117-666: The first Anglo-Sikh war was fought between the Sikh Empire and the British East India Company in 1845 and 1846 around the Ferozepur district of Punjab . It resulted in the defeat and partial subjugation of the Sikh empire and cession of Jammu & Kashmir as a separate princely state under British suzerainty . The Sikh kingdom of Punjab was expanded and consolidated by Maharajah Ranjit Singh during
234-633: A distinct European character, with channels dug out along the boundary of the fort, watchtowers on the two gateways, four bastions on four nooks and high walls around the fort. Ajit Singh of Ladwa won this battle due to this fort. The battle of Mudki was fought on 18 December 1845. An army under Tej Singh crossed the Sutlej and advanced against the British outpost at Ferozepur, although they did not attempt to attack or surround it. Another force under Lal Singh clashed with Gough's and Hardinge's advancing army at
351-521: A growth of the army which split into different confederacies or semi-independent misls . Each of these component armies controlled different areas and cities. However, in the period from 1762 to 1799, Sikh commanders of the misls appeared to be coming into their own as independent. Sikhism began during the conquest of North India by Babur , the founder of the Mughal Empire . His grandson, Akbar , supported religious freedom and after visiting
468-585: A letter that commanded all Sikhs to join him. After two years of gaining supporters, Banda Singh Bahadur initiated an agrarian uprising by breaking up the large estates of Zamindar families and distributing the land to the poor peasants who farmed the land. Banda Singh Bahadur started his rebellion by defeating the Mughal armies at the Battle of Samana , establishing the First Sikh State in 1709. This
585-480: A neutral role in the power struggle between two of the sons of Shah Jahan, Aurangzeb and Dara Shikoh , for control of the Mughal Empire. The ninth Guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur , moved the Sikh community to Anandpur and travelled extensively to visit and preach in defiance of Aurangzeb, who attempted to install Ram Rai as new guru. Guru Tegh Bahadur aided Kashmiri Pandits in avoiding conversion to Islam and
702-597: A number of years when he no longer felt threatened. The Sikh community did not have any further issues with the Mughal Empire until the death of Jahangir in 1627. The succeeding son of Jahangir, Shah Jahan , took offence at Guru Hargobind's "sovereignty" and after a series of assaults on Amritsar forced the Sikhs to retreat to the Sivalik Hills . The next guru, Guru Har Rai , maintained the guruship in these hills by defeating local attempts to seize Sikh land and playing
819-465: A perpetual state of mutiny or rebellion against the central Durbar (court) . Maharajah Sher Singh was unable to meet the pay demands of the army, although he reportedly lavished funds on a degenerate court. In September 1843 he was murdered by his cousin, an officer of the army, Ajit Singh Sindhanwalia. The Dogras took their revenge on those responsible, and Jind Kaur , Ranjit Singh's youngest widow, became regent for her infant son Duleep Singh . After
936-453: A portion of the British cantonment. Sir Harry Smith (afterwards Governor of Cape Colony), who was sent to relieve Ludhiana, marched eastwards from Ferozepur, keeping a few miles away from the Sutlej. On learning of the Sikh strength, and receiving further orders from Gough, Smith instead force-marched his troops via Jagraon , collecting a British regiment there, to reach Ludhiana ahead of the Sikh main body. On 21 January, as he left Baddowal,
1053-533: A routed enemy and conducting guerilla warfare. The artillery was large though unstandardised, increasing from 40 guns in 1808 to 381 by 1845, with an additional 388 swivel guns . Some of the artillery units had been organised and trained by European mercenaries . The British unwisely underestimated the Khalsa's artillery prior to the outbreak of war. There also existed the Jargirdar Fauj. This compoment of
1170-563: A simple border policy where it did not allow uninvited foreigners into the state. The purpose of this border policy was to dissuade potential foreign spies from entering the country. An example of the policy in-action is the case of Captain Arnold Mathews, who snuck into the Sikh Empire in circa 1808 to spy under the guise of being a tourist headed towards Kashmir but was intercepted and brought to Lahore. The Sikh court observed
1287-404: A single exchange of fire, and at the Battle of Ferozeshah , which was only won with the help of Tej Singh's treachery. Lal himself supposedly sheltered in a ditch during the battle. With his own treachery suspected by the men under his command, Lal Singh once again fled with his irregular cavalry, making his way to Lahore, where he offered before the Khalsa to relinquish his office. Although he
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#17327655470391404-549: A springboard to advance on the Sikh-held region of Multan, eventually resulted in conflict with the British. After Ranjit Singh's death in 1839, the empire was severely weakened by internal divisions and political mismanagement. This opportunity was used by the British East India Company to launch the First Anglo-Sikh War . The Battle of Ferozeshah in 1845 marked many turning points, the British encountered
1521-730: A time, went over to the enemy (the British Raj) with all his troops and artillery", reads the Dispatch of the Governor General, sent to London on November 17, 1846. On September 22, 1847, through a ‘sanad’, the British awarded his house at Haridwar to the Raja of Patiala. Ajit Singh was taken into custody and sent as a prisoner to the Allahabad fort. He contrived to escape, after killing his keeper, and after long wanderings in hills,
1638-573: A tiny proportion of the troops present; the native Indian troops (sepoys) who formed the vast majority. 74 battalions of Sepoys in the Bengal Army alone existed at the commencement of hostilities in addition to 8 light and lancer cavalry regiments and 18 Irregular cavalry regiments. The Sepoys were often used as garrisons and baggage train guards to leave the fighting to the European soldiers predominantly. In most infantry and cavalry brigades, there
1755-412: A total of over 200,000 sq mi (520,000 km ) at its zenith. Another more conservative estimate puts its total surface area during its zenith at 100,436 sq mi (260,124 km sq). The following modern-day political divisions made up the historical Sikh Empire: Jamrud District ( Khyber Agency , Pakistan) was the westernmost limit of the Sikh Empire. The westward expansion was stopped in
1872-673: Is supposed to have died in Kashmir. His children, who held in joint tenure eight villages along with Bhadour sardars, were dispatched by the British to these villages. Maharaja Duleep Singh remained ruler of the Punjab and at first his mother, Maharani Jindan Kaur, remained as Regent. However, the Durbar later requested that the British presence remain until the Maharaja attained the age of 16. The British consented to this and on 16 December 1846,
1989-633: The Sarkar Khalsaji . The foundation of the Sikh Empire can be traced to as early as 1707, the year of Aurangzeb 's death and the start of the downfall of the Mughal Empire . With the Mughals significantly weakened, the Sikh army, known as the Dal Khalsa , a rearrangement of the Khalsa inaugurated by Guru Gobind Singh , led expeditions against them and the Afghans in the west. This led to
2106-570: The Adi Granth . When the Guru refused, Jahangir ordered him to be put to death by torture. Guru Arjan's martyrdom led to the sixth Guru, Guru Hargobind , declaring Sikh sovereignty in the creation of the Akal Takht and the establishment of a fort to defend Amritsar . Jahangir attempted to assert authority over the Sikhs by jailing Guru Hargobind at Gwalior Fort , but released him after
2223-613: The Afghan-Sikh Wars , and the unification of the separate Sikh misls. Ranjit Singh rose to power in a very short period, from a leader of a single misl to finally becoming the Maharaja of Punjab. He began to modernise his army, using the latest training as well as weapons and artillery . After the death of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, the empire was weakened by the British East India Company stoking internal divisions and political mismanagement. Finally, in 1849,
2340-517: The Battle of Jamrud , in which the Afghans managed to kill the prominent Sikh general Hari Singh Nalwa in an offensive, though the Sikhs successfully held their position at their Jamrud fort. Ranjit Singh sent his General Sirdar Bahadur Gulab Singh Powind thereafter as reinforcement and he crushed the Pashtun rebellion harshly. In 1838, Ranjit Singh with his troops marched into Kabul to take part in
2457-683: The Beas River and Sutlej River . The Lahore Durbar was also required to pay an indemnity of 15 million rupees. Because it could not readily raise this sum, it ceded Kashmir , Hazarah and all the forts, territories, rights and interests in the hill countries situated between the Rivers Beas and Indus to the East India Company, as equivalent to ten million of rupees. In a later separate arrangement (the Treaty of Amritsar ),
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#17327655470392574-539: The British Empire . The formation of the empire began with the capture of Lahore from its Durrani ruler, Zaman Shah Durrani . Ranjit Singh was proclaimed as Maharaja of the Punjab on 12 April 1801 (to coincide with Vaisakhi ), creating a unified political state. Sahib Singh Bedi, a descendant of Guru Nanak , conducted the coronation. The formation of the empire was followed by the progressive expulsion of Afghans from Punjab by capitalizing off Afghan decline in
2691-554: The Cis-Sutlej States and also in territory under the British East India Company's rule. Other vakil emissaries of the Sikh court were sent to Rajputana , the Marathas , and Nepal on complimentary missions. Western/European officers from various backgrounds, including Britishers, Frenchmen, Germans, Italians, Spaniards, Americans, and Russians, also rose to high levels within the Sikh court in many instances. However,
2808-589: The First Anglo-Sikh War of 1845-1846, Lal Singh took personal command of the Khalsa, but alongside Tej Singh , he was secretly working with the British, sending information to and receiving orders from Captain Peter Nicholson, an officer stationed at Ferozepur . According to Alexander Gardner , who was in Lahore at this time, the Maharani, Lal, and Tej wanted to use the war as an opportunity to neutralise
2925-540: The First Anglo-Sikh War . Along with Tej Singh , Lal Singh is believed to be in the secret employ of the East India Company during the course of the war. Lal Singh was regularly supplying information and even receiving instructions from Company officers, communicating through Captain Peter Nicholson. Lal Singh was, a shopkeeper native to Sahgol in the Jehlum District . He entered the service of
3042-639: The Koh-i-Nor diamond for Maharaja Ranjit Singh. He served as governor of Kashmir and Hazara and established a mint on behalf of the Sikh empire to facilitate revenue collection. His frontier policy of holding the Khyber Pass was later used by the British Raj . Nalwa was responsible for expanding the frontier of Sikh empire to the Indus River . At the time of his death, the western boundary of
3159-517: The Punjab Army , opening with a gun-duel in which the Sikhs "had the better of the British artillery". As the British made advances, Europeans in their army were specially targeted, as the Sikhs believed if the army "became demoralized, the backbone of the enemy's position would be broken". The fighting continued throughout the night. The British position "grew graver as the night wore on", and "suffered terrible casualties with every single member of
3276-589: The Sivalik Hill rajas , who attempted to attack the city, but Guru Gobind Singh 's forces routed them at the Battle of Bhangani . He moved on to Anandpur and established the Khalsa , a collective army of baptised Sikhs, on 30 March 1699. The establishment of the Khalsa united the Sikh community against various Mughal-backed claimants to the guruship. In 1701, a combined army of the Sivalik Hill rajas and
3393-460: The Treaty of Bhyroval provided for the Maharani to be awarded a pension of 150,000 rupees and be replaced by a British resident in Lahore supported by a Council of Regency, with agents in other cities and regions. This effectively gave the East India Company control of the government. Sikh historians have always maintained that, in order to retain their hold on power and maintain the figurehead rule of Duleep Singh, Lal Singh and Tej Singh embarked on
3510-411: The langar of Guru Amar Das got a favourable impression of Sikhism. As a result of his visit, he donated land to the langar and the Mughals did not have any conflict with Sikh gurus until his death in 1605. His successor Jahangir , saw the Sikhs as a political threat. He ordered Guru Arjan , who had been arrested for supporting the rebellious Khusrau Mirza , to change the passage about Islam in
3627-456: The vizier Hira Singh was killed, while attempting to flee the capital with loot from the royal treasury (toshkana), by troops under Sham Singh Attariwala , Jind Kaur's brother Jawahar Singh became vizier in December 1844. In 1845 he arranged the assassination of Pashaura Singh , who presented a threat to Duleep Singh. For this, he was called to account by the army. Despite attempts to bribe
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3744-466: The Battle of Mudki late on 18 December. The British won an untidy encounter battle, suffering heavy casualties. The battle of Ferozeshah was fought on 21 December 1845. After the battle of Mudki, Gough's army came in sight of the large Sikh entrenchment at Ferozeshah on 19 December. Gough wished to attack at once, but Hardinge used his position as Governor General to overrule him and order him to wait for
3861-449: The British and to wage war against the Afghans . He hired American and European mercenary soldiers to train his army, and also incorporated contingents of Hindus and Muslims into his forces. Maharaja Ranjit Singh died in 1839. After his death, his kingdom began to fall into disorder. Ranjit's unpopular legitimate son, Kharak Singh , was removed from power within a few months, and later died in prison under mysterious circumstances. It
3978-448: The British any respect in the Punjab and increased suspicions of British motives. The actions and attitudes of the British, under Governor General Lord Ellenborough and his successor, Sir Henry Hardinge , are disputed. By most British accounts, their main concern was that the Sikh army, without strong leadership to restrain them, was a serious threat to British territories along the border. Sikh and Indian historians have countered that
4095-481: The British. The British controlled the valley after defeating them and the fort. Akali Hanuman Singh along with 500 troops were heading for Ghuram when they were attacked near Sohana by the British. The British defeated this force and Hanuman Singh was killed in action at age 90. In the Treaty of Lahore on 9 March 1846, the Sikhs were made to surrender the valuable region (the Jullundur Doab ) between
4212-776: The Chinese and Tibetans. The Cis-Sutlej states were a group of Sikh states in the Punjab region lying between the Sutlej River to the north, the Himalayas to the east, the Yamuna River and Delhi district to the south, and Sirsa District to the west. These states fell under the suzerainty of the Maratha Empire after 1785 before the Second Anglo-Maratha War of 1803–1805, after which
4329-461: The Governor General's staff either killed or wounded". Nevertheless, the British army took and held Ferozeshah. British General Sir James Hope Grant recorded: "Truly the night was one of gloom and forbidding and perhaps never in the annals of warfare has a British Army on such a large scale been nearer to a defeat which would have involved annihilation." The reasons for the withdrawal of the Sikhs from Ferozeshah are contentious. Some believe that it
4446-574: The Hindu Dogras . Sher Singh was crowned Maharaja of the Sikh Empire in January 1841, with Dhian Singh Dogra as his prime minister. The army expanded rapidly in the aftermath of Ranjit Singh's death, from 29,000 (with 192 guns) in 1839 to over 80,000 in 1845 as landlords and their retainers took up arms. It proclaimed itself to be the embodiment of the Sikh nation. Its regimental panchayats (committees) formed an alternative power source within
4563-569: The Khalsa Army was the feudal army provided by the nobility of the state. It numbered 55,000. Gulab Singh's army in particular contained between 12,000 and 17,000 infantry and cavalry as well as 94 guns. Additionally, there were the Nihangs ; 1,000 religious warriors who fought primarily as mounted infantry. Although the leaders and principal units of the army were Sikhs, there were also Punjabi , Pakhtun and Kashmiri infantry units. In total
4680-513: The Khalsa army could count on approximately 153,000 regular and irregular soldiers. It was however led by Lal Singh who, with Tej Singh, betrayed the Sikhs during the course of the war. The two generals were regularly supplying information and even receiving instructions from British officers. An alternative estimate of the troops is given by Singh who states it contained in 1845 on the eve of war 53,576 regular infantry 6,235 regular cavalry, 16,292 irregular cavalry and 10,698 gunners this not including
4797-547: The Khas and this force had grown from 35,000 in 1838 to 70,000 by 1845 with seven divisions being created in 1844/1845 from the existing troops. The Sikh cavalry, though no longer the preferred branch, remained a well-disciplined force with 6,235 cavalrymen in 1845 with 2 regiments of lancers , 2 of cuirassiers , and 6 dragoon regiments. There was also 22,000 Fauj-i-sowar which consisted of irregular cavalry deemed unsuitable for fighting an organised enemy but well-suited for chasing
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4914-492: The Maharaja when their father, Ghulam Muhiuddin, a physician, was summoned by him to treat an eye ailment soon after his capture of Lahore. The other Fakir brothers were Imamuddin, one of his principal administration officers, and Nuruddin, who served as home minister and personal physician, were also granted jagirs by the Maharaja. Every year, while at Amritsar, Ranjit Singh visited shrines of holy people of other faiths, including several Muslim saints, which did not offend even
5031-490: The Marathas lost control of the territory to the British East India Company . The Cis-Sutlej states included Kalsia , Kaithal , Patiala State , Nabha State , Jind State , Thanesar , Maler Kotla , Ludhiana , Kapurthala State , Ambala , Ferozpur and Faridkot State , among others. The Sikh Empire of Ranjit Singh occupied Faridkot State in 1807. However, control was restored to Gulab Singh of Faridkot in 1809 due to
5148-485: The Mughals and their administrators , the Mughal-allied Hindu hill-rajas of the Sivalik Hills , and hostile local Muslims siding with other Muslim forces. The Sikhs of the Dal Khalsa eventually formed their own independent Sikh administrative regions, Misls , derived from a Perso-Arabic term meaning 'similar', headed by Misldars . These Misls were united in large part by Maharaja Ranjit Singh. After
5265-557: The Mughals under Wazir Khan attacked Anandpur. The Khalsa retreated but regrouped to defeat the Mughals at the Battle of Muktsar . In 1707, Guru Gobind Singh accepted an invitation by Aurangzeb's successor Bahadur Shah I to meet him. The meeting took place at Agra on 23 July 1707. In August 1708, Guru Gobind Singh visited Nanded . There he met a Bairāgī recluse, Madho Das, who converted to Sikhism, rechristened as Banda Singh Bahadur . A short time before his death, Guru Gobind Singh ordered him to reconquer Punjab region and gave him
5382-413: The Raja of Jammu, Gulab Singh , purchased Kashmir from the East India Company for a payment of 7.5 million rupees and was granted the title Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir. The estate of Ladwa, belonging to Ajit Singh who had fought against the British at Buddowal and Aliwal, was confiscated in 1846. "The Raja of Ladwa, with an estate of 10,000 pounds a year, almost openly avowed his treason, and, after
5499-664: The Sikh Army. The army under Ranjit Singh had expanded from around 35,000 troops in the 1820s to over 100,000 by 1845. In 1822 Ranjit Singh decided to base his army on the French model and this process was complete by the time of his death in 1839. The first brigade of the army was the Fauj-i-Khas (Royal Army), which contained 3,176 infantry, 1,667 cavalry and 34 guns. The brigades of the Fauj-i-ain were modelled on that of
5616-630: The Sikh Empire was the Khyber Pass. The Namgyal dynasty of Ladakh paid regular annual tribute to the Sikh Empire starting 1819 until 1834. The tribute was paid to the local Sikh governors of Kashmir. The Namgyal kingdom would later be conquered by the Dogras , under the leadership of Zorawar Singh. The domain of the Maqpon kingdom of Baltistan, based in Skardu, under the rule of Ahmad Shah Maqpon,
5733-423: The Sikh army in its entrenchments at Sobraon as soon as Smith's division rejoined from Ludhiana, but Hardinge forced him to wait until a heavy artillery train had arrived. At last, he moved forward early on 10 February. The start of the battle was delayed by heavy fog, but as it lifted, 35 British heavy guns and howitzers opened fire. The Sikh cannon replied. The bombardment went on for two hours without much effect on
5850-431: The Sikh court and nobles also wearing yellow clothing on the day. During Basant, the officials bore gifts for the sovereign ruler, with the ruler in-turn bestowing robe-of-honours to the officials based on their rank and status. During celebrations of Dussehra, the Sikh court assembled itself at Amritsar and the jagirdari troops of the empire's military were paraded and inspected by the maharaja. The Sikh Empire spanned
5967-424: The Sikh court was filled with elaborately garbed and decorated members. Only three individuals were permitted to be seated on chairs within the durbar, them namely being heir-apparent Kharak Singh, kanwar Sher Singh, and Raja Hira Singh. Three sides of the hall of the durbar were covered with golden-pillars, with shawl carpets that were embroidered with golden and silver, and inset with precious stones, decorating
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#17327655470396084-543: The Sikh court was wary of the Westerners within the court, and kept them therefore under strict regulation. These foreign Western members of the court were persuaded by the state to integrate themselves by marrying a local woman, settling down within the empire, and adopt the cultural customs of the locals, such as growing out a beard or wearing a turban. The Western members of the court were also banned from publicly consuming beef or smoking . The Sikh Empire did enact
6201-408: The Sikh court were treated with respect and hospitality, with many contemporary accounts of foreign visitors to the court noting the good-treatment afforded to them by the state. When a foreign visitor arrived, they would be greeted by a protocol officer, who would arrange for their temporary residence, which was based upon the status of the visitor. The state government paid for the expenses regarding
6318-459: The Sikh defences. Gough was told that his heavy guns were running short of ammunition and is alleged to have replied, "Thank God! Then I'll be at them with the bayonet." Two British divisions under Harry Smith and Major General Sir Walter Gilbert made feint attacks on the Sikh left, while another division under Major General Robert Henry Dick made the main attack on the Sikh right, where the defences were of soft sand and were lower and weaker than
6435-577: The Sikh government in 1832, working as a writer in the treasury, and, according to some sources, converting from his original Hinduism to Sikhism in order to secure a place at court. He was patronised by the Wazirs Dhian Singh Dogra and Hira Singh Dogra, gaining favour by engineering, in 1843, the murders of Beli Ram (son of Misr Diwan Chand and another of Lal Singh's benefactors) and Bhai Gurmukh Singh, both of whom were disliked by Hira Singh. Hira gave Lal military commands, granted him
6552-577: The Sikh irregular cavalry (the Gorchurras ) continually attacked his rearguards. They captured most of Smith's baggage animals (mules, bullocks and elephants), and cut down any straggling troops. Nevertheless, Smith succeeded in reaching Ludhiana, with his troops exhausted. A brigade of troops from Delhi , including two Gurkha battalions, reinforced him. The battle of Aliwal was fought on 28 January 1846. After resting his troops, Smith once again advanced to Baddowal. The Sikhs had withdrawn to Aliwal on
6669-618: The Sikh victory at Sirhind . He ruled the territory between the Sutlej river and the Yamuna river , established a capital in the Himalayas at Lohgarh and struck coinage in the names of Guru Nanak and Guru Gobind Singh. In 1716, his army was defeated by the Mughals after he attempted to defend his fort at Gurdas Nangal . He was captured along with 700 of his men and sent to Delhi , where they were all tortured and executed after refusing to convert to Islam . The period from 1716 to 1799
6786-637: The Sutlej, awaiting reinforcements. On 28 January, Smith advanced against them, cautiously at first. Finding a weak point in the Sikh position, he won a model victory which eliminated the Sikh bridgehead and captured almost all Ranjur Singh's artillery and his army's baggage and equipment. The battle of Sobraon was fought on 10 February 1846. The Sikhs had been temporarily dismayed by their defeats and by their commanders' inaction, but rallied when fresh units and leaders, including Sham Singh Attariwala, joined them, and Maharani Jind Kaur exhorted 500 selected officers to make renewed efforts. Gough had intended to attack
6903-645: The aftermath of the First Anglo-Sikh War, Lal Singh was rewarded by the British by being confirmed as Wazir of the State of Lahore under Henry Lawrence . However, he fell from grace when it was discovered that he had sent written instructions to the Governor of Kashmir to thwart Gulab Singh's attempts to occupy the Vale of Kashmir , which had been granted him by the British under the Treaty of Amritsar . Lal
7020-551: The army he was butchered in September 1845 in the presence of Jind Kaur and Duleep Singh. Jind Kaur publicly vowed revenge against her brother's murderers. She remained regent. Lal Singh became vizier, and Tej Singh became commander of the army. Sikh historians have stressed that both these men were prominent in the Dogra faction. Originally Hindus from outside of Punjab, both had converted to Sikhism in 1818. Immediately after
7137-465: The bank of the river and continued to fire into the crowds in the water. By the time the firing ceased, the Sikhs had lost between 8,000 and 10,000 men. The British had also captured 67 guns. This siege was fought from mid-April to 28 May 1846. It was a six-week long siege of the Kangra fortress . Lawrence reached the fort on 3 May 1846. This was the only battle fought between the Sikh forces of Kangra and
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#17327655470397254-811: The battlefield by Lal Singh. By nightfall, some of Gough's army had fought their way into the Sikh positions, but other units had been driven back in disorder. Hardinge expected a defeat on the following day and ordered the state papers at Mudki to be burned in this event. However, on the following morning, the British and Bengal Army units rallied and drove the Sikhs from the rest of their fortifications. Lal Singh had made no effort to rally or reorganise his army. At this point, Tej Singh's army appeared. Once again, Gough's exhausted army faced defeat and disaster, but Tej Singh inexplicably withdrew, claiming that British cavalry and artillery which were withdrawing to replenish ammunition were actually making an outflanking move. Operations temporarily halted, mainly because Gough's army
7371-417: The battlefield early. It is alleged in many Sikh accounts that he deliberately weakened the pontoon bridge, casting loose the boat at its centre, or that he ordered his own artillery on the west bank to fire on the bridge on the pretext of preventing British pursuit. British accounts claim that the bridge simply broke under the weight of the numbers of soldiers trying to retreat across it, having been weakened by
7488-401: The court include high-level civil and military appointments, reports from the provincial satraps and kardars . When matters of the court were read-out, royal decrees made orally were transferred into writing for final approval. Tributes and nazaranas were also exchanged or bestowed within the court. Supplicants to the court were dismissed with khill'ats (robes) or monetary gifts. When
7605-584: The customary law of the districts and socio-ethnic groups, and were open to all who wanted to be governed by customary religious law, whether Hindu, Sikh, or Muslim. One of Ranjit Singh's first acts after the 1799 capture of Lahore was to revive the offices of the hereditary Qazis and Muftis which had been prevalent in Mughal times. Kazi Nizamuddin was appointed to decide marital issues among Muslims, while Muftis Mohammad Shahpuri and Sadulla Chishti were entrusted with powers to draw up title-deeds relating to transfers of immovable property. The old mohalladari system
7722-536: The death of Ranjit Singh, the British East India Company had begun increasing its military strength, particularly in the regions adjacent to the Punjab, establishing a military cantonment at Ferozepur , only a few miles from the Sutlej River which marked the frontier between British-ruled India and the Punjab. In 1843, they conquered and annexed Sindh , to the south of the Punjab, in a move which many British people regarded as cynical and ignoble. This did not gain
7839-455: The division from Ferozepur to arrive. When they appeared late on 21 December, Gough attacked in the few hours of daylight left. The well-served Sikh artillery caused heavy casualties among the British, and their infantry fought desperately. On the other hand, the elite of the Sikh army, the irregular cavalry or ghodachadas (alt. gorracharra, horse-mounted), were comparatively ineffective against Gough's infantry and cavalry as they had been kept from
7956-486: The early years of the nineteenth century, about the same time as the British-controlled territories were advanced by conquest or annexation to the borders of the Punjab. When shown the map of India, Maharaja Ranjit Singh said, "What does the red colour stand for?" The cartographer replied "Your Majesty, red marks the extent of British possessions." The Maharaja scanned the map with his single eye and saw nearly
8073-541: The empire was from the Punjab region to Khyber Pass in the west, to Kashmir in the north, Sindh in the south, and Tibet in the east. In 1799, Ranjit Singh moved the capital to Lahore from Gujranwala , where it had been established in 1763 by his grandfather, Charat Singh . Ranjit Singh annexed the Sial State , a local Muslim-ruled chieftaincy, after invading Jhang in 1807. The basis for this annexation
8190-427: The empire's existing territory south of the Sutlej), following attempts by Ranjit Singh to wrest control of these states from the British between 1806 and 1809 The Sikh crossing of the Sutlej, following British militarization of the border with Punjab (from 2,500 men and six guns in 1838 to 17,612 men and 66 guns in 1844, and 40,523 men and 94 guns in 1845), and plans on using the newly conquered territory of Sindh as
8307-402: The entrenchments, enraging the British soldiers. The British, Gurkhas and Bengal regiments renewed their attacks along the entire front of the entrenchment, and broke through at several points. On the vulnerable Sikh right, engineers blew a breach in the fortifications and British cavalry and horse artillery pushed through it to engage the Sikhs in the centre of their position. Tej Singh had left
8424-410: The festivals of Vaisakhi , Dussehra , Basant , Holi , and Diwali . Vaisakhi was considered an especially auspicious celebration within the Sikh court, with it giving and distributing gifts of money, gold, silver, cows, horses, elephants, gold-bangles, and food to Brahmins and the poor. During Basant celebrations, the military troops of the empire were paraded donning yellow uniforms, with members of
8541-491: The floor. The maharaja was seated on a golden throne , with Ranjit Singh preferring to sit cross-legged on it. The member of the court allowed to be seated behind the maharaja was Raja Dhian Singh. The rest of the members of the court were seated as per their rank and status. The colours of the Sikh court were yellow and green. Thus, most of its members donned yellow-coloured dressings made from Kashmiri silk or woollens. However, there existed no strict categorization scheme of
8658-412: The growing threat of the Khalsa, who were becoming rebellious. At the start of the war, Lal kept his divisions entrenched at Ferozeshah even when the British garrison at Ferozepur was open to attack, allowing John Hunter Littler to retreat from the village and join forces with Hugh Gough . Gough's East India Company army subsequently defeated the Khalsa in the Battle of Mudki , from which Lal fled after
8775-626: The happenings of surrounding regions, including remote parts of its territory and foreign countries, the Sikh court received reports from the waqa'nawis (news-writers) located in the empire's provinces ( subas ). The reports were dispatched to the Lahore Darbar at regular intervals. Furtheremore, the vakils (agents) of foreign countries were associated with the Sikh court on a reciprocal basis. The Sikh court had news-writers located in Afghanistan and also had its own vakil emissaries in
8892-402: The kingdom, declaring that Guru Gobind Singh 's ideal of the Sikh commonwealth had been revived, with the Sikhs as a whole assuming all executive, military and civil authority in the state, which British observers decried as a "dangerous military democracy". British representatives and visitors in the Punjab described the regiments as preserving "puritanical" order internally, but also as being in
9009-615: The maharaja was travelling, the court ceased to be static and was held at whatever location the ruler's retinue decided to hold-up at, often under a tree or whilst moving on horseback. The ruler would dictate orders to provincial governors whilst inspecting their troops or even in the midst of battle. Noble members of the court, including relatives of the royal family, resided in palatial haveli structures and donned expensive clothing and accessories (such as jewelry). The Sikh princes, and also Raja Dhian Singh, were permitted to hold their own miniature durbars (courts). Foreign visitors to
9126-406: The military preparations made by these Governor-Generals were offensive in nature; for example, they prepared bridging trains (prefabricated bridges) and siege gun batteries, which would be unlikely to be required in a purely defensive operation. Nevertheless, the unconcealed and seemingly aggressive British military build-up at the borders had the effect of increasing tension within the Punjab and
9243-732: The most religious Sikhs of his administration. As relayed by Fakir Nuruddin, orders were issued to treat people of all faith groups, occupations, and social levels equally and in accordance with the doctrines of their faith, per the Shastras and the Quran , as well as local authorities like judges and panches (local elder councils), as well as banning forcible possession of others' land or of inhabited houses to be demolished. There were special courts for Muslims which ruled in accordance to Muslim law in personal matters, and common courts preceded over by judicial officers which administered justice under
9360-424: The north of the river, and setting the Sutlej as the dividing boundary between the Sikh and British empires; negotiating with Dost Muhammad Khan during his unsuccessful attempt to retake Peshawar , and ensuring the succession of the throne during the Maharaja's last days in addition to caretaking after a stroke, as well as occasional military assignments throughout his career. The Fakir brothers were introduced to
9477-504: The open treachery of the two Sikh generals. After mutual demands and accusations between the Sikh Durbar and the East India Company, diplomatic relations were broken. An East India Company army began marching towards Ferozepur , where a division was already stationed. In response to the British move, the Sikh army began crossing the Sutlej on 11 December 1845. The Sikhs claimed they were only moving into Sikh possessions (specifically
9594-404: The positions of foreign minister of the empire and translator for the maharaja, and played important roles in such important events as the negotiations with the British, during which he convinced Ranjit Singh to maintain diplomatic ties with the British and not to go to war with them in 1808, as British troops were moved along the Sutlej in pursuance of the British policy of confining Ranjit Singh to
9711-411: The rankings of the constituent members of the Lahore Darbar, thus the rankings of its members was determined by the level of trust the maharaja held in them. The court also granted awards upon its members, with most of these essentially being bestowed titles in the form of honourifics, however some members were granted jagirs (estate grant). Laziness was heavily looked-down upon with the court, with
9828-575: The reign of Jassa Singh Ramgarhia , the Sikh Misls became divided and fought each other. A sort of 'Cold War' broke out with the Bhangi , Nakkai , Dalelwala and Ramgharia Misls verses Sukerchakia , Ahluwalia , Karor Singhia and Kaniyeha . The Shaheedan , Nishania and Singhpuria also allied but did not engage in warfare with the others and continued the Dal Khalsa. The Phulkian Misl
9945-481: The rest of the line. (It is believed that Lal Singh had supplied this information to Major Henry Lawrence , the Political Agent at Gough's headquarters.) Nevertheless, Dick's division was driven back by Sikh counter-attacks after initially gaining footholds within the Sikh lines. Dick himself was killed. As the British fell back, some frenzied Sikh soldiers attacked British wounded left in the ditch in front of
10062-600: The rise of the company and the fall of the Mughal empire. Although the Sikh Army was weakened by the war, resentment at British interference in the government led to the Second Anglo-Sikh War within three years. Sikh Empire The Sikh Empire , officially known as Sarkār-i-Khālsa and Khālasa Rāj , was a regional power based in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent . It existed from 1799, when Ranjit Singh captured Lahore , to 1849, when it
10179-535: The ruling maharaja , who was the "drum of the Khalsa". In-theory, the Sikh court was based on the Khalsa ideals propounded by Guru Gobind Singh yet the court was secular in-practice. As an example of this secularism, members of the court came from various religious background, including Sikhs, Hindus, Muslims, and Christians. Furthermore, the members also came from various ethnic, regional, and caste backgrounds, such as Dogras, Rajputs, Brahmins, Jats, and Europeans. Whilst Ranjit Singh himself preferred to dress modestly,
10296-662: The ruling maharaja often sending out the court's members on military or diplomatic missions. The business of the ruling government was carried out in Lahore, specifically the Musamman Burj located within the Lahore Fort . A public court was held from morning until noon in the Diwan-i-Aam ("hall of audience"), with the court being attended by important members of the court, including princes, ministers, nobles, and civil and military officers. Some matters discussed in
10413-470: The signing of a treaty between the Lahore Darbar and the British East India Company. While these Sikh states had been set up by the Dal Khalsa , they did not become part of the Sikh Empire. There was a mutual ban on warfare following the treaty of Amritsar in 1809 (in which the empire forfeited the claim to the Cis-Sutlej States, and the British were not to interfere north of the Sutlej or in
10530-672: The state was dissolved after the defeat in the Second Anglo-Sikh War. The empire is also referred to as the Lahore State , such as in contemporary British maps. The term Lahore Darbar refers to the Sikh court at Lahore of the empire's ruling government. However, the term "Lahore Darbar" only gained currency around the time of Ranjit Singh's death, with it not being found in British sources until then. The empire's own Persian chronicles refers to its ruling government as
10647-485: The swollen river. Whichever account is correct, the bridge broke, trapping nearly 20,000 of the Sikh Khalsa Army on the east bank. None of the trapped Sikh soldiers attempted to surrender. Many detachments, including one led by Sham Singh Attariwala, fought to the death. Some Sikhs rushed forward to attack the British regiments sword in hand; others tried to ford or swim the river. British horse artillery lined
10764-547: The tens of thousands of Jargirdari Fauj. The British army in India at the time generally consisted of three types: the regular units of the British Army (sometimes referred to in India as "Queen's" troops), who were used as the shock formations of the military in India, which in combination with disease resulted in them being almost permanently understrength; the European troops raised by the East India Company, who represented
10881-452: The thrones of Punjab , Kashmir , and Jammu in personal union. It was divided into four provinces: Lahore , which became the capital; Multan ; Peshawar ; and Kashmir . Ethnically and religiously diverse, with an estimated population of 4.5 million in 1831 (making it the 19th most populous country at the time ), it was the last major region of the Indian subcontinent to be annexed by
10998-421: The title of Rajah and numerous jagirs at Rohtas , and appointed him tutor to Maharajah Duleep Singh in the place of Duleep's uncle, Jawahar Singh . Nevertheless, when Maharani Jind Kaur turned against Hira Singh, Lal supported the Maharani and her brother Jawahar, helping them to persecute Hira Singh. Lal quickly won the Maharani's confidence, and became her closest advisor - contemporaries assumed that he
11115-517: The victory parade along with the British after restoring Shah Shoja to the Afghan throne at Kabul. The empire was divided into various provinces (known as Subas ), them namely being: The Sikh Empire allowed men from religions other than their own to rise to commanding positions of authority. The Fakir brothers were trusted personal advisors and assistants as well as close friends to Ranjit Singh, particularly Fakir Azizuddin , who would serve in
11232-464: The village of Moran, whose ownership was disputed) on the east side of the river, but the move was regarded by the British as clearly hostile and they declared war. After Raja Gurdit Singh's death, his son Ajit Singh succeeded him. Ajit Singh upgraded his fort at Ladwa to face the danger of the British. During the First Sikh war in 1845, he fought on the side of the Sikh army against the British. He
11349-406: The visitor's entertainment. There exists accounts of visitors being gifted by the state, with presents such as fruit, sweets, wines, and also money. Full displays of the empire's regalia and military forces were displayed during important ceremonial functions, such as the marriages of important nobles or when receiving high-level foreign diplomatic dignatories. In order to keep tabs and updated on
11466-664: The war fewer than 25,000 soldiers were actively fighting. The army was commanded by Sir Hugh Gough , the Commander in Chief of the Bengal Army, who was accompanied by Sir Henry Hardinge , the British Governor General of Bengal, who placed himself beneath Gough in the military chain of command . Gough was an aggressive commander who was unwilling to await for reinforcements. This almost led to disaster despite
11583-410: The war with the deliberate intent of breaking their own army. In particular, Lal Singh was corresponding with a British political officer and betraying state and military secrets throughout the war. Lal Singh's and Tej Singh's desertion of their armies and refusal to attack when opportunity offered seem inexplicable otherwise. The Sikh empire was until then one of the few remaining states in India after
11700-414: The whole of Hindustan except the Punjab painted red. He turned to his courtiers and remarked: ‘Ek roz sab lal ho jaiga— one day it will all be red.' It was said that his prophecy was going to be fulfilled. Ranjit Singh maintained a policy of wary friendship with the British, ceding some territory south of the Sutlej River , while at the same time building up his military forces both to deter aggression by
11817-428: Was a Nepalese Gurkha, and European generals included Jean-Francois Allard , Jean-Baptiste Ventura , and Paolo Avitabile . other notable generals of the Sikh Khalsa Army were Veer Singh Dhillon , Sham Singh Attariwala , Mahan Singh Mirpuri , and Zorawar Singh Kahluria , among others. Lal Singh Raja Lal Singh (died 1866) was Wazir of the Sikh Empire and commander of Sikh Khalsa Army forces during
11934-481: Was a highly turbulent time politically and militarily in the Punjab region. This was caused by the overall decline of the Mughal empire that left a power vacuum in the region that was eventually filled by the Sikhs of the Dal Khalsa , meaning " Khalsa army" or " Khalsa party". In the late 18th century, after defeating several invasions by the Afghan rulers of the Durrani Empire and their allies, remnants of
12051-422: Was arrested by Aurangzeb. When offered a choice between conversion to Islam and death, he chose to die rather than compromise his principles and was executed. Guru Gobind Singh assumed the guruship in 1675 and to avoid battles with Sivalik Hill rajas moved the guruship to Paunta . There he built a large fort to protect the city and garrisoned an army to protect it. The growing power of the Sikh community alarmed
12168-586: Was conquered in 1839–40 and its local ruler was deposed. The Dogras at this time were under the suzerainty of the Sikh Empire. During the Sino-Sikh War of 1841, the forces of the empire invaded the Tibetan Plateau , which was then under the control of the Qing dynasty . However, this control was short-lived and the military of the empire was forced to retreat to Ladakh due to a counterattack by
12285-410: Was defeated and conquered by the British East India Company in the Second Anglo-Sikh War . It was forged on the foundations of the Khalsa from a collection of autonomous misls . At its peak in the 19th century, the empire extended from Gilgit and Tibet in the north to the deserts of Sindh in the south and from the Khyber Pass in the west to the Sutlej in the east as far as Oudh ; holding
12402-474: Was defeated. The Sikh defenders of Wudnee surrendered on 30 December after the Sikh defeat at Ferozeshah prevented the Sikh army reinforcing them. This battle was the last fought by the Raja of Ladwa (alt. spelt as "Ladva"), Ajit Singh. The fort was designed by Dewan Mohkam Chand, with the assistance of Ranjit Singh's French and Italian generals. It was constructed as a response to the British, who built Lodhi fort in nearby Ludhiana . The fort's architecture has
12519-716: Was excommunicated from the confederacy. Rani Sada Kaur of the Kanhaiya Misl rose in the vacuum and destroyed the power of the Bhangis. She later gave her throne to Maharaja Ranjit Singh. The formal start of the Sikh Empire began with the unification of the Misls by 1801, creating a unified political state. All the Misl leaders, who were affiliated with the army, were the nobility with usually long and prestigious family backgrounds in Sikh history. The main geographical footprint of
12636-424: Was exhausted and required rest and reinforcements. The battle of Budhowal was fought on 21 January 1846. Ranjodh Singh Majithia was the son of Desa Singh Majithia, one of the most able ministers under Maharaja Ranjit Singh. He commanded a large army, (10,000 infantry and some regular cavalry with sixty guns) and crossed the Sutlej in force and was joined by Ajit Singh of Ladwa. They marched towards Ludhiana and burned
12753-461: Was followed the next year by another Sikh victory at the Battle of Sadhaura . The rebellion culminated following their defeat at the Siege of Gurdaspur . During the rebellion, Banda Singh Bahadur made a point of destroying the cities in which Mughals had been cruel to the supporters of Guru Gobind Singh. He executed Wazir Khan in revenge for the deaths of Guru Gobind Singh's sons and Pir Budhu Shah after
12870-665: Was formed in Lahore as a direct representative of the British Crown . The empire's ruling court based out of Lahore is termed the Lahore Darbar or Khalsa Darbar . Faqir Saifuddin of the Fakir Khana Museum prefers to use the term Punjab Darbar rather than "Khalsa Darbar", owing to the large role Muslims played in Ranjit Singh's court. The ruling court was diverse and under the ultimate command of
12987-455: Was her lover, although Lal denied that in later life - being appointed to the Council of Regency. In February 1845, he was sent to Jammu at the head of an army to negotiate with Gulab Singh . When Jawahar Singh, who had since been appointed Wazir, was assassinated by the Sikh Khalsa Army on 21 September 1845, Lal Singh was made Wazir of the Sikh Empire in his place on 8 November. During
13104-624: Was reintroduced with each mahallah , or neighborhood subdivision, placed under the charge of one of its members. The office of Kotwal, or prefect of police, was conferred upon a Muslim, Imam Bakhsh. Generals were also drawn from a variety of communities, along with prominent Sikh generals like Hari Singh Nalwa , Fateh Singh Dullewalia, Nihal Singh Atariwala, Chattar Singh Attariwalla , and Fateh Singh Kalianwala; Hindu generals included Misr Diwan Chand and Dewan Mokham Chand Nayyar , his son, and his grandson; and Muslim generals included Ilahi Bakhsh and Mian Ghaus Khan; one general, Balbhadra Kunwar ,
13221-410: Was relieved of the office of Wazir, replaced by Gulab Singh on 31 January 1846, he retained military command, and was present at the Battle of Sobraon on 10 February. Before the battle, Lal Singh allegedly betrayed the Khalsa once again, sending a map of the Sikh entrenchments to Nicholson. During the battle itself, Lal kept his artillery and cavalry off the field, and once again retired to Lahore. In
13338-428: Was that the local ruler of Jhang, Ahmad Khan Sial, was conspiring with Nawab Muzaffar Khan of Multan and had signed a secret treaty with the latter. Hari Singh Nalwa was Commander-in-Chief of the Sikh Khalsa Army from 1825 to 1837. He is known for his role in the conquests of Kasur , Sialkot , Multan , Kashmir , Attock and Peshawar . Nalwa led the Sikh army in freeing Shah Shuja from Kashmir and secured
13455-411: Was treachery of the non-Sikh high command of their own army which led to them marching away from a British force in a precarious and battered state. Others believe that a tactical withdrawal was the best policy. The Sikh empire was finally dissolved at the end of the Second Anglo-Sikh War in 1849 into separate princely states and the British province of Punjab . Eventually, a Lieutenant Governorship
13572-403: Was usually one British unit to every three or four Bengal units. The artillery of the Bengal Army contained 3 brigades and 5 battalions. Most of the artillery which took part in the war consisted of light guns from the elite Bengal Horse Artillery . Despite an overwhelming superiority in overall numbers the British struggled to assemble an army above 40,000 for the campaign and even at the end of
13689-470: Was widely believed that he was poisoned. He was replaced by his able but estranged son Kanwar Nau Nihal Singh , who also died within a few months in suspicious circumstances, after being injured by a falling archway at the Lahore Fort while returning from his father's cremation. At the time, two major factions within the Punjab were contending for power and influence; the Sikh Sindhanwalias and
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