been valuable in

4895-451: The fire to the floor above. The firestop at the perimeter slab edge is considered a continuation of the fire-resistance rating of the floor slab. The curtain wall itself, however, is not ordinarily required to have a rating. This causes a quandary as compartmentalization (fire protection) is typically based upon closed compartments to avoid fire and smoke migrations beyond each engaged compartment. A curtain wall by its very nature prevents

4984-447: The first curtain walls were made with steel mullions , and the polished plate glass was attached to the mullions with asbestos- or fiberglass-modified glazing compound. Eventually silicone sealants or glazing tape were substituted for the glazing compound. Some designs included an outer cap to hold the glass in place and to protect the integrity of the seals. The landmarks of curtain wall design as it came to dominate construction were

5073-556: The flat roof has also changed. Only in the building [the Steiner House , Vienna] by Adolf Loos which was done one year before the Fagus Factory, have we seen the same feeling for the pure cube. Another exceedingly important quality of Gropius's building is that, thanks to the large expanses of clear glass, the usual hard separation of exterior and interior is annihilated. Although constructed with different systems, all of

5162-502: The floor joists. Hence, the ceilings in the main building were not continuous shears and thus were unable to fulfill the necessary bracing function." The same kind of misunderstanding exists about the glass façade of the building that many writers describe as a curtain wall similar to the one Gropius used for the Bauhaus Dessau building . Götz describes it like this: "The window openings were intrados frames composed of L beams;

5251-534: The floor slabs of the building structure. Accidental explosions and terrorist threats have brought on increased concern for the fragility of a curtain wall system in relation to blast loads. The bombing of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, has spawned much of the current research and mandates in regards to building response to blast loads. Currently, all new federal buildings in

5340-415: The glass (which may break under excessive deflection), and to ensure that the glass does not come out of its pocket in the mullion. Deflection limits are also necessary to control movement at the interior of the curtain wall. Building construction may be such that there is a wall located near the mullion, and excessive deflection can cause the mullion to contact the wall and cause damage. Also, if deflection of

5429-495: The glass surface to the front. Gropius describes this transformation by saying, "The role of the walls becomes restricted to that of mere screens stretched between the upright columns of the framework to keep out rain, cold and noise" At the time of the design of the Fagus factory, Gropius was collecting photographs of industrial buildings in the USA to be used for a Deutscher Werkbund publication. The design of these American factories

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5518-688: The heating and cooling costs of the building. On a poorly performing curtain wall, condensation may form on the interior of the mullions. This could cause damage to adjacent interior trim and walls. Rigid insulation is provided in spandrel areas to provide a higher R-value at these locations. Thermally-broken mullions with double- or triple-glazed IGUs are often referred to as "high-performance" curtain walls. While these curtain wall systems are more energy-efficient than older, single-glazed versions, they are still significantly less efficient than opaque (solid) wall construction. For example, nearly all curtain wall systems, thermally-broken or otherwise, have

5607-451: The internal membering with horizontal and vertical muntins was differentiated in that all the verticals appeared more slender on the outside, while the horizontals appeared wider. These fames were, however, only floor-to-floor height, screwed to the building on four sides; one string course that reached across the three floors consisted, in fact, of three different sections. Along the side of the building, 3-millimetre-thick steel plates sealed

5696-573: The interstory drift induced on the building during an earthquake . In most situations, the curtain wall is able to naturally withstand seismic and wind induced building sway because of the space provided between the glazing infill and the mullion. In tests, standard curtain wall systems are typically able to withstand up to three inches (76 mm) of relative floor movement without glass breakage or water leakage. Snow loads and live loads are not typically an issue in curtain walls, since curtain walls are designed to be vertical or slightly inclined. If

5785-468: The job of redesigning the facades of Werner's plan. Gropius accepted the offer and a long collaboration began that continued until 1925 when the last buildings on the site were completed. During construction, Gropius and his partner Meyer were under great pressure to keep up to the rhythm of work. Construction started in May 1911 based on Werner's plans and Benscheidt wanted the factory to be running by winter of

5874-459: The load at a lower cost or smaller depth. Deflection in curtain wall mullions also differs from deflection of the building structure, whether concrete, steel, or timber. Curtain wall anchors must be designed to allow differential movement between the building structure and the curtain wall. Strength (or maximum usable stress ) available to a particular material is not related to its material stiffness (the material property governing deflection); it

5963-446: The main building was made of concrete or steel, because of its glass façade. However, during its renovation during the 80s, it became clear that this was not the case. Jürgen Götz, the engineer responsible for the renovation since 1982, describes the construction system like this: "The main building was erected on top of a structurally stable basement with flat caps. Nonreinforced concrete ( compressed concrete ), mixed with pebble dashing

6052-425: The mid 20s. The other two big buildings on the site are the production hall and the warehouse. Both were constructed in 1911 and expanded in 1913. The production hall is a one-storey building. It was almost invisible from the railway (north) elevation and acquired a proper facade after the expansion. The warehouse is a four-storey building with few openings. Its design followed the original plan by Werner closely, and it

6141-641: The new building. More than an architect, Behrens was employed by AEG since 1907 as an artistic consultant, and designed the company's electrical products, as well as its logo and other company graphics. He was also in charge of the overall image of the company. Initially influenced by the Art Nouveau in 1901-3, Behrens soon became a founding member of the German Werkbund ; influenced by the British Arts and Crafts , they were dedicated to raising

6230-405: The north elevation that faced the railway and Behrens's factory. Work on the expansion started in 1913 and it was barely finished when World War I broke out. During the war it was possible to do only minor works such as the power house and the chimney stack that became a prominent characteristics of the building complex. After the war the work continued with the addition of minor buildings such as

6319-399: The number of orders and a major expansion was decided. This time the contract went directly to Gropius and Meyer and, from now on, they were to be the only architects of the Fagus buildings. The expansion practically doubled the surface of the buildings by adding to the street (south) side. This gave the opportunity to create a proper street elevation. Initially the main elevation was considered

6408-582: The past. This gave way to increased use of glass as an exterior façade, and the modern-day curtain wall was born. Post-and-beam and balloon framed timber structures effectively had an early version of curtain walls, for their frames supported loads that allowed the walls themselves to serve other functions, such as keeping weather out and allowing light in. When iron began to be used extensively in buildings in late 18th-century Britain, such as at Ditherington Flax Mill , and later when buildings of wrought iron and glass such as The Crystal Palace were built,

6497-612: The porter's lodge and the enclosure wall. During that time the architects, in collaboration with teachers and students from the Bauhaus , designed the interiors and furniture of the main building. They also recommended to Benscheidt various designers for the publicity campaign of Fagus. From 1923 to 1925, the architects were also working on a new expansion, but this never took place. It was not until 1927 that Benscheidt wrote to Gropius to explain that all activities should stop until further notice due to financial difficulties. The building that

6586-407: The pressure is equal across this gasket, water cannot be drawn through joints or defects in the gasket. A curtain wall system must be designed to handle all loads imposed on it as well as keep air and water from penetrating the building envelope. The loads imposed on the curtain wall are transferred to the building structure through the anchors which attach the mullions to the building. Dead load

6675-414: The proper shape and size. Common stone types used are: calcium silicate , granite , marble , travertine , limestone , and engineered stone . To reduce weight and improve strength, the natural stone may be attached to an aluminum honeycomb backing. Metal panels can take various forms including stainless steel, aluminum plate; aluminum composite panels consisting of two thin aluminum sheets sandwiching

6764-487: The quality of German design, developing architecture that was rational for the modern age, while still embracing classical traditions. The turbine hall was built in 1909 under Peter Behrens as lead architect and engineer Karl Bernhard at the corner of Huttenstraße and Berlichingenstraße streets in Berlin-Moabit. It consists of two parallel spaces, a lower space attached to the west of the main one. The main space

6853-427: The same architectural sightlines and style while providing desired functionality. Most curtain wall glazing is fixed, meaning that there is no access to the exterior of the building except through doors. However, windows or vents can be glazed into the curtain wall system as well, to provide required ventilation or operable windows. Nearly any window type can be made to fit into a curtain wall system. Firestopping at

6942-475: The same purpose of producing turbines, a hundred years later. Behrens design referenced the neo-classical , with metal strapping on the piers of the gable end either side creating a rusticated appearance. David Watkin describes it as a "temple of power". Similarly, Tom Wilkinson likens it to an "up-to-date edition of the Parthenon". Factory design at that time was either unpretentious steel and glass, or

7031-410: The same year. This was achieved in great part and in 1912 Gropius and Meyer were designing the interiors of the main building and secondary smaller buildings on the site. In order to pay the additional costs of Gropius’s design, Benscheidt and his American partners had decided on a smaller building than the one that was actually planned. By winter 1912 it was clear that the factory could not keep up with

7120-413: The slope of a wall exceeds 20 degrees or so, these loads may need to be considered. Thermal loads are induced in a curtain wall system because aluminum has a relatively high coefficient of thermal expansion . This means that over the span of a couple of floors, the curtain wall will expand and contract some distance, relative to its length and the temperature differential. This expansion and contraction

7209-578: The very different systems used by the United Nations Headquarters and the Lever House completed in 1952. Ludwig Mies van der Rohe 's curtain wall is one of the most important aspects of his architectural design. Mies first began prototyping the curtain wall in his high-rise residential building designs along Chicago's lakeshore, achieving the look of a curtain wall at 860-880 Lake Shore Drive Apartments . He finally perfected

7298-491: The way the speed of modern transportation affects the way architecture is perceived. Gropius had also commented the subject in his writings. According to the historian of architecture Annemarie Jaeggi these thoughts were important in the design of Fagus: "The animated fluctuation in height, the change between horizontal structure and vertical rhythms, heavy closed volumes and light dissolved fabrics, are indicators of an approach that deliberately utilized contrasts while arriving at

7387-483: The wedge between window frame and piers." This description applies only to the main building. Götz note that the other buildings were much simpler and some of them were actually concrete and/or steel constructions. For the first time a complete facade is conceived in glass. The supporting piers are reduced to narrow mullions of brick. The corners are left without any support, yielding an unprecedented sense of openness and continuity between inside and out. The expression of

7476-425: The whole height of the building. However, in the AEG turbine factory the corners are covered by heavy elements that slant inside. The glass surfaces also slant inside and are recessed in relation to the piers. The load-bearing elements are attenuated and the building has an image of stability and monumentality. In the Fagus factory exactly the opposite happens; the corners are left open and the piers are recessed leaving

7565-507: The world's first buildings to include this architectural feature. Oriel Chambers is listed in the Guinness Book of Records as the earliest such building. The extensive glass walls allowed light to penetrate further into the building, utilizing more floor space and reducing lighting costs. Oriel Chambers comprises 43,000 sq ft (4,000 m ) set over five floors without an elevator , which had only recently been invented and

7654-502: Was also a source of inspiration for Fagus. Carl Benscheidt (1858–1947) founded the Fagus company in 1910. He had then started by working for Arnold Rikkli, who practised naturopathic medicine , and it was there that he learned about orthopedic shoe lasts . In 1887 Benscheidt was hired by the shoe last manufacturer Carl Behrens as works manager in his factory in Alfeld. After the death of Behrens in 1896, Benscheidt became general manager of

7743-541: Was not yet widespread. The Statue of Liberty (1886) features a thin, non-load-bearing copper skin. Extensive use of glass became required for large factory buildings to allow light for manufacture, sometimes making it seem like they had all glass facades. An early example of an all-steel curtain wall used in the classical style is the Kaufhaus Tietz  [ de ] department store on Leipziger Straße, Berlin , built in 1901 (since demolished). Some of

7832-496: Was to enter the booming electrical industry, and this site was dedicated to the production of electric trams . The UEG quickly encountered financial difficulties, and the Allgemeine Elektricitäts-Gesellschaft (AEG) took over in 1904 and planned the construction of a new turbine factory, as the existing factory had become too small. Architect Peter Behrens was commissioned with the design of

7921-410: Was used for the basement walls, an unfortunate blend unable to support great individual loads. From the basement upward, the building rose in plain brickwork with reinforced wood floors. The ceilings were underpinned with a formwork shell and finished in rough-cast plaster on the services installation side. The floors were composed of planks on loose sleepers – that is, sleepers that were not fixed between

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