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74-556: The academy was formed on January 5, 1959, to provide training and military-related studies to officers of all branches of the newly formed National People's Army (NVA), Border Troops of the German Democratic Republic , and other security organs as well as armed forces from other nations. The academy's training was comparable to military academies in the Soviet Union . In addition to training and research for

148-409: A 1973 study, NVA leaders from the late 1950s through the 1960s came predominantly from working-class backgrounds, with few from middle-class or professional families and no representatives of the aristocracy present in the upper echelons. Excepting specialized military or political instruction, most NVA leaders reported primary school as their highest level of formal education. The NVA disbanded with

222-401: A Hemdbluse, worn without a shirt, trousers, and a visored service cap. The winter service uniform featured a tunic with four large buttoned-down patch pockets, a black waist belt, the service cap, breeches, shirt, tie, and pants belt; high boots were reserved for officers and NCOs. A long, heavy, belted greatcoat was also part of the winter uniform. With a few details, the semi-dress uniform was

296-399: A ceremonial dagger worn on the left side and fastened to a silver-gray parade belt. Officers in guards of honor, as well as officers of cadet schools when on parade, carried sabers. In winter, a greatcoat , scarf, and gloves were worn. Naval officers wore dark blue uniforms with a peaked cap while ratings wore sailor caps. The summer service uniform for officers was a bloused jacket , called

370-442: A competition between two or more states to have superior armed forces, concerning production of weapons , the growth of a military , and the aim of superior military technology . Unlike a sporting race , which constitutes a specific event with winning interpretable as the outcome of a singular project , arms races constitute spiralling systems of on-going and potentially open-ended behavior. The existing scholarly literature

444-595: A costly building competition of Dreadnought -class ships. This tense arms race lasted until 1914, when the war broke out. After the war, a new arms race developed among the victorious Allies, which was temporarily ended by the Washington Naval Treaty . In addition to the British and Germans, contemporaneous but smaller naval arms races also broke out between Russia and the Ottoman Empire ;

518-536: A declining state faces a rising adversary, and when advances in technology make existing weapons obsolete for the power that had an advantage in the existing weaponry. A military artificial intelligence arms race is an arms race between two or more states to develop and deploy lethal autonomous weapons systems (LAWS). Since the mid-2010s, many analysts have noted the emergence of such an arms race between global superpowers for better military AI, driven by increasing geopolitical and military tensions . An AI arms race

592-504: A graduate-student stipend. After the reform of 2005, service in the NVA became known as "served outside of the Bundeswehr ". Many former NVA officers feel bitter about their treatment after unification. While receiving only minimal pensions, few have been able to find jobs except as laborers or security guards. Former NVA officers are not permitted to append their NVA rank to their name as

666-650: A possible Soviet invasion, but the declaration of martial law in Poland (13 December 1981) averted the crisis. The NVA went into a state of heightened combat readiness on several occasions, including the construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961, the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962, the 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia, and, for the last time, in late 1989 as protests swept through the GDR. The NVA operated as

740-691: A professional title; no such prohibition applies to rank attained in the Wehrmacht or in the Waffen-SS during the Nazi era. One of the few former NVA facilities to remain open was a base in Storkow near Berlin, which housed the NVA's camouflage and deception center. This became the Bundeswehr Unit for Camouflage and Deception . The NVA was, in relation to its equipment and training, one of

814-568: A professional volunteer army until 1962, when conscription was introduced. The GDR's National Defense Council controlled the armed forces, but the mobile forces came under the Warsaw Pact Unified Command. Political control of the armed forces took place through close integration with the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED), which vetted all officers. Military training (provided by the school system) and

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888-588: A quilted stone gray padded suit without a camouflage pattern was worn over the service uniform. Later winter uniforms were also of the same camouflage pattern as the summer variant. The winter uniform also included a fur pile cap or a steel helmet, boots, knitted gray gloves, belt, and suspenders. Seasonal considerations and weather governed the kind of work uniforms worn. Generally, reconditioned articles of service uniforms (field, semi-dress, and padded winter uniforms) were dyed black and issued for all types of fatigue and maintenance details. Coveralls are also used by

962-520: Is divided as to whether arms races correlate with war . International-relations scholars explain arms races in terms of the security dilemma , engineering spiral models , states with revisionist aims , and deterrence models . From 1897 to 1914, a naval arms race between the United Kingdom and Germany took place. British concern about rapid increase in German naval power resulted in

1036-547: Is sometimes placed in the context of an AI Cold War between the US and China. An evolutionary arms race is a system where two populations are evolving in order to continuously one-up members of the other population. This concept is related to the Red Queen's Hypothesis , where two organisms co-evolve to overcome each other but each fails to progress relative to the other interactant. In technology, there are close analogues to

1110-801: The Volksmarine (Navy), the Luftstreitkräfte (Air Force) and the Grenztruppen (Border Troops). The NVA belonged to the Ministry of National Defence and commanded by the National Defense Council of East Germany , headquartered in Strausberg 30 kilometers (19 mi) east of East Berlin . From 1962, conscription was mandatory for all GDR males aged between 18 and 60 requiring an 18-month service, and it

1184-556: The Waffenfarben as worn by the Wehrmacht , but later reverted to white except for generals who wore red. The uniforms of the Border Troops were distinguished from that of the NVA ground force and Air Force/Air Defense Force by a green armband with large silver letters identifying the wearer's affiliation. Arms race An arms race occurs when two or more groups compete in military superiority. It consists of

1258-411: The Bundeswehr ) and all soldiers over the age of 55 were discharged. Until 1 March 2005, Germany listed time served in the NVA as time "served in a foreign military". Service in the NVA did not count for points towards federal pensions in the unified Germany . Retired NVA soldiers and officers received only minimal pensions after unification: a thirty-year veteran would receive a pension smaller than

1332-489: The Kasernierte Volkspolizei wore the same basic uniform. Several later modifications were introduced, but the style and cut remain fundamentally the same. There were a variety of uniforms worn according to the setting (work or social) and season (summer or winter). Most uniforms (service, semi-dress, and parade) were stone grey, a brownish-grey colour that was conspicuously different from the grey-green of

1406-739: The Wehrmacht . With the exceptions of the People's Navy, whose dark-blue uniforms were consistent with the styles of most navies around the world, and the Combat Groups of the Working Class ( Kampfgruppen der Arbeiterklasse ), who wore their own olive-green fatigue uniforms, all NVA armed services, the Felix Dzerzhinsky Guards Regiment, the Border Troops of the German Democratic Republic , and

1480-666: The Luftwaffe . After 1999, 22 of the 24 aircraft were given to Poland . Before the construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961, military service in the GDR was voluntary, though the Free German Youth and public schools mounted intensive recruitment drives, and service in the NVA was often a prerequisite for career advancement. Compulsory military service had been introduced in 1956 in West Germany , one year after

1554-640: The Cold War . The majority of NATO officers rated the NVA the best military in the Warsaw Pact based on discipline , thoroughness of training, and the quality of officer leadership. The NVA did not see significant combat but participated in the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968, deployed military advisors to communist governments in other countries, and manned the Berlin Wall where they were responsible for numerous deaths . The NVA

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1628-718: The German Cross in the Wehrmacht during the Second World War. In its first six years the NVA operated as an all-volunteer force. ( West Germany , in contrast, re-introduced universal military service in 1956.) The GDR introduced conscription in 1962. According to the Parallel History Project on Cooperative Security: the NVA was incorporated in the Warsaw Pact and consisted of army, air force/air defense (Luftstreitkräfte/Luftverteidigung), and

1702-601: The Peaceful Revolution that led to the downfall of the GDR's communist government, some NVA forces were placed on alert but were never deployed against protesters. At the same time, the Soviet government ordered its troops in the GDR to remain in barracks. After the forced retirement of SED and state leader Erich Honecker and other conservatives from the ruling Politburo at the height of the crisis in October 1989,

1776-530: The People's Police . Officers' uniforms differed from those of enlisted personnel by better quality and texture cloth. The field and service uniforms were normal attire for most day-to-day functions. Several basic categories of uniforms were worn: The parade uniform for ground forces officers was the semi-dress/walking-out tunic with all authorized orders, awards and decorations attached, breeches and riding boots , steel helmet, white shirt, dark-gray necktie, and

1850-522: The Socialist Unity Party leadership, whose political leadership claim was secured by Article 1 of the Constitution of East Germany . This can be evidenced by the awarding of the honorary name " Friedrich Engels " to the academy. The Friedrich Engels Military Academy was officially founded on January 5, 1959. A permanent political-ideological education and social science qualification arose from East Germany's political environment. A clear commitment to

1924-591: The 1960s most of these World War II veterans had retired. (The West German Bundeswehr was even more reliant on Wehrmacht veterans, who initially comprised the majority of its commissioned ranks.) The following list includes the NVA generals who were awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross in the Wehrmacht during the Second World War. The following list includes the NVA generals who were awarded

1998-487: The GDR's National Defence Council authorised the formation of Baueinheiten (construction units) for men of draft age who "refuse military service with weapons on the grounds of religious viewpoints or for similar reasons". The construction soldiers wore uniforms and lived in barracks under military discipline, but were not required to bear arms and received no combat training. In theory, they were to be used only for civilian construction projects. The GDR therefore became

2072-831: The German Democratic Republic in 1972. When the National People's Army (NVA) was formed by the Volkskammer on January 18, 1956, which effectively replaced the Barracked People's Police, allowed for the College for Officers of the NVA in Dresden to emerge as the highest military teaching facility in East Germany . Colonel Wilheim Adam became the first commander; followed by Major General Heinrich Dollwetzel from April 1, 1958. This also effectively allowed

2146-530: The Interior . The location also moved from Kochstedt to Dresden and continued to be led by Lieutenant General Walter Freytag. Soon after in 1953 it was renamed to the College of the Barracked People's Police (KVP). Colonel Wilheim Adam , former adjutant to the commander-in-chief of the 6th Army of the Wehrmacht , post-1945 Minister of Finance of the State of Saxony , and member of the Volkskammer , took over

2220-456: The NVA had advisors in Algeria , Angola , Ethiopia , Guinea , Iraq , Libya , Mozambique , South Yemen , and Syria . When the Soviet Union prepared to occupy Czechoslovakia in 1968, the GDR government committed the 7th Panzer Division and the 11th Motorised Infantry Division to support the intervention (assigned to 20th Guards Army and 1st Guards Tank Army respectively), becoming

2294-414: The NVA to take over the politically reliable and technically competent officers of the Barracked People's Police. The university was commissioned to raise the scientific level of training in all subject areas in order to create the conditions for a military academy. When it was founded, the chairs of social science training, infantry training, artillery training and tank training were created. In addition to

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2368-608: The NVA was the Ministry for National Defense ( Ministerium für Nationale Verteidigung ) headquartered in Strausberg near East Berlin . NVA administration was divided into the following commands: The National People's Army had a Military Intelligence Agency Whose Purpose was to “prevent surprise by the enemy.” The first military units of the Central Training Administration ( Hauptverwaltung Ausbildung – HVA ) were dressed in police blue. With

2442-571: The NVA's reserves would have nearly doubled its strength. GDR authorities also had at their disposal the internal security troops of the Ministry of the Interior (the Kasernierte Volkspolizei ) and the Ministry for State Security (the Felix Dzerzhinsky Guards Regiment ) along with the 210,000 strong party auxiliary " Combat Groups of the Working Class " ( Kampfgruppen der Arbeiterklasse ), who were available in times of war. The highest level of leadership for

2516-522: The National People's Army, there were a few significant differences from civilian universities. The term special status also extends to the fact that the military academy, together with the others universities of the National People's Army, Border Troops of the German Democratic Republic, the other protection and security organs as well as the social organizations in the state official representations (statistics, yearbooks, UNESCO reports) about

2590-585: The Ottomans and Greece ; France and Italy ; the United States and Japan in the 1930s; and Brazil, Argentina, and Chile . This contest of the advancement of offensive nuclear capabilities occurred during the Cold War , an intense period between the Soviet Union and the United States and some other countries. This was one of the main causes that began the Cold War, and perceived advantages of

2664-631: The People’s Navy (Volksmarine). At its peak in 1987, the three NVA services had about 156,000 men under arms altogether. Between 1956 and 1990, about 2.5 million male GDR citizens performed army duty. Like the ruling communist parties of other Soviet satellites, the East German Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED) assured control by appointing loyal party members to top positions and by organizing intensive political education for all ranks. The proportion of SED members in

2738-818: The Protection of the Workers and Farmers' Power". The NVA never took part in full-scale combat, although it participated in a support role in the suppression of the Prague Spring of 1968, provided medical support during the Soviet–Afghan War , and NVA officers often served as combat advisers in Africa. Some of the first NVA advisors went to the Republic of the Congo in 1973. During the 1980s at various times

2812-641: The Socialist Unity Party's policy was expected from the teaching staff and the officer hearers. It was not until the mid-1980s that their influence eroded and finally led to the dissolution of the Socialist Unity Party party organizations in the National People's Army and the Border Troops of the German Democratic Republic , including the Friedrich Engels Military Academy in December 1989. The military academy had

2886-597: The West German Bundeswehr ) from the Kasernierte Volkspolizei . This formation culminated years of preparation during which former Wehrmacht officers and communist veterans of the Spanish Civil War helped organize and train paramilitary units of the People's Police . Though the NVA featured a German appearance – including uniforms and ceremonies patterned after older German military traditions – its doctrine and structure showed

2960-644: The West German military was established, but the GDR held back from this step until 1962. The situation changed when the border was sealed in August 1961, and five months later the government announced a mandatory service term of 18 months for men. There was, at first, no alternative service for conscientious objectors . This changed in 1964 when, under pressure from the Protestant Church in Germany ,

3034-548: The adversary by both sides (such as the " missile gap " and " bomber gap ") led to large spending on armaments and the stockpiling of vast nuclear arsenals. Proxy wars were fought all over the world (e.g. in the Middle East , Korea , and Vietnam ) in which the superpowers' conventional weapons were pitted against each other. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War, tensions decreased and

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3108-436: The arms races between parasites and hosts, such as the arms race between writers of computer viruses and antivirus software , or spammers against Internet service providers and E-mail software writers. More generically, the term is used to describe any competition where there is no absolute goal, only the relative goal of staying ahead of the other competitors in rank or knowledge. An arms race may also imply futility as

3182-517: The dissolution of the East German government in October 1990. Under the process of "Army of Unity" ( Armee der Einheit ), NVA facilities and equipment were handed over to the Bundeswehr , the federal defense force of the unified Germany. Bundeswehr Eastern Command ( Bundeswehrkommando Ost ) was set up for the control of units or facilities in the territory of former East Germany, and

3256-574: The first deployment of German troops outside Germany for the first time since the Second World War . But the East German participation raised Czech ire, and the two divisions were "kept out of sight in the Bohemian forests " and allowed to travel only at night. In a few days they were withdrawn. In the early 1970s the Group of Soviet Forces in Germany (GSFG) high command assigned to the NVA

3330-403: The first measures taken after the reunification was a survey and securing of weapons and devices by former members of the NVA. The federally operated Materiel Depot Service Gesellschaft (MDSG) was charged with taking custody of and warehousing this equipment. The MDSG employed 1,820 people who were primarily taken from the Bundeswehr . The MDSG was privatised in 1994. Much of the materiel

3404-644: The growing militarization of East German society bolstered popular support for the military establishment. From a Leninist perspective, the NVA stood as a symbol of Soviet-East German solidarity and became the model communist institution – ideological, hierarchical, and disciplined. The NVA synthesized communist and Prussian symbolism, naming its officers' academy, the Friedrich Engels Military Academy , after Karl Marx 's co-author Friedrich Engels , and its highest medal after Prussian Army General Gerhard von Scharnhorst . During

3478-616: The implementation of the defense policy of East Germany, the Friedrich Engels Military Academy also focused on the maintenance of the military-scientific heritage and the development to the center of military-scientific work. Foundations for what would become the Friedrich Engels Military Academy were set in February 1949 by the University of the German Administration of the Interior , which was relocated from Berlin to

3552-421: The legal status of a university in East Germany and thus had the right to award graduates and aspirants with academic degrees, such as Graduate Military Scientist, Graduate Engineer, Graduate Social Scientist, Graduate Teacher, and so forth. The military academy belonged to the second sector of the East German university system, to the so-called universities with special status. However, due to its integration with

3626-618: The lower ranks, especially armor and air force personnel. Officers in technical branches supervising fatigue details wore a laboratory-style smock . High-ranking officers occasionally wore white uniforms (or white jackets), and staff officers were issued distinctive staff service uniforms. Women wore uniforms consisting of jackets, skirts or slacks, blouses, caps, boots or pumps, and other appropriate items according to season and occasion. Personnel, such as paratroopers , motorcyclists, and tank troops, wore additional items with their uniforms identifying them as such. NVA personnel initially wore

3700-405: The military academy. The number of chairs fluctuated depending on the number of students. At its lowest point, there were 44 chairs. The academy was divided into faculties (called sections after 1970), which in turn were divided were divided into chairs. Their leaders were under the command of the military academy; they were the direct superiors of the officers' hearers themselves. Initially, only

3774-402: The new SED leadership ruled out using armed force against the protesters. The manpower of the NVA consisted of some 85,000 soldiers in 1962, climbed to 127,000 by 1967, and remained essentially steady through 1970. In 1987, at the peak of its power, the NVA numbered 175,300 troops. Approximately 50% of this number were career soldiers, while the others were short-term conscripts. According to

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3848-411: The nuclear arsenal of both countries were reduced. Charles Glaser argues that numerous cases of arms races were suboptimal, as they entailed a waste of resources, damaged political relations, increased the probability of war, and hindered states in accomplishing their goals. However, arms races can be optimal for security-seeking states in situations when the offense-defense balance favors offense, when

3922-417: The officer corps rose steadily after the early 1960s, eventually reaching almost 95 percent. The NVA saw itself as the "instrument of power of the working class" ( Machtinstrument der Arbeiterklasse ). According to its doctrine, the NVA protected peace and secured the achievements of socialism by maintaining a convincing deterrent to imperialist aggression. The NVA's motto, inscribed on its flag, read: "For

3996-431: The officer's office of the disciplines (or uses, later: profiles) were assigned to four faculties: From 1960, the chairs and officer listeners were classified into the following faculties: The Social Sciences Faculty was entrusted with the academic training of all political officers in the armed forces in accordance with the three-year program of the Parteihochschule Karl Marx and the Marxist–Leninist basic courses for

4070-401: The officers. National People%27s Army The National People's Army ( German : Nationale Volksarmee , pronounced [natsi̯oˈnaːlə ˈfɔlksʔaʁˌmeː] ; NVA [ɛn faʊ ˈʔaː] ) were the armed forces of the German Democratic Republic (GDR) from 1956 to 1990. The NVA was organized into four branches: the Landstreitkräfte (Ground Forces),

4144-485: The only Warsaw Pact country to provide a non-combat alternative for conscientious objectors. However, fearing that other soldiers would be contaminated by pacifist ideas, the government took care to segregate the construction units from regular conscripts. Moreover, conscripts who chose the alternative service option often faced discrimination later in life, including denial of opportunities for higher education . The NVA had four main branches: In wartime, mobilization of

4218-427: The post of commander of the university. The former Generalfeldmarschall Friedrich Paulus used to give lectures at the university after his return from captivity, and by 1954, he led a small working group called the War History Research Center in Dresden . His small working group eventually became the foundations for the Institute for German Military History, which was later renamed the Military History Institute of

4292-455: The restructuring of the Barracked Police (CIP) in 1952, khaki uniforms similar in shape and colour to those of the Soviet Army were introduced. The desire for a separate "German" and "socialist" military tradition, and the consequent founding of the NVA in 1956, introduced new uniforms which strongly resembled those of the Wehrmacht . They were of a similar cut and made of a brownish-gray, called stone gray , cloth. The dark high-necked collar

4366-413: The right to confer the academic degree of "diploma military scientist" and "diploma engineer" and to set up scientific aspirations. The founding of the new military academy was not an instant decision, but more of a reaction to the arms race during the Cold War and the establishment of the Bundeswehr Command and Staff College . The military academy's leadership had a particularly close relationship with

4440-441: The rivaling Warsaw Pact on May 24, 1958. A formal military academy had to be established to train the National People's Army up to Warsaw Pact standards and requirements. Ministerial order 52/58 began in May 1958, which called for the conversion of the college for officers into a military academy. According to the decision of the Council of Ministers of November 28, 1958, it was to become the first military institution to be granted

4514-429: The same for all ranks and was worn for walking-out purposes (i.e. off-duty and off-post). It consisted of a single-breasted tunic without belt, a silver-gray shirt with dark-gray tie, the service cap, long trousers, and black low-quarter shoes. Officers also wore the tunic with a white shirt. During periods of warm weather, there was the option of omitting the tunic, and furthermore omitting the tie. A double-breasted jacket

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4588-406: The strong influence of the Soviet Armed Forces . During its first year, about 27 percent of the NVA's officer corps had formerly served in the Wehrmacht . Of the 82 highest command positions, ex- Wehrmacht officers held 61; however, very few of them had served in high ranks. The military knowledge and combat experience of these veterans were indispensable in the NVA's early years, although by

4662-427: The strongest armies in the Warsaw Pact. It was equipped with a large number of modern weapons systems, most of Soviet origin, from which a small portion were given back to the Soviet Union in 1990. The remaining equipment and materiel was still substantial, including large quantities of replacement parts, medical supplies, atomic, biological and chemical warfare equipment, training devices and simulators, etc. One of

4736-418: The two-year courses, in which officers who were already experienced in the troop service were trained as regimental commanders, their deputies and chiefs of staff for motor gunner, tank and artillery units, heads of special troops and services, the university carried out one-year qualification courses for senior officers. After the West German Bundeswehr joined NATO in 1955, the National People's Army joined

4810-441: The university landscape were left out. Head The military academy was subordinate to the Minister of National Defense of East Germany, who entrusted the duty supervision to one of his deputies. The academy was headed by a commander from 1959 to 1970 and then a chief from 1970 to 1990. (Birth–Death) (1912–1966) (1911–1989) (1916–1986) (1925–2013) (1931–2020) (1935–2009) (?–?) The Friedrich Engels Military Academy

4884-402: The village of Kochstedt in Saxony-Anhalt . On November 15, 1949, the teaching company opened and was renamed to the Kochstedt Officers' School of Central Administration Training of the Ministry of the Interior , under the leadership of Chief Inspector of the Barracked People's Police Walter Freytag . From September 1952, the academy was renamed the Higher Officer School of the Ministry of

4958-444: The wartime mission of capturing West Berlin . The NVA plan for the operation, designated "Operation Centre", called for some 32,000 troops in two divisions, accompanied by the GSFG's Soviet 6th Separate Guards Motor Rifle Brigade . The plan was regularly updated until 1988, when a less ambitious plan that simply aimed at containing Berlin was substituted. In the autumn of 1981 the NVA stood ready to intervene in Poland in support of

5032-407: Was dissolved on 2 October 1990 with the GDR before German reunification , and its facilities and equipment were handed over to the Bundeswehr (the armed forces of West Germany ), which also absorbed most of its personnel below the rank of non-commissioned officer . The German Democratic Republic (GDR) established the National People's Army on 1 March 1956 (six months after the formation of

5106-415: Was given free of charge to beneficiaries in the new federal states or other departments, to museums, or to friendly nations in the context of military support for developing countries . The German Federal Intelligence Service secretly sold NVA equipment to several countries, violating international and German laws as well as international treaties. The rest was destroyed. 24 modern MIG-29s became part of

5180-412: Was later removed, except on the coats from 1974 to 1979. Even the NVA's M-56 "gumdrop" army helmet , in spite of its easily noticeable resemblance to well-known Soviet designs, was actually based on a prototype "B / II" helmet that was initially developed for the Wehrmacht by the Institute for Defence Technical Materials Science in Berlin. The helmet had seen trials since 1943, but was not adopted by

5254-427: Was led by Lieutenant General Jörg Schönbohm . Most facilities closed, and equipment was either sold or given to other countries. Most of the NVA's 36,000 officers and NCOs were let go, including all officers above the rank of Oberstleutnant . The Bundeswehr retained only 3,200 – after a demotion of one rank. In addition, all female soldiers (at this point it was still prohibited for women to become soldiers in

5328-544: Was optional for officers and warrant officers. The summer field uniform for both officers and enlisted consisted of a jacket and trousers originally in Flachtarnenmuster and then in Strichtarn , a dark-brown (later a forest green) raindrop camouflage pattern on a stone-gray background; a field cap, service cap, or steel helmet ; high black boots; and a gray webbing belt with y-strap suspenders. In winter,

5402-552: Was the only Warsaw Pact military to offer non-combat roles to conscientious objectors , known as " construction soldiers " ( Bausoldat ). The NVA reached 175,300 personnel at its peak in 1987. The NVA was formed on 1 March 1956 to succeed the Kasernierte Volkspolizei (Barracked People's Police) and under the influence of the Soviet Army became one of the Warsaw Pact militaries opposing NATO during

5476-446: Was unique among Warsaw Pact nations due to its internal structure. All branches of the National People's Army and their sub-branches were under one academic roof. The sections and chairs of the military and military-technical scientific areas were primarily structured according to armed forces, branches of service and military services. The university structure was subject to multiple changes. In 1990, there were 73 professors or chairs at

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