Africanization or Africanisation (lit., making something African) has been applied in various contexts, notably in geographic and personal naming and in the composition of the civil service via processes such as indigenization .
111-410: President of Equatorial Guinea Government Francisco Macías Nguema (born Mez-m Ngueme , later Africanised to Masie Nguema Biyogo Ñegue Ndong ; 1 January 1924 – 29 September 1979), often referred to as Macías Nguema or simply Macías , was an Equatoguinean politician who served as the first president of Equatorial Guinea from the country's independence in 1968, until his overthrow in 1979. He
222-475: A United States House of Representatives joint resolution condemning him for acts of religious persecution and genocide had been proposed. By 1979, his servants stated that Macías Nguema had become increasingly withdrawn, often spending the time mostly alone at his Mongomo villa. He would wander around, repeatedly saying the names of his victims, and worshipping a collection of heads as per Fang tradition, hoping that this would grant him power. Even more disturbing to
333-590: A chemical substance used in religious, shamanic , or spiritual contexts – in the Indian subcontinent since the Vedic period . The earliest known reports regarding the sacred status of cannabis in the Indian subcontinent come from the Atharva Veda , estimated to have been composed sometime around 1400 BCE. The Hindu god Shiva is described as a cannabis user, known as the "Lord of bhang ". In modern culture,
444-651: A one-party state ruled by his United National Workers' Party (PUNT), and declaring himself president for life in 1972. Domestically, his presidency was characterized by attempts at Africanization and harsh persecution of non-Fang ethnic groups. In foreign policy, he quickly turned against Spain and allied himself with the Eastern Bloc , receiving support from the Soviet Union , Cuba and North Korea . Due to his dictatorship's severe human rights abuses and economic mismanagement, tens of thousands of people fled
555-472: A screening test in the field, but it cannot definitively confirm the presence of cannabis, as a large range of substances have been shown to give false positives. Researchers at John Jay College of Criminal Justice reported that dietary zinc supplements can mask the presence of THC and other drugs in urine. However, a 2013 study conducted by researchers at the University of Utah School of Medicine refute
666-451: A vaporizer , consuming THC in pill form, or consuming cannabis foods . There is concern that cannabis may contribute to cardiovascular disease, but as of 2018 , evidence of this relationship was unclear. Research in these events is complicated because cannabis is often used in conjunction with tobacco, and drugs such as alcohol and cocaine that are known to have cardiovascular risk factors. Smoking cannabis has also been shown to increase
777-639: A Korean-language memoir about her own life. Macías Nguema's wife and daughter Maribel live in Spain, and his sons in Equatorial Guinea. His son Filiberto Ntutumu Nguema was named Rector of the National University of Equatorial Guinea in 2015. Africanisation Africanization has referred to the modification of placenames and personal names to reflect an "African" identity. In some cases, changes are not only of transliteration but of
888-442: A Spanish military academy together and who now headed the military. As Macías Nguema was still at his palace, isolated from the rest of the country due to his fear of being overthrown, the coup met no organized opposition. The deposed ruler and a contingent of loyal forces initially tried to resist the coup upon hearing of it, but his forces eventually abandoned him. He fled into the jungle of Rio Muni, possibly intending to get across
999-651: A Spanish spy. This led to a climate of fear and suspicion, as owning the wrong book or having talked with the wrong person could result in punishment, imprisonment or death. Having turned against Spain, Macías Nguema allied with the Eastern Bloc , enlisting support from the Soviet Union , Cuba , and North Korea . He allowed the Soviets to channel weapons through Equatorial Guinea to the MPLA in Angola , while repeatedly threatening to terminate this alliance in order to blackmail
1110-415: A causal relationship between cannabis use and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease . Short-term use of cannabis is associated with bronchodilation . Other side effects of cannabis use include cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome (CHS), a condition which involves recurrent nausea, cramping abdominal pain, and vomiting. Cannabis smoke contains thousands of organic and inorganic chemical compounds. This tar
1221-641: A conclusion. Cannabis use is associated with increased risk of anxiety disorders, although causality has not been established. A review in 2019 found that research was insufficient to determine the safety and efficacy of using cannabis to treat schizophrenia, psychosis, or other mental disorders . Another found that cannabis during adolescence was associated with an increased risk of developing depression and suicidal behavior later in life, while finding no effect on anxiety. Heavy, long-term exposure to marijuana may have physical, mental, behavioral and social health consequences. It may be "associated with diseases of
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#17327765097721332-426: A decrease in short-term memory, dry mouth, impaired motor skills, reddening of the eyes, dizziness, feeling tired and vomiting. Some users may experience an episode of acute psychosis , which usually abates after six hours, but in rare instances, heavy users may find the symptoms continuing for many days. Legalization has increased the rates at which children are exposed to cannabis, particularly from edibles. While
1443-458: A drug use testing program or a forensic investigation of a traffic or other criminal offense. The concentrations obtained from such analyses can often be helpful in distinguishing active use from passive exposure, elapsed time since use, and extent or duration of use. These tests cannot, however, distinguish authorized cannabis smoking for medical purposes from unauthorized recreational smoking. Commercial cannabinoid immunoassays , often employed as
1554-611: A drug. Emergency room (ER) admissions associated with cannabis use rose significantly from 2012 to 2016; adolescents from age 12–17 had the highest risk. At one Colorado medical center following legalization, approximately two percent of ER admissions were classified as cannabis users. The symptoms of one quarter of these users were partially attributed to cannabis (a total of 2567 out of 449,031 patients); other drugs were sometimes involved. Of these cannabis admissions, one quarter were for acute psychiatric effects , primarily suicidal ideation , depression, and anxiety. An additional third of
1665-478: A limited number of territories, including Canada, Belgium , Australia, the Netherlands , New Zealand, Spain, and many U.S. states . This usage generally requires a prescription, and distribution is usually done within a framework defined by local laws. According to DEA Chief Administrative Law Judge, Francis Young, "cannabis is one of the safest therapeutically active substances known to man". Being under
1776-523: A longer period of abstinence was associated with smaller magnitudes of impairment, both retrospective and prospective memory were impaired in cannabis users. The authors concluded that some, but not all, of the deficits associated with cannabis use were reversible. A 2012 meta-analysis found that deficits in most domains of cognition persisted beyond the acute period of intoxication, but was not evident in studies where subjects were abstinent for more than 25 days. Few high quality studies have been performed on
1887-532: A majority of its electorate voted against Macías Nguema in the 1968 elections. Use of the Fang language was forcibly imposed, with penalties for anyone caught using Spanish or languages belonging to ethnic minorities. In a plebiscite held on 29 July 1973 , the 1968 Constitution was replaced with a new document that gave Macías Nguema absolute power and formally made his party the only one legally permitted . According to official figures, 99 percent of voters approved
1998-538: A record 44% of the US population has tried marijuana in their lifetime, an increase from 38% in 2013 and 33% in 1985. Marijuana use in the United States is three times above the global average, but in line with other Western democracies. Forty-four percent of American 12th graders have tried the drug at least once, and the typical age of first-use is 16, similar to the typical age of first-use for alcohol but lower than
2109-455: A sacrifice. Macías Nguema managed to survive several bouts of tuberculosis as a child, which left him with a profound fear of death for the remainder of his life. He was educated at a Catholic school through to primary level. He changed his name to Francisco Macías Nguema at this time after being baptized by Spanish Catholic missionaries, and would come to learn Spanish in addition to his native Fang . During his adolescence, he worked as
2220-676: A servant for some wealthy Spanish settlers, being described as helpful and obedient, which earned him ridicule and mistreatment by other non-Christianized Fang, and showed an inferiority complex with respect to the Spaniards. Medical reports from his early career suggested that Macías Nguema was mentally unstable. Based on a report from 1968, the French foreign intelligence service SDECE argued that he suffered from mental disorders and venereal diseases whose effects on his psyche were made even worse by his regular abuse of drugs such as cannabis in
2331-599: A statement to the court outlining what he viewed as the extensive good deeds he had performed for the country. At noon on 29 September 1979, the Tribunal delivered its sentences, which were more severe than what the prosecution had requested. Macías Nguema and six of his co-defendants were sentenced to death, and the confiscation of their property. Nguema was sentenced to death "101 times". Two defendants were sentenced to fourteen years in prison each, and two others to four years each. With no higher court available to hear appeals,
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#17327765097722442-835: Is a non-chemically uniform drug from the cannabis plant. Native to Central or South Asia, the cannabis plant has been used as a drug for both recreational and entheogenic purposes and in various traditional medicines for centuries. Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is the main psychoactive component of cannabis, which is one of the 483 known compounds in the plant, including at least 65 other cannabinoids , such as cannabidiol (CBD). Cannabis can be used by smoking , vaporizing , within food , or as an extract . Cannabis has various mental and physical effects , which include euphoria , altered states of mind and sense of time , difficulty concentrating, impaired short-term memory , impaired body movement (balance and fine psychomotor control), relaxation, and an increase in appetite . Onset of effects
2553-457: Is associated with cumulative cannabis exposure, and is reversed after one month of abstinence. There is limited evidence that chronic cannabis use can reduce levels of glutamate metabolites in the human brain. About 9% of those who experiment with marijuana eventually become dependent according to DSM-IV (1994) criteria. A 2013 review estimates daily use is associated with a 10–20% rate of dependence. The highest risk of cannabis dependence
2664-526: Is associated with heavy cannabis use, although the relationship is inconsistent and weaker than for tobacco and other substances. The direction of cause and effect , however, is unclear. The long-term effects of cannabis are not clear. There are concerns surrounding memory and cognition problems , risk of addiction, and the risk of schizophrenia in young people. Although global abnormalities in white matter and grey matter are not consistently associated with cannabis use, reduced hippocampal volume
2775-539: Is by far the most widely used illicit substance, with the highest use among adults (as of 2018 ) in Zambia , the United States , Canada , and Nigeria . Between 1973 and 1978, eleven states decriminalized marijuana. In 2001, Nevada reduced marijuana possession to a misdemeanor and since 2012, several other states have decriminalized and even legalized marijuana. In 2018, surveys indicated that almost half of
2886-459: Is chemically similar to that found in tobacco smoke, and over fifty known carcinogens have been identified in cannabis smoke, including; nitrosamines, reactive aldehydes, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons , including benz[a]pyrene. Cannabis smoke is also inhaled more deeply than tobacco smoke. As of 2015 , there is no consensus regarding whether cannabis smoking is associated with an increased risk of cancer. Light and moderate use of cannabis
2997-436: Is consistently found. Amygdala abnormalities are sometimes reported, although findings are inconsistent. Cannabis use is associated with increased recruitment of task-related areas, such as the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex , which is thought to reflect compensatory activity due to reduced processing efficiency. Cannabis use is also associated with downregulation of CB 1 receptors. The magnitude of down regulation
3108-408: Is felt within minutes when smoked, but may take up to 90 minutes when eaten (as orally consumed drugs must be digested and absorbed). The effects last for two to six hours, depending on the amount used. At high doses, mental effects can include anxiety , delusions (including ideas of reference ), hallucinations , panic , paranoia , and psychosis . There is a strong relation between cannabis use and
3219-447: Is formally known as acute cannabis-associated psychotic symptoms (CAPS). At an epidemiological level, a dose–response relationship exists between cannabis use and increased risk of psychosis and earlier onset of psychosis. Although the epidemiological association is robust, evidence to prove a causal relationship is lacking. Cannabis may also increase the risk of depression, but insufficient research has been performed to draw
3330-641: Is found in those with a history of poor academic achievement, deviant behavior in childhood and adolescence, rebelliousness, poor parental relationships, or a parental history of drug and alcohol problems. Of daily users, about 50% experience withdrawal upon cessation of use (i.e. are dependent), characterized by sleep problems, irritability, dysphoria, and craving. Cannabis withdrawal is less severe than withdrawal from alcohol. According to DSM-V criteria, 9% of those who are exposed to cannabis develop cannabis use disorder, compared to 20% for cocaine , 23% for alcohol and 68% for nicotine . Cannabis use disorder in
3441-404: Is insufficient for drawing conclusions about safety or efficacy. There is evidence supporting the use of cannabis or its derivatives in the treatment of chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting, neuropathic pain, and multiple sclerosis. Lower levels of evidence support its use for AIDS wasting syndrome , epilepsy, rheumatoid arthritis, and glaucoma. The medical use of cannabis is legal only in
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3552-543: Is legalized only in the Australian Capital Territory . Cannabis is a Scythian word. The ancient Greeks learned of the use of cannabis by observing Scythian funerals, during which cannabis was consumed. In Akkadian , cannabis was known as qunubu ( 𐎯𐎫𐎠𐎭𐏂 ). The word was adopted in to the Hebrew as qaneh bosem ( קָנֶה בֹּשׂם ). Medical cannabis, or medical marijuana, refers to
3663-409: Is mostly used recreationally or as a medicinal drug, although it may also be used for spiritual purposes. In 2013, between 128 and 232 million people used cannabis (2.7% to 4.9% of the global population between the ages of 15 and 65). It is the most commonly used largely-illegal drug in the world, with the highest use among adults in Zambia , the United States , Canada , and Nigeria . Since the 1970s,
3774-585: Is not believed to increase risk of lung or upper airway cancer. Evidence for causing these cancers is mixed concerning heavy, long-term use. In general there are far lower risks of pulmonary complications for regular cannabis smokers when compared with those of tobacco. A 2015 review found an association between cannabis use and the development of testicular germ cell tumors (TGCTs), particularly non- seminoma TGCTs. Another 2015 meta-analysis found no association between lifetime cannabis use and risk of head or neck cancer. Combustion products are not present when using
3885-522: Is widely remembered as one of the most brutal dictators in history. As president, he exhibited bizarre and erratic behavior; many of his contemporaries believed he was insane. A member of the Fang people , Macías Nguema held numerous official positions under Spanish colonial rule before being elected the first president of the soon-to-be independent country in 1968. Early in his rule, he consolidated power by establishing an extreme cult of personality and
3996-544: The 1968 Spanish Guinean general election , aged 44, he travelled to Madrid, where he was treated at the Ruben clinic. Despite these concerns, Macías Nguema ran for president of the soon-to-be independent country against Prime Minister Bonifacio Ondó Edú on a strongly nationalist platform in 1968. He employed a Spanish lawyer to write his texts, providing him with a coherent agenda, and made various promises to improve his popularity. He would point at European-owned houses and ask
4107-659: The Catholic Church in Equatorial Guinea , as priests were ordered to thank the President before Mass , while pictures of him were placed in churches. At the Iglesia de San Fernando in Malabo a photo of the President was adorned with the statement "God created Equatorial Guinea thanks to Macías". Macías Nguema suffered from extreme paranoia , and saw plots against his life and rule everywhere. As time went on, he ordered
4218-555: The Equatorial Guinean ekwele introduced in 1975, which had quickly lost nearly all value, could not be replaced. Only Macías Nguema, the army, and the police were able to receive a regular salary during this time, with others sometimes going months without getting paid, eventually leading to the economy regressing to a subsistence barter system and government services shrinking to only cover internal security. Starting in 1976, Macías Nguema mandated that all children between
4329-478: The Nazis ", claiming that Adolf Hitler had wanted to save Africans from colonialism and only got "confused", causing him to attempt to conquer Europe . At one point he declared himself a "Hitlerian-Marxist" In 1964, Macías Nguema was named deputy prime minister of the autonomous transition government established the prior year. Around this time, Macías Nguema himself came to fear that he was mentally unstable. Before
4440-517: The United Nations and European Commission . That summer, Macías Nguema organised the execution of several members of his own family, leading several members of his inner circle to fear that he was no longer acting rationally. On 3 August 1979, he was overthrown by Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo, whose brother was among those murdered by the President. Obiang achieved his coup mostly with the help of his cousins with whom he had previously attended
4551-415: The μ- and δ-opioid receptors . THC also potentiates the effects of the glycine receptors . It is unknown if or how these actions contribute to the effects of cannabis. The high lipid-solubility of cannabinoids results in their persisting in the body for long periods of time. Even after a single administration of THC, detectable levels of THC can be found in the body for weeks or longer (depending on
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4662-631: The 1970s. When the Equatorial Guinean director of the Institute of Statistics, Saturnin Antonio Ndongo, published demographic data considered too low by Macías, he was dismembered to "help him learn to count". After 1973, his regime also suppressed private commercial activity, and due to a lack of exports and foreign investment (the latter due to Macías Nguema's refusal in most cases), the nation lacked foreign currency, meaning that
4773-460: The 20th century. In 2013, Uruguay became the first country to legalize recreational use of cannabis. Other countries to do so are Canada, Georgia , Germany , Luxembourg , Malta , South Africa , and Thailand . In the U.S., the recreational use of cannabis is legalized in 24 states , 3 territories, and the District of Columbia , though the drug remains federally illegal . In Australia , it
4884-510: The Bata Public Works Service. In 1961, he first travelled to Madrid as spokesperson for a delegation which honoured Francisco Franco , Spain's dictator, on the 25th anniversary of his seizure of power. At the time, Macías Nguema generally displayed no anti-Spanish sentiment and collaborated with the authorities, preferring to work towards eventual independence within the existing system. Unlike many Equatoguinean activists at
4995-576: The British ambassador described the Equatoguinean capital as being in a state of total chaos. At this point, Macías Nguema still recognized his own mental instability, and again sought help. After assuming the presidency, he made a secret trip to Barcelona and visited a psychiatrist for help. Although little was known about what advice the Spanish expert gave Macías Nguema, Kenyon argued that
5106-510: The CB 2 receptor is found primarily in peripheral tissues, but is also expressed in neuroglial cells. THC appears to alter mood and cognition through its agonist actions on the CB 1 receptors, which inhibit a secondary messenger system ( adenylate cyclase ) in a dose-dependent manner. Via CB 1 receptor activation, THC indirectly increases dopamine release and produces psychotropic effects. CBD also acts as an allosteric modulator of
5217-472: The Church. After assuming power, Macías Nguema initially maintained a moderate policy and good relations with Spain, but within a year began to hold inflammatory, anti-European speeches and claimed that there were plots to overthrow him. His rival Bonifacio Ondó Edú then fled to Gabon. Relations with Spanish Deputy Prime Minister Luis Carrero Blanco had rapidly deteriorated. The coffers of the only two banks in
5328-493: The DSM-V involves a combination of DSM-IV criteria for cannabis abuse and dependence, plus the addition of craving, without the criterion related to legal troubles. From a clinical perspective, two significant school of thought exists for psychiatric conditions associated with cannabis (or cannabinoids) use: transient, non-persistent psychotic reactions, and longer-lasting, persistent disorders that resemble schizophrenia. The former
5439-534: The Eastern Bloc into providing him with money. The Cubans and North Koreans provided Macías Nguema with soldiers and bodyguards. His relationship with North Korea remained good until his overthrow. He admired the North Korean dictator Kim Il Sung , and according to his daughter Monica Macias , the two were friends. Starting in the early 1970s, Macías Nguema began repressing the non-Fang ethnic groups in
5550-459: The European name. In many cases during the colonial period, African placenames were Anglicized or Francized . Various African countries have undergone name changes during the previous century as the result of consolidations and secessions , territories gaining sovereignty , and regime changes . Sometimes, the name change can be used to reflect a change of faith, most prominently seen in
5661-479: The Governing Council within a single year in the 1960s after Spanish Guinea was transformed from a colony to a province of Spain. He also served as a member of the territorial parliament. Even at this early point of his career, Macías Nguema already exhibited erratic tendencies. In a conference to discuss the future independence of Equatorial Guinea at Madrid , he suddenly began an "incoherent eulogy of
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#17327765097725772-494: The JMM militia, as almost all judges in the country fled or were jailed during Macías Nguema's rule. In one of these show trials in 1974, even the defence team of the accused requested a death sentence for their clients. Prisoners sentenced to death were usually beaten to death with wooden clubs. Female prisoners were also subjected to rape, often in front of their husbands. Macías Nguema's regime often imprisoned entire families, including
5883-499: The Macías Nguema government. The Council subsequently convened a military tribunal on 24 September to try Macías Nguema and ten members of his government. The charges for the ten defendants included genocide , mass murder , embezzlement of public funds, violations of human rights, and treason . Besides the deposed President, the accused were described by Kenyon as "bit-part actors" who had held no important positions under
5994-694: The National Assembly was effectively defunct, while the JMM militia ran amok across Equatorial Guinea, drunkenly murdering civilians. The overcrowding of the prisons was solved through regular mass executions, though many prisoners were simply left to starve to death. Even the presidential guards were forced to survive by scavenging fruits and hunting wild animals, as supply had mostly collapsed. In mid-April 1979, Macías Nguema's wife travelled to North Korea for surgery, taking their three younger children, Monica , Maribel, and Paco, with her. By 1979, Macías Nguema's government had garnered condemnation from
6105-624: The President or the government. Insulting or offending the President or his cabinet was punishable by 30 years in prison. On 14 July 1972, a presidential decree merged all existing political parties into the United National Party , later the United National Workers' Party, with Macías Nguema as President for Life of both the nation and the party. Fearing that the Spanish wanted to overthrow him, Macías Nguema offered promotions and other rewards to anyone who revealed
6216-457: The ages of 7 and 14 receive military training, and that any parent or person refusing would be imprisoned or shot. Tens of thousands of citizens responded by fleeing in fear of persecution and to protect their personal safety. Af Klinteberg reported that as of 1978, at least 101,000 persons, out of a contemporary population that the World Bank estimates totalled 215,284 persons—nearly 47% of
6327-423: The amount administered and the sensitivity of the assessment method). Investigators have suggested that this is an important factor in marijuana's effects, perhaps because cannabinoids may accumulate in the body, particularly in the lipid membranes of neurons. The main psychoactive component of cannabis is tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), which is formed via decarboxylation of tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA) from
6438-406: The application of heat. Raw leaf is not psychoactive because the cannabinoids are in the form of carboxylic acids . THC is one of the 483 known compounds in the plant, including at least 65 other cannabinoids, such as cannabidiol (CBD). THC and its major (inactive) metabolite, THC-COOH , can be measured in blood, urine, hair, oral fluid or sweat using chromatographic techniques as part of
6549-454: The border into exile, but was captured on 18 August. The former president was found by an old woman; he was exhausted and probably delirious, sitting beneath a tree and eating sugarcane. Obiang's troops proceeded to arrest him, and found his nearby car stuffed full of suitcases with $ 4 million in cash. It was believed that Macías Nguema had actually burned 100 million dollars (much of Equatorial Guinea's cash reserves) before attempting to escape
6660-717: The case of Islam . (See Islamic name .) Examples: In some countries after following their independence, "Africanization" was the name given to racial policies and affirmative action , which were intended to increase the number of indigenous Africans in the civil service . The term Africanization, abbreviated as the numeronym "A12n," has been applied to discussion of internationalization and localization of software and content in African languages . Cannabis (drug) Cannabis ( / ˈ k æ n ə b ɪ s / ), commonly known as marijuana ( / ˌ m æ r ə ˈ w ɑː n ə / ), weed , and pot , among other names ,
6771-483: The cases were for gastrointestinal issues including cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome . According to the United States Department of Health and Human Services, there were 455,000 emergency room visits associated with cannabis use in 2011. These statistics include visits in which the patient was treated for a condition induced by or related to recent cannabis use. The drug use must be "implicated" in
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#17327765097726882-655: The civil service exam three times in the 1930s. Regardless, he eventually became a clerk in the Spanish colonial administration, after passing the exam on the fourth try with assistance and some favoritism from colonial authorities, serving as court interpreter. In the 1940s, he also worked for the Forest Service in Bata , the Río Benito Public Works Department, as a catechist in Bata, and in
6993-528: The country , such as the Bubi people of Santa Isabel , whom he associated with relative wealth and education, and the Annobónese , due to what he felt was too much affection for Spain. Santa Isabel was then militarized, with its inhabitants harassed. Pagalu, part of Annobón, was cut off from aid during a 1973 cholera epidemic, resulting in around 100 deaths. In 1972, mass arrests had taken place on Annobón after
7104-586: The country as revenge. When his wife heard of his overthrow, she returned to Equatorial Guinea to protect their eldest son. Monica, Maribel, and Paco remained behind for their own safety, and consequently lived in North Korea for the remainder of their childhood. Monica stated that Kim Il Sung honored his friendship to Macías Nguema by acting as their guardian and financing their education. The Supreme Military Council opened Case 1979 on 18 August 1979, and began interviewing witnesses and collecting evidence against
7215-444: The country by Spain and which he opposed. He began travelling the country, encouraging his followers to fight against the Spanish, provoking a diplomatic crisis, also ordering the confiscation of all weapons possessed by Spaniards in the country and demanding they abandon all property they owned there. The Spanish government subsequently organized the evacuation of all its citizens (roughly 7,500) and all its Civil Guard forces, while
7326-489: The country has never recovered. Two-thirds of the legislature and 10 of his original ministers were also killed or had been disappeared. To prevent people from escaping, Macías Nguema had the only road out of the country mined, and camouflaged ditches with spikes constructed along the mainland border. In 1976, Nigeria evacuated 45,000 contract laborers from the country, citing "brutal ill treatment" by Macías Nguema's regime. In 1977, responding to falling cocoa production (one of
7437-451: The country to avoid persecution. This led to Equatorial Guinea being internationally nicknamed the " Dachau of Africa". His rule also led to significant brain drain , as intellectuals and educated classes were particular targets for his persecution. In 1979, he was overthrown in a coup d'état by his nephew Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo and was subsequently tried and executed. According to various sources, anywhere from 20,000 to 80,000 of
7548-581: The country to date, he defeated Ondó Edú in the runoff and was sworn in as president on 12 October. During his time as president-elect, he was awarded the Collar of the Order of Civil Merit . He was also made Commander of the Civil Order of Africa [ es ] for his service during the colonial administration. By this point he had also distanced himself from Catholicism, becoming outwardly critical of
7659-501: The country's government began to fall apart. During Macías Nguema's rule, the country had neither a development plan nor an accounting system or budget for government funds. After the killing of the governor of the Central Bank, he carried everything that remained in the national treasury to his Mongomo villa. Statisticians were also heavily repressed, and as a consequence, little economic data was generated on Equatorial Guinea during
7770-727: The country's main export items), the President instituted a "system of slavery". During his presidency, his country was nicknamed the "Dachau of Africa", after the Nazi concentration camp , with condemnations of his government issued by the International Commission of Jurists , World Council of Churches , the UN, the Organisation of African Unity , Amnesty International , and the European Commission . By 1978,
7881-418: The crowds if they wanted to own the place; when they responded positively, he stated that he would give them to the listeners if they voted for him. However, Macías Nguema was easily distracted from his speeches, and often made "chaotic public appearances". His bouts of erratic behavior were generally believed to be the sign of a "fearless" and "charming" leader. In what has been the only free election held in
7992-508: The decision of the Special Military Tribunal was final. However, one problem arose, as Macías Nguema reportedly swore that his ghost would return and take revenge on those who had condemned him. The Equatoguinean soldiers consequently refused to shoot him. A group of hired Moroccan troops was instead employed to carry out the sentence. 55-year old Macías Nguema and the six other defendants sentenced to death were executed by
8103-423: The effects of cannabis is usually referred to as being "high". Cannabis consumption has both psychoactive and physiological effects. The "high" experience can vary widely, based (among other things) on the user's prior experience with cannabis, and the type of cannabis consumed. When smoking cannabis, a euphoriant effect can occur within minutes of smoking. Aside from a subjective change in perception and mood,
8214-418: The emergency department visit, but does not need to be the direct cause of the visit. Most of the illicit drug emergency room visits involved multiple drugs. In 129,000 cases, cannabis was the only implicated drug. THC is a weak partial agonist at CB 1 receptors , while CBD is a CB 1 receptor antagonist. The CB 1 receptor is found primarily in the brain as well as in some peripheral tissues, and
8325-434: The entire population to undergo daily military training with a wooden rifle. On 7 May 1971, Macías Nguema issued Decree 415, which repealed parts of the 1968 Constitution and granted him "all direct powers of Government and Institutions", including powers formerly held by the legislative and judiciary branches, as well as the cabinet of ministers. On 18 October 1971, Law 1 imposed the death penalty as punishment for threatening
8436-404: The first-use age for other illicit drugs. A 2022 Gallup poll concluded Americans are smoking more marijuana than cigarettes for the first time. Acute negative effects may include anxiety and panic, impaired attention and memory, an increased risk of psychotic symptoms, the inability to think clearly, and an increased risk of accidents. Cannabis impairs a person's driving ability, and THC
8547-440: The food would be resold, products would often be expired before they were offered to the public. He eventually outlawed Christianity, and used the slogan, sometimes claimed to be the national motto "There is no other God than Macías". Owning anything related to Christianity became a reason for imprisonment due to alleged support for anti-government plots or coup attempts. Following his repeated purges and unpredictable policies,
8658-618: The form of the edible derivative bhang , and iboga , a drink with strong hallucinogenic effects. Several contemporaries, such as the French ambassador to Equatorial Guinea, argued that Macías Nguema was insane. Some observers have posited that Macías Nguema may have been a psychopath , a disorder potentially enabled, in part, by reported childhood psychological trauma , and that his behaviour could have been affected by other possible mental illnesses, as well as his reported periodic use of drugs. Journalist Paul Kenyon described Macías Nguema as "dangerously mentally ill". Macías Nguema failed
8769-940: The hired firing squad, at Black Beach Prison at 6 pm on the same day. Macías Nguema's regime was estimated to have killed between 20,000 and 50,000 people, equating to between 9 and 23 percent of the country's contemporary population, with some estimates ranging as high as 80,000 deaths. By the end of his rule, over half of the population had been arrested at least once, or had a relative who had been killed. Equatorial Guinea's per capita income fell from around $ 1,420 in 1968 to around $ 70 in 1975. Infant mortality rose to around 60%. National life expectancy declined to around 30 years. Macías Nguema's wider clan, led by Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo, still leads Equatorial Guinea as of today. By 2007, his children had all left North Korea. However, Macías Nguema's daughter Mónica had relocated from North Korea to South Korea , considering Korea her home and Korean her native tongue ; she had published
8880-417: The initial screening method when testing physiological specimens for marijuana presence, have different degrees of cross-reactivity with THC and its metabolites. Urine contains predominantly THC-COOH, while hair, oral fluid and sweat contain primarily THC. Blood may contain both substances, with the relative amounts dependent on the recency and extent of usage. The Duquenois–Levine test is commonly used as
8991-569: The latter substances. Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome (CHS) is a severe condition seen in some chronic cannabis users where they have repeated bouts of uncontrollable vomiting for 24–48 hours. Four cases of death have been reported as a result of CHS. A limited number of studies have examined the effects of cannabis smoking on the respiratory system. Chronic heavy marijuana smoking is associated with respiratory infections , coughing, production of sputum, wheezing, and other symptoms of chronic bronchitis. The available evidence does not support
9102-535: The liver (particularly with co-existing hepatitis C ), lungs, heart, and vasculature". A 2014 review found that while cannabis use may be less harmful than alcohol use, the recommendation to substitute it for problematic drinking was premature without further study. Various surveys conducted between 2015 and 2019 found that many users of cannabis substitute it for prescription drugs (including opioids), alcohol, and tobacco; most of those who used it in place of alcohol or tobacco either reduced or stopped their intake of
9213-579: The long-term effects of cannabis on cognition, and the results were generally inconsistent. Furthermore, effect sizes of significant findings were generally small. One review concluded that, although most cognitive faculties were unimpaired by cannabis use, residual deficits occurred in executive functions . Impairments in executive functioning are most consistently found in older populations, which may reflect heavier cannabis exposure, or developmental effects associated with adolescent cannabis use. One review found three prospective cohort studies that examined
9324-410: The mass murder of government ministers, members of National Assembly , officials, and even members of his own family. Intellectuals and skilled professionals were a particular target, with human rights researcher Robert af Klinteberg describing Macías Nguema's policy as "deliberate cultural regression". The president's paranoid actions included mandating the death of those who wore glasses, banning use of
9435-817: The most common short-term physical and neurological effects include increased heart rate, increased appetite, impairment of short-term and working memory, and impairment of psychomotor coordination . Additional desired effects from consuming cannabis include relaxation, a general alteration of conscious perception , increased awareness of sensation, increased libido and distortions in the perception of time and space. At higher doses, effects can include altered body image , auditory or visual illusions , pseudohallucinations and ataxia from selective impairment of polysynaptic reflexes . In some cases, cannabis can lead to dissociative states such as depersonalization and derealization . Cannabis has held sacred status in several religions and has served as an entheogen –
9546-812: The new country, the Banco Exterior de España and the Banco de Crédito, were emptied, meaning officials could not be paid. The country still lacked a national bank or its own currency, meaning the Spanish peseta had to be used, and according to the transition agreements with Spain, any biennial budgets approved for the territory prior to independence would need to be used, but Spain refused to honor its obligations. In March 1969, Macías Nguema arrested his own foreign minister and political rival, Atanasio Ndongo Miyone , on treason charges, and killed him by defenestrating him. Macías then took photographs of Ndongo dying on
9657-1050: The new document. The same year, a United Nations mission was expelled from the country. Macías Nguema went on to establish a totalitarian regime with three important pillars: the United National Workers' Party , the Juventud en Marcha con Macías (JMM; English: Youth on the March with Macías ) militia/youth group, and the Esangui clan of Río Muni . The country's instruments of repression (the military and presidential bodyguard) were entirely controlled by Macías Nguema's relatives and clan members. The JMM became increasingly powerful, and its members abused their powers, often drunkenly harassing and imprisoning individuals based on mere suspicions of sympathy for dissident ideas. The President mostly filled his inner circle with family members such as Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo , who
9768-513: The old regime. Their presence was supposed to make the trial look more legitimate. Macías Nguema appeared generally calm and unafraid during the trial. The state prosecutor requested that Macías Nguema receive a death sentence , five others receive 30-year sentences, three others receive a year in prison, and two be sentenced to time served. Macías Nguema's defense counsel countered that the other co-defendants were responsible for specific crimes, and asked for acquittal. Macías Nguema himself delivered
9879-490: The people in the United States had tried marijuana, 16% had used it in the past year, and 11% had used it in the past month. In 2014, surveys said daily marijuana use amongst US college students had reached its highest level since records began in 1980, rising from 3.5% in 2007 to 5.9% in 2014 and had surpassed daily cigarette use. In the US, men are over twice as likely to use marijuana as women, and 18–29-year-olds are six times more likely to use as over-65-year-olds. In 2015,
9990-495: The population—had fled the country. Other reporting, such as a 1979 Time magazine account stating that "perhaps 150,000" persons fled, suggests that the proportion of the population that sought safety in exile may have approached 70%, based on the World Bank's estimate of the population in 1979. By the end of his rule, nearly all of the country's educated class was either executed or forced into exile—a brain drain from which
10101-520: The potency of illicit cannabis has increased, with THC levels rising and CBD levels dropping. Cannabis plants have been grown since at least the 3rd millennium BCE and there is evidence of it being smoked for its psychoactive effects around 500 BCE in the Pamir Mountains , Central Asia. Since the 14th century, cannabis has been subject to legal restrictions. The possession, use, and cultivation of cannabis has been illegal in most countries since
10212-652: The presidential palace from around 1974 and visited the capital on ever more rare occasions. Instead, he began holing up in a fortified villa at his home village of Mongomo; the location had a private bunker as well as prison and was protected by a military camp. The villa's private prison usually housed about 300 inmates, and the President occasionally personally executed some of them. As time went on, Macías Nguema's actions became ever more bizarre. He declared private education subversive, and banned it entirely with Decree 6 on 18 March 1975. He Africanized his name to " Masie Nguema Biyogo Ñegue Ndong " in 1976 after demanding that
10323-526: The relationship between self-reported cannabis use and intelligence quotient (IQ). The study following the largest number of heavy cannabis users reported that IQ declined between ages 7–13 and age 38. Poorer school performance and increased incidence of leaving school early were both associated with cannabis use, although a causal relationship was not established. Cannabis users demonstrated increased activity in task-related brain regions, consistent with reduced processing efficiency. A reduced quality of life
10434-422: The remaining 36 being ordered to dig ditches, in which they were subsequently buried up to their necks and eaten alive by red ants over the next few days. A commonly circulated claim that these mass executions were performed by executioners dressed up as Santa Claus is almost certainly a fabrication, as this sensational detail does not appear in any primary sources about the incident. In 1971, he began forcing
10545-424: The rest of the Equatoguinean population replace their Hispanic names with African names. He also banned Western clothes, foods and medicines for the rest of the population, stating that they were un-African, with Macías Nguema obtaining the little food available and reselling it at prices the vast majority of the population could not afford to punish those he thought did not want to work. As he also decided at what time
10656-534: The rest of their clan from what is today Woleu-Ntem Province , Gabon , at a time when the Spanish Colonial Guard had not yet exerted control over the jungled area. He belonged to the Esangui clan, part of the Fang , Equatorial Guinea's majority ethnic group. His family settled in Mongomo , where he grew up. Macías Nguema was the son of a witch doctor who allegedly killed his younger brother as
10767-459: The risk of myocardial infarction by 4.8 times for the 60 minutes after consumption. There is preliminary evidence that cannabis interferes with the anticoagulant properties of prescription drugs used for treating blood clots . As of 2019 , the mechanisms for the anti-inflammatory and possible pain relieving effects of cannabis were not defined, and there were no governmental regulatory approvals or clinical practices for use of cannabis as
10878-537: The risk of psychosis, though the direction of causality is debated. Physical effects include increased heart rate, difficulty breathing, nausea, and behavioral problems in children whose mothers used cannabis during pregnancy; short-term side effects may also include dry mouth and red eyes. Long-term adverse effects may include addiction, decreased mental ability in those who started regular use as adolescents, chronic coughing, susceptibility to respiratory infections , and cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome . Cannabis
10989-402: The roughly 200,000 to 300,000 people living in the country were killed under his regime, with tens of thousands more fleeing the country. He has been compared to Pol Pot because of the violent, unpredictable, and anti-intellectual nature of his government. Francisco Macías Nguema was born on 1 January 1924, as Mez-m Ngueme at Nzangayong, Spanish Guinea , to parents who had been expelled with
11100-421: The servants was one occasion, however, when he ordered a meal and table to be prepared for eight guests. He then sat there alone, casually talking "with the dead". Members of Macías Nguema's inner circle and government officials became more and more worried about his erratic behavior. At this point, the government had mostly ceased to function, as most minister posts were vacant, officials were no longer paid, and
11211-466: The spiritual use of cannabis has been spread by the disciples of the Rastafari movement who use cannabis as a sacrament and as an aid to meditation. Many different ways to consume cannabis involve heat to decarboxylate THCA into THC; common modes include: In 2013, between 128 and 232 million people used cannabis (2.7% to 4.9% of the global population between the ages of 15 and 65). Cannabis
11322-419: The spouses and children of suspected dissidents. The abuse in the prisons was overseen by Teodoro, who reportedly enjoyed mocking and torturing the prisoners. Among the few people who could still convince Macías Nguema to spare suspected dissidents were his relatives, such as Raimundo Ela Nve Senior, though his circle of confidants grew ever smaller. Growing increasingly paranoid, Macías Nguema no longer slept at
11433-422: The strain it can place on the cardiovascular system . Some deaths have also been attributed to cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome . There is an association between cannabis use and suicide, particularly in younger users. A 16-month survey of Oregon and Alaska emergency departments found a report of the death of an adult who had been admitted for acute cannabis toxicity. A 2015 meta-analysis found that, although
11544-432: The street, later showing the album to Newsweek correspondent John Barnes. Edú was also captured and brought back to Equatorial Guinea, where he and several other senior officials were killed at Black Beach . Macías Nguema then accused Spain of creating an economic blockade by refusing to acknowledge obligations under the transition agreements, declaring he would not abide by the 1968 Constitution that had been "imposed" on
11655-437: The time, he was never jailed by the Spanish. As court interpreter, Macías Nguema eventually began taking bribes to manipulate his translations to absolve or incriminate defendants. The Spanish interpreted his important role in many trials as evidence for influence and talent for leadership, and began to rapidly promote him. He became assistant interpreter, mayor of Mongomo, minister of public works, and finally deputy president of
11766-423: The toxicity and lethality of THC in children is not known, they are at risk for encephalopathy, hypotension, respiratory depression severe enough to require ventilation, somnolence and coma. There is no clear evidence for a link between cannabis use and deaths from cardiovascular disease, but a 2019 review noted that it may be an under-reported, contributory factor or direct cause in cases of sudden death , due to
11877-451: The treatment appeared to have failed, considering the president's subsequent development. Macías Nguema persisted in consuming large amounts of drugs. On Christmas Eve 1969, Macías Nguema had 186 alleged dissidents executed inside the national football stadium in Malabo, as amplifiers in the stadium played Mary Hopkin 's song " Those Were the Days ". 150 of them were shot or hanged, with
11988-635: The use of cannabis to treat disease or improve symptoms; however, there is no single agreed-upon definition (e.g., cannabinoids derived from cannabis and synthetic cannabinoids are also used). The rigorous scientific study of cannabis as a medicine has been hampered by production restrictions and by the fact that it is classified as an illegal drug by many governments. There is some evidence suggesting cannabis can be used to reduce nausea and vomiting during chemotherapy , to improve appetite in people with HIV/AIDS , or to treat chronic pain and muscle spasms . Evidence for its use for other medical applications
12099-441: The word "intellectual" and destroying boats to stop his people fleeing from his rule. Fishing was banned. He was known to order entire villages destroyed just to eliminate one suspected dissident. His prisons, most importantly Black Beach, were notorious for human rights abuses; prisoners were humiliated, starved, tortured, and murdered without due process. When there was a trial at all, dissidents faced kangaroo courts organized by
12210-589: Was his nephew and served as military governor of Bioko and Vice-Minister of the Armed Forces. Macías Nguema developed an extreme cult of personality , and assigned himself titles such as the "Unique Miracle" and "Grand Master of Education, Science, and Culture". The island of Fernando Pó had its name Africanised after him to Masie Ngueme Biyogo Island; upon his overthrow in 1979, its name was again changed to Bioko . The capital, Santa Isabel, had its name changed to Malabo . His cult of personality even infiltrated
12321-440: Was the illicit drug most frequently found in the blood of drivers who have been involved in vehicle crashes. Those with THC in their system are from three to seven times more likely to be the cause of the accident than those who had not used either cannabis or alcohol, although its role is not necessarily causal because THC stays in the bloodstream for days to weeks after intoxication. Some immediate undesired side effects include
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