Misplaced Pages

#952047

100-670: Kénédougou, meaning 'country of the plain', was first established in the 17th century by the Dioula Traore clan. The new kingdom, mostly inhabited by the Senufo people , was conveniently located to dominate the exchange of desert and forest goods. However, the Senoufo traditionalist practices put them at odds with the Muslims to their north. Kenedougou adopted some Mandé practices such as the royal title of faama . According to legend,

200-484: A bloodless military coup led by Moussa Traoré , a day which is now commemorated as Liberation Day . The subsequent military-led regime, with Traoré as president, attempted to reform the economy. His efforts were frustrated by political turmoil and a devastating drought from 1968 to 1974, in which famine killed thousands of people. The Traoré regime faced student unrest beginning in the late 1970s and three coup attempts. The Traoré regime repressed all dissenters until

300-460: A commercial center when Malian merchants began trading in the territory which was inhabited by pagan Senufo and other Voltaic groups. The sous-préfecture of Kong, in the area of Kong to Dabakala , is said to be the “origin” area, where dyula traders first settled in the twelfth century. Dyula presence in the Kong area grew rapidly in the seventeenth century as a result of the developing trade between

400-660: A dominant position in the Upper Niger region. A member of a dyula family from Sanankoro in Guinea , Samori conquered and united Dyula states during the 1860s. He gained control over the Milo River Valley in 1871, seized the village of Kankan in 1881, and became the principal power holder on the Upper Niger. By 1883, Samori had successfully brought the local chieftains under his control and officially founded

500-479: A highly successful merchant caste , Dyula migrants began establishing trading communities across the region in the fourteenth century. Since business was often conducted under non-Muslim rulers, the Dyula developed a set of theological principles for Muslim minorities in non-Muslim societies. Their unique contribution of long-distance commerce, Islamic scholarship and religious tolerance were significant factors in

600-591: A master. In the Tuareg Rebellion of 2012 , ex-slaves were a vulnerable population with reports of some slaves being recaptured by their former masters. In January 2012 a Tuareg rebellion began in northern Mali, led by the National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad (MNLA). In March, military officer Amadou Sanogo seized power in a coup d'état , citing Touré's failures in quelling

700-642: A military base in Kati , outside Bamako. On 7 June 2021, Mali's military commander Assimi Goïta was sworn into office as the new interim president. In 2022 and 2023, the Islamic State in the Greater Sahara saw major gains in the Mali War , occupying large swathes of territory in southeastern Mali. Ansongo and Tidermène were also captured by the group. By mid-2023, the militant group had doubled

800-567: A part of French Sudan . In November 1915, a large anti-French uprising broke out among the tribes in the regions of present-day Mali and Burkina Faso. The last resistance was suppressed only in September 1916. During the suppression of the uprising, over 100 villages were destroyed by French colonial troops. On 24 November 1958, French Sudan (which changed its name to the Sudanese Republic) became an autonomous republic within

900-608: A public appearance in recently recaptured Timbuktu. In August 2013, Ibrahim Boubacar Keita was elected as the new president of Mali in the second round of the election . In the central Mali province of Mopti , conflict has escalated since 2015 between agricultural communities like the Dogon and the Bambara , and the pastoral Fula (or Fulani) people . Historically, the two sides have fought over access to land and water, factors which have been exacerbated by climate change as

1000-516: A religious center that housed a substantial academic community of Muslim scholars, with palaces and mosques built in the traditional Sudanese style. As Kong grew prosperous, its early rulers from the Taraweré clan combined dyula and Senufo traditions and extended their authority over the surrounding region. By the eighteenth century the dyula had become quite powerful in the area and wished to rid themselves of subordination to Senufo chiefs. This

1100-615: A remote village. A highly educated karamogo could become a professional imam or qadi (judge). Certain families gained a reputation for providing multiple generations of scholars. For example, the Saghanughu clan was a dyula lineage living in Northern and Western Ivory Coast and parts of the Upper Volta . This lineage may be traced to Timbuktu, but its principal figure was Sheikh Muhammad al-Mustafa Saghanughu (died 1776),

SECTION 10

#1732776711953

1200-592: A renowned place of learning with its university , one of the oldest in the world and still active. The expanding Songhai Empire absorbed the empire in 1468, followed by a Saadian army which defeated the Songhai in 1591 . In the late 19th century, during the Scramble for Africa , France seized control of Mali, making it a part of French Sudan ; as the Sudanese Republic, a brief federation with Senegal

1300-536: A second term in 1997, which was the last allowed under the constitution. Amadou Toumani Touré , a retired general who had been the leader of the military aspect of the 1991 democratic uprising, was elected in 2002. During this democratic period Mali was regarded as one of the most politically and socially stable countries in Africa. Slavery persists in Mali today with as many as 200,000 people held in direct servitude to

1400-468: A second-round run-off held on 11 August, and legislative elections were held on 24 November and 15 December 2013. In the early 2020s, Mali experienced two military takeovers by Assimi Goïta . The name Mali is taken from the name of the Mali Empire . It means "the place where the king lives" and carries a connotation of strength. Fourteenth-century Maghrebi traveller Ibn Battuta reported that

1500-458: Is Sheikh Al-Hajj Salim Suwari , a Soninke cleric from the core Mali area who lived around 1500. He made hajj to Mecca several times and devoted his intellectual career to developing an understanding of the faith that would assist Muslim minorities in " pagan " lands. He drew on North African and Middle Eastern jurists and theologians who had reflected on the problem of Muslims living among non-Muslim majorities, situations that were frequent in

1600-547: Is included in the group of closely interrelated Manding languages that are spoken by various ethnic groups spread across Western Africa. Dioula is most closely related to the Bambara language (the most widely spoken language in Mali), in a manner similar to the relation between American English and British English. It is probably the most used language for trade in West Africa. The Dioula language and people are distinct from

1700-577: Is now modern Ghana . By 1675, Gonja had established a paramount chief called Yagbongwura to control the kingdom. But Gonja was not a fruitful land in which to try to maintain a centralized government. This is because the Dagomba power to the north and Akan power to the south were too powerful; thus, the new kingdom rapidly declined in strength. Many of the trading posts established by the Dyula eventually became market villages or cities, such as Kong in today's Northeastern Côte d'Ivoire. It emerged as

1800-479: The 24 March 2019 massacre of 160 Fula villagers . The group denied the attack, but afterwards Malian president Keita ordered the group to disband. The UN Special Adviser on the Prevention of Genocide, Adama Dieng , warned of a growing ethnicization of the conflict. By 2020, more than 600,000 people had been displaced by the conflict in Mali. The United Nations reported that the number of children killed in

1900-579: The Battle of Tinzaouaten . On 5 August 2024 the Republic of Mali announced that it was severing diplomatic relations with Ukraine . On 17 September 2024, al-Qaeda linked JNIM militants attacked several locations across Bamako , killing at least 77 people and injuring 255 others. Mali is a landlocked country in West Africa, located southwest of Algeria . It lies between latitudes 10° and 25°N , and longitudes 13°W and 5°E . Mali borders Algeria to

2000-569: The Diola (Jola) people of Guinea-Bissau and Casamance . Mali Mali , officially the Republic of Mali , is a landlocked country in West Africa . It is the eighth-largest country in Africa , with an area of over 1,240,192 square kilometres (478,841 sq mi). The country is bordered to the north by Algeria , to the east by Niger , to the northwest by Mauritania , to

2100-524: The French Armed Forces intervened at the request of the interim government of president Dioncounda Traoré . On 30 January, the coordinated advance of the French and Malian troops claimed to have retaken the last remaining Islamist stronghold of Kidal, which was also the last of three northern provincial capitals. On 2 February, French president François Hollande joined Dioncounda Traoré in

SECTION 20

#1732776711953

2200-582: The French Community . In January 1959, Mali and Senegal united to become the Mali Federation . The Mali Federation gained independence from France on 20 June 1960. Senegal withdrew from the federation in August 1960, which allowed the Sudanese Republic to become the independent Republic of Mali on 22 September 1960, and that date is now the country's Independence Day . Modibo Keïta

2300-612: The Ghana Empire (for which Ghana is named), the Mali Empire (for which Mali is named), and the Songhai Empire . At its peak in 1300, the Mali Empire was the wealthiest country in Africa with its 14th-century emperor Mansa Musa believed to be one of the wealthiest individuals in history. Besides being a hub of trade and mining, medieval Mali was a centre of Islam , culture and knowledge, with Timbuktu becoming

2400-626: The Isnad al-shuyukh wa’l-ulama , or Kitab Ghunja , compiled by al-Hajj ‘Umar ibn Abi Bakr ibn ‘Uthman al-Kabbawi al-Kanawi al-Salaghawi of Kete-Krachi whom Hodgkin describes as "the most interesting, and historically significant of the poets", may now be found in the library of the Institute of African Studies of the University of Ghana . The dyula speak the Dioula language or Julakan , which

2500-553: The Rally for Mali and Soumaïla Cissé of the Union for the Republic and Democracy , and Keïta was re-elected with 67% of the vote. In September 2018, the Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue negotiated a unilateral ceasefire with Dan Na Ambassagou "in the context of the conflict which opposes the group to other community armed groups in central Mali". However, the group has been blamed for

2600-702: The Sahara Desert . The country's southern part, where the majority of inhabitants live, is in the Sudanian savanna and has the Niger and Senegal rivers running through it. The country's economy centres on agriculture and mining with its most prominent natural resources including gold (of which it is the third largest producer in Africa) and salt . Mali was part of three successive powerful and wealthy West African empires that controlled trans-Saharan trade :

2700-592: The Sahel . Some important trade goods included gold, millet , slaves, and kola nuts from the south and slave beads and cowrie shells from the north (for use as currency ). It was under Mali that the great cities of the Niger bend including Gao and Djenné prospered, with Timbuktu in particular becoming known across Europe for its great wealth. Important trading centers in Southern West Africa developed at

2800-537: The Soninke people , along the middle Niger River in central Mali, including Dia which began from around 900 BC, and reached its peak around 600 BC, and Djenne-Djenno , which lasted from around 300 BC to 900 AD. By the sixth century AD, the lucrative trans-Saharan trade in gold, salt and slaves had begun, facilitating the rise of West Africa's great empires. There are a few references to Mali in early Islamic literature. Among these are references to "Pene" and "Malal" in

2900-639: The Tata of Sikasso , which remains a tourist attraction today. Kenedougou's conflict with Toure's Wassoulou Empire began in 1884 when Tieba sent his brother Siaka to reinforce the frontier between the two kingdoms at the Bagoe River . The region soon became a depopulated battleground. Tieba also conquered the Minianka region. Samori attacked Sikasso with an army of 12,000 men in April 1887, and laid siege to

3000-684: The Wagner Group executed around 300 civilian men in central Mali in March 2022. France had started withdrawing French troops from Mali in February 2022, commencing the end of Operation Barkhane . On 2 May, the military government announced breaking its defence accords concluded in 2013 with France, constituting an additional step in the deterioration of Malian–French relations. This latest announcement has been criticized by French authorities and considered as "illegitimate". A UN panel reported that in

3100-418: The almamy . Even though they did not play a central part in the creation of the state, the dyula supported Samori because he actively encouraged commerce and protected trade routes, thus promoting a free circulation of people and goods. Samori put up the strongest resistance to European colonial penetration in West Africa, fighting both the French and British for seventeen years. Samori's would-be Muslim empire

Kénédougou Kingdom - Misplaced Pages Continue

3200-537: The establishment of sea routes by the European powers , the trans-Saharan trade routes lost significance. At that time, the Mali Empire's abundance in wealth expanded its commercial assets of salt and gold . One of the worst famines in the region's recorded history occurred in the 18th century. According to John Iliffe , "The worst crises were in the 1680s, when famine extended from the Senegambian coast to

3300-634: The imam of Bobo-Dyulasso. He produced an educational system based on three canonical texts of Quranic commentary ( tafsir ) and hadith . His sons continued spreading their father's teachings and expanded through towns in Ghana and the Ivory Coast, founding Islamic schools, or madaris , and acting as imams and qadis . These madaris were probably a positive byproduct of the long history of Muslims' interest in literary work. In The Islamic Literary Tradition in Ghana , author Thomas Hodgkin enumerates

3400-482: The secession of a new state, Azawad . The conflict was complicated by a military coup in March 2012 and later fighting between Tuareg and other rebel factions. In response to territorial gains, the French military launched Operation Serval in January 2013. A month later, Malian and French forces recaptured most of the north, although the conflict continued. Presidential elections were held on 28 July 2013, with

3500-467: The 13th century. Many in rural areas combine Islamic beliefs with certain pre-Islamic animistic traditions such as the presence of spirits and use of amulets . Dyula communities have a reputation for historically maintaining a high standard of Muslim education. The dyula family enterprise based on the lu could afford to provide some of its younger men an Islamic education. Thus, an ulema (clerical) class known as karamogo emerged, who were educated in

3600-741: The Akan kingdom of Bono; (2) the rise to power further north of the Dagomba Kingdom which controlled local salt pans; and (3) increased competition following the arrival in the region of rival long-distance traders from Hausaland . The reaction of the Dyula in the Bono-Banda-Gonja region to these developments was to establish a kingdom of their own in Gonja – the territory northern traders had to cross to reach Akan forestlands, situated in what

3700-541: The Fula move into new areas. The Dogon and the Bambara communities have formed "self-defense groups" to fight the Fula. They accuse the Fula of working with armed Islamists linked to al-Qaeda . While some Fula have joined Islamist groups, Human Rights Watch reports that the links have been "exaggerated and instrumentalized by different actors for opportunistic ends". Added a top Mali military commander: I’ve discussed

3800-496: The March Revolution. In Bamako, in response to mass demonstrations organized by university students and later joined by trade unionists and others, soldiers opened fire indiscriminately on the nonviolent demonstrators. Riots broke out briefly following the shootings. Barricades as well as roadblocks were erected and Traoré declared a state of emergency and imposed a nightly curfew. Despite an estimated loss of 300 lives over

3900-626: The March and April parliamentary elections, including outrage against the kidnapping of opposition leader Soumaïla Cissé . Between 11 and 23 deaths followed protests that took place from 10 to 13 June. In July, President Keïta dissolved the constitutional court. Members of the military led by Colonel Assimi Goïta and Colonel-Major Ismaël Wagué in Kati , Koulikoro Region , began a mutiny on 18 August 2020. President Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta and Prime Minister Boubou Cissé were arrested, and shortly after midnight Keïta announced his resignation, saying he did not want to see any bloodshed. Wagué announced

4000-545: The Quran and commentary ( tafsir ), hadith (prophetic narrations), and the life of Muhammad . According to the dyula clerical tradition, a student received instruction under a single sheikh for a duration varying from five to thirty years, and earned his living as a part-time farmer working his teacher's lands. After he completed his studies, a karamogo obtained a turban and an isnad (teaching license), and either sought further instruction or started his own school in

4100-455: The Sahara was fertile and rich in wildlife. Early ceramics have been discovered at the central Malian site of Ounjougou dating to about 9,400 BC, and are believed to represent an instance of the independent invention of pottery in the region. Farming took place by 5000 BC and iron was used by around 500 BC. In the first millennium BC, early cities and towns were created by Mande peoples related to

Kénédougou Kingdom - Misplaced Pages Continue

4200-612: The Sudanic kingdoms. In the seventeenth century, tensions between the Muslims and the local pagans in Begho erupted into a destructive war which eventually led to the total abandonment of the Banda capital. The local people eventually settled in a number of towns further east, while the dyula withdrew to the west to the further side of the Banda hills where they established the new trading center of Bonduku . The dyula presence and changes in

4300-559: The Traoré family originated in Gbotola near Kankan in what is now Guinea. A local seer predicted that, were they to sacrifice their aunt and go east, they would establish a powerful dynasty. They refused to kill their relative for ambition, even as other passing seers repeated the same prophecy. One day the aunt in question was told about the prophecy. In order to benefit her family, she prepared herself for sacrifice and committed suicide. When

4400-466: The Upper Nile and 'many sold themselves for slaves, only to get a sustenance', and especially in 1738–1756, when West Africa's greatest recorded subsistence crisis, due to drought and locusts, reportedly killed half the population of Timbuktu ." Mali fell under the control of France during the Scramble for Africa in the late 19th century. By 1905, most of the area was under firm French control as

4500-453: The amount of territory it controlled since the overthrow of the previous government and establishment of the junta. On 10 January 2022, Mali announced the closure of its borders and recalled several ambassadors to ECOWAS countries in response to sanctions placed on Mali for deferring elections for four years. On 4 February, France's ambassador was expelled. According to Human Rights Watch , Malian troops and suspected Russian mercenaries from

4600-421: The balance of power occasioned political upheavals in other places. Among the paramount Mande political initiatives along trade routes south of Jenne was creation of the dyula state of Gonja by Naba'a in the 16th century. This was motivated by a general worsening of the competitive position of dyula traders and was occasioned by three factors: (1) a near-monopoly control in exporting forest produce achieved by

4700-504: The capital of the empire was called Mali. One Mandinka tradition tells that the legendary first emperor Sundiata Keita changed himself into a hippopotamus upon his death in the Sankarani River and that it was possible to find villages in the area of this river called "old Mali". A study of Malian proverbs noted that in old Mali, there is a village called Malikoma, which means "New Mali", and that Mali could have formerly been

4800-457: The centuries of Islamic expansion. Sheikh Suwari formulated the obligations of Muslim minorities in West Africa into something known as the Suwarian tradition . It stressed the need for Muslims to coexist peaceably with unbelievers and so justified a separation of religion and politics. In this understanding, Muslims must nurture their own learning and piety and thereby furnish good examples to

4900-421: The city for 15 months, but failed to take it before a French column rescued the city. In the aftermath, Tieba signed a treaty of alliance with the French. He continued to campaign to the east, but was poisoned and died near Bama in January 1893. Following Tieba's death, his brother Babemba Traoré assumed the throne, later expanding Kenedougou territory into modern-day Burkina Faso and Ivory Coast. He maintained

5000-572: The city rose from a small city-state to the capital of the great Kong Empire , holding sway over much of the region. The dyula of Kong also maintained commercial links with European traders on the Atlantic coast around the Gulf of Guinea , from whom they easily obtained prized European goods, most notably rifles, gunpowder, and textiles. The acquisition of weapons allowed for the creation of an armed militia force that protected trade routes passing through

5100-506: The commercial centers along the Niger banks and the forest region to the south which was controlled by the Baule chiefdoms and the Ashanti . The dyula brought their trading skills and connections and transformed Kong into an international market for the exchange of northern desert goods, such as salt and cloth, and southern forest exports, such as cola nuts, gold, and slaves. The city was also

SECTION 50

#1732776711953

5200-411: The conflict in the first six months of 2019 was twice as many for the entire year of 2018. Many of the children have been killed in intercommunal attacks attributed to ethnic militias, with the majority of attacks occurring around Mopti . It is reported that around 900 schools have closed down and that armed militias are recruiting children. During the first week of October 2019, two jihadist attacks in

5300-435: The course of four days, nonviolent protesters continued to return to Bamako each day demanding the resignation of the dictatorial president and the implementation of democratic policies. 26 March 1991 is the day that marks the clash between military soldiers and peaceful demonstrating students which climaxed in the massacre of dozens under the orders of Traoré. He and three associates were later tried and convicted and received

5400-452: The death sentence for their part in the decision-making of that day. Nowadays, the day is a national holiday in order to remember the tragic events and the people who were killed. The coup is remembered as Mali's March Revolution of 1991 . By 26 March, the growing refusal of soldiers to fire into the largely nonviolent protesting crowds turned into a full-scale tumult, and resulted in thousands of soldiers putting down their arms and joining

5500-461: The drought. Peaceful student protests in January 1991 were brutally suppressed, with mass arrests and torture of leaders and participants. Scattered acts of rioting and vandalism of public buildings followed, but most actions by the dissidents remained nonviolent. From 22 March through 26 March 1991, mass pro-democracy rallies and a nationwide strike was held in both urban and rural communities, which became known as les évenements ("the events") or

5600-470: The economic fortunes of the groups. The traditional dyula social structure is further organized into various familial clan groups, and clan affiliation continues to be a dominant aspect of both collective and individual identity. People are fiercely loyal to their clan lineage, often expressing their cultural history and devotion through the oral traditions of dance and storytelling. The dyula are patrilineal and patriarchal , with older males possessing

5700-430: The fall from glory, the seventeenth-century Kong Friday Mosque survived, and the city was largely rebuilt in a traditional Sudano-Sahelian architectural style and features a Qur'anic school. The Mande conquerors of the nineteenth century frequently utilized trade routes established by the Dyula . Indeed, it was his exploitation of their commercial network that allowed military leader Samory Touré (1830–1900) to rise to

5800-444: The family heard the news they buried the aunt and traveled east. Nanka Traoré became Kénédougou's first ruler and began the Traoré dynasty, which would last into the late 19th century. There is little information about the kingdom's formative years, and approximately five to seven famas ruled between the foundation of the dynasty and Fama Douala Ba . Kénédougou's existence was marked by relative peace compared to neighboring states of

5900-461: The first black prince to make hajj to Mecca . It was at this time that Mali began encouraging some of its local merchants to establish colonies close to the gold fields of West Africa. This migrant trading class were known as Dyula , the Mandingo word for “merchant”. The Dyula spread throughout the former area of Mandé culture from the Atlantic coast of Senegambia to the Niger and from

6000-624: The first three months of 2022, 543 civilians were killed and 269 wounded, warning the 2015 peace agreement between the government and pro-independence groups was threatened by a potential risk of confrontation for the first time in five years. The report also noted a sharp increase in the number of people needing humanitarian assistance over the previous year. Sergey Lavrov , the Russian foreign minister, visited Bamako on 7 February 2023 and said that Moscow would continue to help Mali improve its military capabilities. In June 2023, Mali removed French,

6100-561: The forested zones in the south by establishing caravan routes and trading posts at strategic locations throughout the region en route to cola-producing areas. By the start of the sixteenth century, dyula merchants were trading as far south as the coast of modern Ghana. On the forest's northern fringes, new states emerged, such as Bono and Banda. As the economic value of gold and kola became appreciated, forests south of these states which had hitherto been little inhabited because of limited agricultural potential became more thickly populated, and

SECTION 60

#1732776711953

6200-654: The formation of the National Committee for the Salvation of the People (CNSP) and promised elections in the future. A curfew was begun and the streets of Bamako were quiet. The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) condemned the coup and demanded that Keïta be reinstated as president. On 12 September 2020, the CNSP agreed to an 18-month political transition to civilian rule. Shortly after, Bah N'daw

6300-424: The growing violence with my commanders and with village chiefs from all sides. Yes, sure, there are jihadists in this zone, but the real problem is banditry, animal theft, score settling – people are enriching themselves using the fight against terrorists as a cover. The conflict has seen the creation and growth of Dogon and Bambara militias. The government of Mali is suspected of supporting some of these groups under

6400-446: The guise of being proxies in the war against Islamists in the Northern Mali conflict . The government denies this. One such militia is the Dogon group Dan Na Ambassagou , created in 2016. In the 2018 Malian presidential election held on 29 July 2018, no candidate received more than 50% of the vote in the first round. A runoff was held on 12 August 2018 between the top two candidates, incumbent president Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta of

6500-418: The handover of power in September 2020. The tensions came to a head on 24 May 2021 after a cabinet reshuffle, where two leaders of the 2020 military coup – Sadio Camara and Modibo Kone – were replaced by N'daw's administration. Later that day, journalists reported that three key civilian leaders – President N'daw, Prime Minister Moctar Ouane and Defence Minister Souleymane Doucouré , were being detained in

6600-465: The kingdom into two parts, with the northern area being controlled by Seku's brother Famagan who refused to recognize the rule of Seku's oldest son in the south. Towards the end of the nineteenth century, many of Kong's provinces had formed independent chiefdoms. The city of Kong retained the prestige of an Islamic commercial center, but it was no longer the seat of an important political power. It eventually came under French colonial control in 1898. Despite

6700-404: The kingdom of Wasulu . Having established an empire, he adopted the religious title of Almami in 1884 and recreated the Malian realm. This new state was governed by Samori and a council of kinsmen and clients who took on the management of the chancery and the treasury , and administered justice, religious affairs, and foreign relations . Unlike some of his contemporary state-builders, Samori

6800-439: The kingdom was assimilated into the colony of French Sudan , and later into the country of Mali . The memory of Tieba and Babemba are still revered to this day in Mali as symbols of African resistance to the French. Dyula people The Dyula ( Dioula or Juula ) are a Mande ethnic group inhabiting several West African countries, including Mali , Côte d'Ivoire , Ghana , and Burkina Faso . Characterized as

6900-417: The language of its former colonizer, as an official language with the approval of a new constitution by 97% of voters in a referendum conducted by the junta. On 7 September 2023, al-Qaeda linked JNIM militants attacked a vessel on the Niger River , killing at least 154 civilians. In July 2024, CSP-DPA rebels and JNIM militants killed dozens of Russian mercenaries and Malian government forces during

7000-428: The large literary contribution that was made by Dyula- Wangara Muslims to the history of not only the regions they found themselves in but also of West Africa as a whole. He cites al-Hajj Osmanu Eshaka Boyo of Kintampo as an " ‘alim with a wide range of Muslim connexions and an excellent grasp of local Islamic history" whose efforts brought together a great many Arabic manuscripts from around Ghana. These manuscripts,

7100-405: The late 14th century, the Songhai gradually gained independence from the Mali Empire and expanded, ultimately subsuming the entire eastern portion of the Mali Empire. The Songhai Empire's eventual collapse was largely the result of the Moroccan invasion of 1591 under the command of Judar Pasha . The fall of the Songhai Empire marked the end of the region's role as a trading crossroads. Following

7200-482: The late 1980s. Opposition to the corrupt and dictatorial regime of General Moussa Traoré grew during the 1980s. During this time strict programs, imposed to satisfy demands of the International Monetary Fund, brought increased hardship upon the country's population, while elites close to the government supposedly lived in growing wealth. The government continued to attempt economic reforms, and

7300-413: The most power and influence. Men and women commonly reside in separate houses made of mud or cement - men occupying roundhouses and women in rectangular ones. The father heads the family, and inheritances are passed down from fathers to their sons. Despite being illegal, the dyula still practice polygamy , and young people are often encouraged to marry within their own clan. Another hereditary class that

7400-583: The name of a city. Another theory suggests that Mali is a Fulani pronunciation of the name of the Mande peoples . It is suggested that a sound shift led to the change, whereby in Fulani the alveolar segment /nd/ shifts to /l/ and the terminal vowel denasalizes and raises, leading "Manden" to shift to /mali/ . The rock art in the Sahara suggests that northern Mali has been inhabited since 10,000 BC, when

7500-578: The non-Muslims around them. They could accept jurisdiction of non-Muslim authorities as long as they had the necessary protection and conditions to practice the faith. In this teaching, Suwari followed a strong predilection in Islamic thought for any government, even if non-Muslim or tyrannical, as opposed to none. The military jihad was a resort only if the faithful were threatened. Suwari discouraged dawah (missionary activity), instead contending that God would bring non-Muslims to Islam in his own way; it

7600-548: The peaceful expansion of Islam in West Africa. The Mandé embraced Islam during the thirteenth century following introduction to the faith through contact with the North African traders. By the 14th century, the Malian empire (c. 1230–1600) had reached its apogee, acquiring a considerable reputation for the Islamic rulings of its court and the pilgrimages of several emperors who followed the tradition of Lahilatul Kalabi ,

7700-592: The period. In the 18th century, Kénédougou was a far-flung extension of the Kong Empire . By 1825, Kong power had declined in the region and the kingdom, under the rule of Doaula Ba Traoré, was able to establish independence. During much of the 19th century, Kenedougou was a war with Bobo-Dioulasso and their former overlords in Kong . Faama Daoula Traore (r. 1840-1877) expanded his holdings at their expense and consolidated administrative control. He died in 1877, and

7800-469: The populace became increasingly dissatisfied. In response to growing demands for multi-party democracy, the Traoré regime allowed some limited political liberalization in the late 1980s, but refused to usher in a full-fledged democratic system. In 1990, cohesive opposition movements began to emerge, and was complicated by the turbulent rise of ethnic violence in the north following the return of many Tuaregs who had migrated to Algeria and Libya during

7900-510: The pro-democracy movement. That afternoon, Lieutenant Colonel Amadou Toumani Touré announced on the radio that he had arrested the dictatorial president, Moussa Traoré. Opposition parties were legalized, a transitional government was formed and a national congress of civil and political groups met to draft a new democratic constitution to be approved by a national referendum. In 1992, Alpha Oumar Konaré won Mali's first democratic, multi-party presidential election, before being re-elected for

8000-695: The rebellion, and leading to sanctions and an embargo by the Economic Community of West African States . The MNLA quickly took control of the north, declaring its independence as Azawad . However, Islamist groups, including Ansar Dine and Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) , who had helped the MNLA defeat the government, turned on the Tuareg and took control of the north with the goal of implementing sharia in Mali. On 11 January 2013,

8100-446: The relationship with France, but in 1898 stopped sending the annual tribute and expelled and attacked the French ambassador. The French launched an artillery assault against Sikasso's tata on April 15th 1898, and the city fell on May 1. Rather than see the French take control of his city, Faama Babemba ordered his guards to kill him. Kénédougou was one of the last major hold-outs against French ambitions in West Africa. The territory of

8200-444: The same principles of political and military mobilization began being applied there. Village communities became tributaries of ruling groups, with some members becoming the clients and slaves needed to support royal households, armies, and trading enterprises. Sometimes these political changes were not to the advantage of the Dyula , who employed Mande warriors to guard their caravans and if necessary could call in larger contingents from

8300-399: The south by Burkina Faso and Ivory Coast , and to the west by Guinea and Senegal . The population of Mali is 24,478,595, 47.19% of which are estimated to be under the age of 15 in 2024. Its capital and largest city is Bamako . The country has 13 official languages, of which Bambara is the most commonly spoken. The sovereign state 's northern borders reach deep into the middle of

8400-490: The southern edge of the Sahara to forest zones further south. They established decentralized townships in non-Muslim colonies that were linked to an extensive commercial network, in what was described by professor Philip D. Curtin as a " trading diaspora ". Motivated by business imperatives, they expanded into new markets, founding settlements under the auspices of various local rulers who often permitted them self-governance and autonomy. Organization of dyula trading companies

8500-417: The territories of various minor rulers. In the course of developing his state, Seku Wattara built a strong army composed mostly of defeated pagan groups. The leadership of the army eventually developed into a new warrior class, called sonangi , which was gradually separated from the overall dyula merchant class. The Kong Empire started to decline after the death of Seku Wattara. Succession struggles divided

8600-856: The towns of Boulikessi and Mondoro killed more than 25 Mali soldiers near the border with Burkina Faso . President Keïta declared that "no military coup will prevail in Mali", continuing by saying that he does not think it "is on the agenda at all and cannot worry us". On 1 November 2019, the IS-GS militants killed at least 50 soldiers in the 2019 Indelimane attack in the Ménaka Region of Mali. In February 2020, Human Rights Watch documented atrocities against civilians in Central Mali and said that at least 456 civilians were killed, while hundreds were injured from January 2019 until November. Popular unrest began on 5 June 2020 following irregularities in

8700-521: The transitional zone between the forest and the savanna; examples include Begho and Bono Manso (in present-day Ghana) and Bondoukou (in present-day Côte d'Ivoire). Western trade routes continued to be important, with Ouadane , Oualata and Chinguetti being the major trade centres in what is now Mauritania . The development of Dyula trade in Ghana and the adjacent Ivory Coast had important political consequences and sometimes military implications as well. The dyula spearheaded Mande penetration of

8800-407: The upper Niger River , and reached the height of power in the 14th century. Under the Mali Empire, the ancient cities of Djenné and Timbuktu were centers of both trade and Islamic learning. The empire later declined as a result of internal intrigue, ultimately being supplanted by the Songhai Empire . The Songhai had long been a major power in West Africa subject to the Mali Empire's rule. In

8900-534: The work of al-Bakri in 1068, the story of the conversion of an early ruler, known to Ibn Khaldun (by 1397) as Barmandana, and a few geographical details in the work of al-Idrisi . Mali was once part of three famed West African empires which controlled trans-Saharan trade in gold, salt, other precious commodities, and slaves majorly during the reign of Mansa Musa from c. 1312 – c. 1337. These Sahelian kingdoms had neither rigid geopolitical boundaries nor rigid ethnic identities. The earliest of these empires

9000-513: Was achieved in an uprising led by Seku Wattara (Ouattara), a dyula warrior who claimed descent from the Malinke Keita lineage and who had studied the Quran and engaged in commerce before becoming a warrior. By rallying around himself all dyula in the area, Seku Wattara easily defeated local chiefdoms and set up an independent Dyula state in 1710, the first of its kind in West Africa. He established himself as ruler and under his authority,

9100-459: Was afforded a particularly important status by the dyula social hierarchy was occupied by the tuntigi or warrior class. The dyula had long been accustomed to surrounding their cities with fortifications and taking up arms when it was deemed necessary in order to defend themselves and maintain the smooth flow of trade caravans. As a result, they became closely associated with the tuntigi warriors. The dyula have been predominantly Muslim since

9200-584: Was based on a clan-family structure known as the lu – a working unit consisting of a father and his sons and other attached males. Members of a given lu dispersed from the savanna to the forest, managed circulation of goods and information, placed orders, and effectively controlled the economic mechanisms of supply and demand . Over time dyula colonies developed a theological rationale for their relations with non-Muslim ruling classes and subjects in what author Nehemia Levtzion dubbed "accommodationist Islam". The man credited with formulating this rationale

9300-502: Was elected the first president. He quickly established a one-party state, adopted an independent African and socialist orientation with close ties to the East, and implemented extensive nationalization of economic resources. In 1960, the population of Mali was reported to be about 4.1 million. On 19 November 1968, following progressive economic decline, the Keïta regime was overthrown in

9400-411: Was formed, achieving independence in 1960. After Senegal's withdrawal, the Republic of Mali was established. After a long period of one-party rule, a coup in 1991 led to a new constitution and the establishment of Mali as a democratic, multi-party state. In January 2012, an armed conflict broke out in northern Mali , in which Tuareg rebels took control of a territory in the north, and in April declared

9500-403: Was named interim president by a group of 17 electors, with Goïta being appointed vice president. The government was inaugurated on 25 September 2020. On 18 January 2021, the transitional government announced that the CNSP had been disbanded, almost four months after had been promised under the initial agreement. Tensions between the civilian transitional government and the military ran high after

9600-458: Was not a Muslim's responsibility to decide when ignorance should give way to belief. Since their Islamic practice was capable of accommodating traditional cults, dyula often served as priests, soothsayers , and counselors at the courts of animist rulers. As fellow Muslims, dyula merchants were also able to assess the valuable trans-Saharan trade network conducted by North African Arabs and Berbers whom they met at commercial centers across

9700-460: Was not a religious preacher, and Wasulu was not a reformist state as such. Nevertheless, he used Islam to unify the nation, promoting Islamic education and basing his rule on shari’a (Islamic law). However, Samori's professional army was the essential institution and the real strength behind his empire. He imported horses and weapons and modernized the army along European lines. Dyula traders had never enjoyed as much prosperity as they did under

9800-460: Was succeeded by his son Tieba . During this period, Kenedougou faced a double threat as French colonial forces and Samori Toure began swallowing up commercial partners in the south, west and east. Faama Tieba moved the capital of the kingdom from Bougoula to his mother's home city of Sikasso in 1877. There he built a new palace on a strategic hill called the Mamelon and a massive city wall,

9900-604: Was the Ghana Empire , which was dominated by the Soninke , a Mande -speaking people. The empire expanded throughout West Africa from the eighth century until 1078, when it was conquered by the Almoravids . The Battle of Kirina in 1235, culminated in a victory for the Mandinka under the command of the exiled prince Sundiata Keita , which led to the downfall of the Sosso Empire . The Mali Empire later formed on

10000-500: Was undone by the French, who took Sikasso in 1898, and sent Samori into exile, where he died in 1900. Dyula society is hierarchical or caste -based, with nobility and vassals. Like numerous other African peoples, they previously held slaves ( jonw ), who were often war prisoners from lands surrounding their territory. Descendants of former kings and generals had a higher status than their nomadic and more settled compatriots. With time, that difference has eroded, corresponding to

#952047