102-485: (Redirected from Tuareg Rebellion ) Tuareg rebellion may refer to various armed conflicts involving the Tuareg people of the northern parts of Mali and Niger and the western parts of Libya : Kaocen revolt (1916–1917) Tuareg rebellion (1962–1964) Tuareg rebellion (1990–1995) Tuareg rebellion (2007–2009) Tuareg rebellion (2012) Tuareg involvement in
204-606: A bipedal locomotion and freed hands, giving them a crucial advantage enabling them to live in both forested areas and on the open savanna at a time when Africa was drying up, with savanna encroaching on forested areas. This occurred 10 million to 5 million years ago. By 3 million years ago several australopithecine hominid species had developed throughout Southern , East , and Central Africa . They were tool users rather than tool manufacturers. The next major evolutionary step occurred around 2.3 million BCE, when primitive stone tools were used to scavenge
306-438: A " Wet Sahara " phase, during which larger lakes and more rivers existed. Geographers historically divided the region into several distinct ethnographic sections based on each area's respective inhabitants. The concept has been criticised as a racist construction intended to separate North Africa or "European/White Africa" and "Black Africa" or "Africa noire". Critics from various countries have provided arguments supporting
408-482: A Bantu language with many Arabic , Persian and other Middle Eastern and South Asian loan words , developed as a lingua franca for trade between the different peoples in southeastern Africa. In the Kalahari Desert of Southern Africa, the distinct people known as Bushmen (also "San", closely related to, but distinct from " Hottentots ") have long been present. The San evince unique physical traits, and are
510-410: A Business June 2008 through May 2009) , PFI (Press Freedom Index 2009) Sub-Saharan Africa contains over 1,500 languages. With the exception of the extinct Sumerian (a language isolate ) of Mesopotamia , Afroasiatic has the oldest documented history of any language family in the world. Egyptian was recorded as early as 3200 BCE. The Semitic branch was recorded as early as 2900 BCE in
612-771: A French expedition led by Paul Flatters in 1881. Over decades of fighting, Tuareg broadswords were no match for the firearms of French troops. After numerous massacres on both sides, the Tuareg were defeated and forced to sign treaties in Mali in 1905 and Niger in 1917. In southern Algeria, the French met some of the strongest resistance from the Ahaggar Tuareg. Their Amenokal chief Moussa ag Amastan fought numerous battles, but eventually Tuareg territories were subdued under French governance. French colonial administration of
714-406: A blend of pre-Islamic and Islamic practices. Patrilineal Muslim values are believed to have been superimposed upon the Tuareg's traditional matrilineal society. Other apparently newer customs include close-cousin endogamous marriages and polygyny in conformity with Islamic tenets. Polygyny, which has been witnessed among Tuareg chiefs and Islamic scholars, is in turn thought to have been contrary to
816-556: A different regional breakdown, recognising all 55 member states on the continent—grouping them into five distinct and standard regions. The term serves as a grouping counterpart to North Africa , which is instead grouped with the definition of MENA (i.e. Middle East and North Africa) as it is part of the Arab world , and most North African states are likewise members of the Arab League . However, while they are also member states of
918-455: A distinct group known as izeggaghan (or hartani in Arabic). Their origins are unclear but they often speak both Tuareg dialects and Arabic, though a few communities are Songhay speakers. Traditionally, these local peasants were subservient to the warrior nobles who owned the oasis and the land. The peasants tilled these fields, whose output they gave to the nobles after keeping a fifth part of
1020-570: A large Berber ethnic group, traditionally nomadic pastoralists , who principally inhabit the Sahara in a vast area stretching from far southwestern Libya to southern Algeria , Niger , Mali , and Burkina Faso , as far as northern Nigeria . The Tuareg speak languages of the same name , also known as Tamasheq , which belong to the Berber branch of the Afroasiatic family . They are
1122-490: A mix of admiration and distrust. According to Rasmussen, the Tuareg castes are not only hierarchical, as each caste differs in mutual perception, food and eating behaviors. For example, she relates an explanation by a smith on why there is endogamy among Tuareg castes in Niger. The smith explained, "nobles are like rice, smiths are like millet, slaves are like corn". The people who farm oases in some Tuareg-dominated areas form
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#17327659046721224-448: A noble, forms a confederation whose chieftain, the amănokal , is elected from among the nobles by the tribal chiefs. The chieftain is the overlord during times of war, and receives tribute and taxes from tribes as a sign of their submission to his authority. The vassal-herdsmen are the second free stratum within Tuareg society, occupying a position just below that of the nobles. They are known as ímɣad ( Imghad , singular Amghid ) in
1326-522: A semi-nomadic people who mostly practice Islam , and are descended from the indigenous Berber communities of Northern Africa, whose ancestry has been described as a mosaic of local Northern African ( Taforalt ), Middle Eastern , European ( Early European Farmers ), and Sub-Saharan African , prior to the Muslim conquest of the Maghreb . Some researchers have tied the origin of the Tuareg ethnicity with
1428-668: A spiritual religious guardian. This imperial cult or system of divine kings was spread to most of central Africa by rivals in kingship migrating and forming new states. Many new states received legitimacy by claiming descent from the Lunda dynasties. The Kingdom of Kongo existed from the Atlantic west to the Kwango river to the east. During the 15th century, the Bakongo farming community was united with its capital at M'banza-Kongo , under
1530-522: A wide variety of climate zones or biomes . South Africa and the Democratic Republic of the Congo in particular are considered megadiverse countries . It has a dry winter season and a wet summer season. According to paleontology , early hominid skull anatomy was similar to that of their close cousins, the great African forest apes , gorilla and chimpanzee . However, they had adopted
1632-519: Is exacerbated by over-exploitation of resources including firewood. This has pushed some Tuareg to experiment with farming; some have been forced to abandon herding and seek jobs in towns and cities. Following the independence of Mali, a Tuareg uprising broke out in the Adrar N'Fughas mountains in the 1960s, joined by Tuareg groups from the Adrar des Iforas in northeastern Mali. The Malian Army suppressed
1734-568: Is inherited, with the descendants of the slaves known as irewelen . They often live in communities separate from other castes. The Ikelan's Nilotic extraction is denoted via the Ahaggar Berber word Ibenheren (sing. Ébenher ). Sub-Saharan Africa Sub-Saharan Africa or Subsahara is the area and regions of the continent of Africa that lie south of the Sahara . These include Central Africa , East Africa , Southern Africa , and West Africa . Geopolitically, in addition to
1836-700: Is located on the Swahili coast . Johannesburg is the largest city in South Africa . It is the provincial capital and largest city in Gauteng , which is the wealthiest province in South Africa. While Johannesburg is not one of South Africa's three capital cities , it is the seat of the Constitutional Court . The city is located in the mineral-rich Witwatersrand range of hills, and is
1938-482: Is one of the fastest-growing cities in the world, and also one of the most populous urban agglomerations . Lagos is a major financial centre in Africa; this megacity has the highest GDP, and also houses Apapa , one of the largest and busiest ports on the continent. Dar es Salaam is the former capital of, as well as the most populous city in, Tanzania ; it is a regionally important economic centre. It
2040-470: Is that Tuareg is derived from Tuwariq , the plural of the Arabic exonym Tariqi . The term for a Tuareg man is Amajagh (variants: Amashegh , Amahagh ), the term for a woman Tamajaq (variants: Tamasheq , Tamahaq , Timajaghen ). Spellings of the appellation vary by Tuareg dialect. They all reflect the same linguistic root, expressing the notion of "freemen". As such, the endonym strictly refers only to
2142-663: Is thought that the camel was first brought to Egypt after the Persian Empire conquered Egypt in 525 BCE, although large herds did not become common enough in North Africa for camels to be the pack animal of choice for the trans-saharan trade. The Bantu expansion is a major migration movement that originated in West Central Africa (possibly around Cameroon) around 2500 BCE, reaching East and Central Africa by 1000 BCE and Southern Africa by
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#17327659046722244-594: The African countries and territories that are situated fully in that specified region, the term may also include polities that only have part of their territory located in that region, per the definition of the United Nations (UN). This is considered a non-standardised geographical region with the number of countries included varying from 46 to 48 depending on the organisation describing the region (e.g. UN , WHO , World Bank , etc.). The African Union (AU) uses
2346-659: The Bantu expansion . In Southern Africa, their speakers are the Khoikhoi and San (Bushmen), in Southeast Africa, the Sandawe and Hadza . The Niger–Congo family is the largest in the world in terms of the number of languages (1,436) it contains. The vast majority of languages of this family are tonal , such as Yoruba and Igbo . However, others such as Fulani , Wolof and Kiswahili are not. A major branch of
2448-777: The Dutch East India Company . For most of the 17th and 18th centuries, the slowly expanding settlement was a Dutch possession. In 1795, the Dutch colony was captured by the British during the French Revolutionary Wars . The British intended to use Cape Town as a major port on the route to Australia and India . It was later returned to the Dutch in 1803, but soon afterward the Dutch East India Company declared bankruptcy, and
2550-726: The Ethiopian Empire , and the Geledi Sultanate , whose military dominance forced governors of the Omani empire north of the city of Lamu to pay tribute to the Somali Sultan Ahmed Yusuf . According to the theory of recent African origin of modern humans , the mainstream position held within the scientific community, all humans originate from either Southeast Africa or the Horn of Africa. During
2652-464: The H. erectus species. The fossil and genetic evidence shows Homo sapiens developed in Southern and East Africa by around 350,000 to 260,000 years ago and gradually migrated across the continent in waves. Between 50,000 and 60,000 years ago, their expansion out of Africa launched the colonisation of the planet by modern humans. By 10,000 BCE, Homo sapiens had spread to all corners of
2754-594: The Mali Empire , Songhai Empire , the Kanem Empire and the subsequent Bornu Empire . They built stone structures like in Tichit , but mainly constructed in adobe . The Great Mosque of Djenne is most reflective of Sahelian architecture and is the largest adobe building in the world. In the forest zone, several states and empires such as Bono State , Akwamu and others emerged. The Ashanti Empire arose in
2856-636: The Mali War (2012–) Tuareg involvement in the Second Libyan Civil War (2014–2020) See also [ edit ] Ansar Dine Movement for Oneness and Jihad in West Africa Tuareg militias of Ghat Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Tuareg rebellion . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change
2958-674: The Sabaeans , Parthians and Axumites for the wealthy Indo – Greco – Roman trade. In the Middle Ages several powerful Somali empires dominated the region's trade, including the Ajuran Sultanate , which excelled in hydraulic engineering and fortress building, the Sultanate of Adal , whose General Ahmed Gurey was the first African commander in history to use cannon warfare on the continent during Adal's conquest of
3060-662: The Songhai , Zarma and Kanuri . The Old Nubian language is also a member of this family. Major languages of Africa by region, family and number of primary language speakers in millions: Sub-Saharan Africa has several large cities. Lagos is a city in the Nigerian state of Lagos . The city, with its adjoining conurbation , is the most populous in Nigeria , and the second-most populous in Africa after Cairo , Egypt . It
3162-775: The Walls of Benin , which is the largest man-made structure in the world. In the 18th century, the Oyo and the Aro confederacy were responsible for most of the slaves exported from modern-day Nigeria, selling them to European slave traders . Following the Napoleonic Wars , the British expanded their influence into the Nigerian interior. In 1885, British claims to a West African sphere of influence received international recognition, and in
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3264-400: The amghar . A series of tawsheten (plural of tawshet ) may bond together under an Amenokal , forming a Kel clan confederation. Tuareg self-identification is related only to their specific Kel , which means "those of". For example, Kel Dinnig (those of the east), Kel Ataram (those of the west). The position of amghar is hereditary through a matrilineal principle; it is usual for
3366-477: The jedar sepulchres, were erected for religious and funerary practices. In 1926, one such tomb was discovered south of Casablanca . The monument was engraved with funerary inscriptions in the ancient Libyco-Berber writing script known as Tifinagh , which the Tuareg still use. During the medieval period, the Tuareg adopted Islam after its arrival with the Umayyad Caliphate in the 7th century. In
3468-531: The 12th century. It flourished under the protection and rule of a Tuareg confederation. However, modern scholars believe that there is insufficient evidence to pinpoint the exact time of origin and founders of Timbuktu, although it is archeologically clear that the city originated from local trade between the Middle Niger Delta, on the one hand, and between the pastoralists of the Sahara, long before
3570-601: The 14th and 15th centuries, large medieval Southeast African kingdoms and states emerged, such as the Buganda , Bunyoro and Karagwe kingdoms of Uganda and Tanzania. During the early 1960s, the Southeast African nations achieved independence from colonial rule. Settlements of Bantu -speaking peoples, who were iron -using agriculturists and herdsmen, were already present south of the Limpopo River by
3672-553: The 16th century, under the tutelage of El Maghili, the Tuareg embraced the Maliki school of Sunni Islam, which they now primarily follow. The Tuareg helped spread Islam further into the Western Sudan . While Islam is the religion of the contemporary Tuareg, historical documents suggest that they initially resisted Islamization efforts in their traditional strongholds. According to the anthropologist Susan Rasmussen, after
3774-589: The 18th century in modern-day Ghana . The Kingdom of Nri , was established by the Igbo in the 11th century. Nri was famous for having a priest-king who wielded no military power. Nri was a rare African state which was a haven for freed slaves and outcasts who sought refuge in their territory. Other major states included the kingdoms of Ifẹ and Oyo in the western block of Nigeria which became prominent about 700–900 and 1400 respectively, and center of Yoruba culture. The Yoruba built massive mud walls around their cities,
3876-531: The 1950s and early 1960s, most sub-Saharan African nations achieved independence from colonial rule. According to the 2022 revision of the World Population Prospects , the population of sub-Saharan Africa was 1.1 billion in 2019. The current growth rate is 2.3%. The UN predicts for the region a population between 2 and 2.5 billion by 2050 with a population density of 80 per km compared to 170 for Western Europe, 140 for Asia and 30 for
3978-617: The 1995 and 1996 agreements. As of 2004, sporadic fighting continued in Niger between government forces and Tuareg rebels. In 2007, a new surge in violence occurred. The development of Berberism in North Africa in the 1990s fostered a Tuareg ethnic revival. Since 1998, three different flags have been designed to represent the Tuareg. In Niger, the Tuareg people remain socially and economically marginalized, remaining poor and unrepresented in Niger's central government. On 21 March 2021, IS-GS militants attacked several villages around Tillia , Niger, killing 141 people. The main victims of
4080-536: The 4th or 5th century displacing and absorbing the original Khoisan speakers. They slowly moved south, and the earliest ironworks in modern-day KwaZulu-Natal Province are believed to date from around 1050. The southernmost group was the Xhosa people , whose language incorporates certain linguistic traits from the earlier Khoisan inhabitants. They reached the Fish River in today's Eastern Cape Province . Monomotapa
4182-776: The Americas. Sub-Saharan African countries top the list of countries and territories by fertility rate with 40 of the highest 50, all with TFR greater than 4 in 2008. All are above the world average except South Africa and Seychelles . More than 40% of the population in sub-Saharan countries is younger than 15 years old, as well as in Sudan , with the exception of South Africa. GDP per Capita (PPP) (2016, 2017 (PPP, US$ )) , Life (Exp.) (Life Expectancy 2006) , Literacy (Male/Female 2006) , Trans (Transparency 2009) , HDI (Human Development Index) , EODBR (Ease of Doing Business Rank June 2008 through May 2009) , SAB ( Starting
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4284-670: The Arab League , the Comoros , Djibouti , Mauritania , and Somalia (and sometimes Sudan ) are all geographically considered to be part of sub-Saharan Africa. Overall, the UN Development Programme applies the "sub-Saharan" classification to 46 of Africa's 55 countries, excluding Djibouti, SADR , Somalia, and Sudan. Since around 3900 BCE , the Saharan and sub-Saharan regions of Africa have been separated by
4386-527: The Dutch (now under French control) and the British found themselves at war again. The British captured the Dutch possession yet again at the Battle of Blaauwberg , commanded by Sir David Blair . The Zulu Kingdom was a Southern African tribal state in what is now KwaZulu-Natal in southeastern South Africa. The small kingdom gained world fame during and after their defeat in the Anglo-Zulu War . During
4488-632: The Horn of Africa (Ethiopia, Eritrea). The Chadic branch is distributed in Central and West Africa. Hausa , its most widely spoken language, serves as a lingua franca in West Africa (Niger, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Cameroon, and Chad). The several families lumped under the term Khoi-San include languages indigenous to Southern Africa and Tanzania , though some, such as the Khoi languages , appear to have moved to their current locations not long before
4590-618: The Horn of Africa and Sahel related to those in North Africa, who spoke languages belonging to the Afroasiatic family; Negroes in most of the rest of the subcontinent (hence, the toponym Black Africa for Africa south of the Sahara ), who spoke languages belonging to the Niger-Congo and Nilo-Saharan families; and Khoisan in Southern Africa , who spoke languages belonging to the Khoisan family. Sub-Saharan Africa has
4692-508: The Lemta and the Zarawa, along with other fellow pastoral Berbers. Further invasions of Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym Arab tribes into Tuareg regions in the 11th century moved the Tuareg south into seven clans, which the oral tradition of Tuaregs claims are descendants of the same mother. Each Tuareg clan ( tawshet ) is made up of family groups constituting a tribe, each led by its chief,
4794-651: The Mediterranean. Growing from the proto-Aksumite Iron Age period ( c. 4th century BCE), it rose to prominence by the 1st century CE. The Aksumites constructed monolithic stelae to cover the graves of their kings, such as King Ezana's Stele . The later Zagwe dynasty , established in the 12th century, built churches out of solid rock. These rock-hewn structures include the Church of St. George at Lalibela . In ancient Somalia , city-states flourished such as Opone , Mosyllon and Malao that competed with
4896-438: The Niger–Congo languages is Bantu , which covers a greater geographic area than the rest of the family. Bantu speakers represent the majority of inhabitants in southern, central and southeastern Africa, though San , Pygmy , and Nilotic groups, respectively, can also be found in those regions. Bantu-speakers can also be found in parts of Central Africa such as the Gabon , Equatorial Guinea and southern Cameroon . Swahili ,
4998-409: The Sahel (northern Mauritania, northern Mali, northern Niger). The Cushitic branch of Afroasiatic is centered in the Horn, and is also spoken in the Nile Valley and parts of the African Great Lakes region. Additionally, the Semitic branch of the family, in the form of Arabic , is widely spoken in the parts of Africa that are within the Arab world. South Semitic languages are also spoken in parts of
5100-521: The Sahel between the 7th and 17th centuries. Adherence to the faith was initially centered around this caste, but later spread to the wider Tuareg community. The marabouts have traditionally been the judges ( qadi ) and religious leaders ( imam ) of a Tuareg community. According to anthropologist Jeffrey Heath, Tuareg artisans belong to separate endogamous castes known as the Inhăḍăn ( Inadan ). These have included blacksmith, jeweler, wood worker and leather artisan castes. They produced and repaired
5202-413: The Southeast coast of Kenya and Tanzania encountered by these later Arab and Persian settlers have been variously identified with the trading settlements of Rhapta , Azania and Menouthias referenced in early Greek and Chinese writings from 50 CE to 500 CE. These early writings perhaps document the first wave of Bantu settlers to reach Southeast Africa during their migration. Between
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#17327659046725304-435: The Tuareg nobility , not the artisanal client castes and the slaves. Two other Tuareg self-designations are Kel Tamasheq , meaning "speakers of Tamasheq ", and Kel Tagelmust , meaning "veiled people" in allusion to the tagelmust garment that is traditionally worn by Tuareg men. The English exonym "Blue People" is similarly derived from the indigo color of the tagelmust veils and other clothing, which sometimes stains
5406-500: The Tuareg had adopted the religion, they were reputedly lax in their prayers and observances of other Muslim precepts. Some of their ancient beliefs still exist today subtly within their culture and tradition, such as elements of pre-Islamic cosmology and rituals, particularly among Tuareg women, or the widespread "cult of the dead", which is a form of ancestor veneration . For example, Tuareg religious ceremonies contain allusions to matrilineal spirits, as well as to fertility, menstruation,
5508-432: The Tuareg language. Although the vassals were free, they did not own camels but instead kept donkeys and herds of goats, sheep and oxen. They pastured and tended their own herds as well those owned by the nobles of the confederation. The vassal strata have traditionally paid an annual tiwse , or tribute to the nobles as a part of their status obligations, and hosted any noble who was traveling through their territory. In
5610-449: The Tuareg moved southward from the Tafilalt region into the Sahel under the Tuareg founding queen Tin Hinan , who is believed to have lived between the 4th and 5th centuries. The matriarch's 1,500-year-old monumental Tin Hinan tomb is located in the Sahara at Abalessa in the Hoggar Mountains of southern Algeria. Vestiges of an inscription in Tifinagh , the Tuareg's traditional Libyco-Berber writing script, have been found on one of
5712-414: The Tuareg was largely based on supporting the existing social hierarchy. The French concluded that Tuareg rebellions were largely the result of reform policies that undermined the traditional chiefs. The colonial authorities wished to create a protectorate operating, ideally, through single chieftains who ruled under French sovereignty, but were autonomous within their territories. Thus French rule, relying on
5814-443: The Tuareg, who kept their oral traditions . They are called Agguta by Tuareg, have been called upon to sing during ceremonies such as weddings or funerals. The origins of the artisanal castes are unclear. One theory posits a Jewish derivation, a proposal that Prasse calls "a much vexed question". Their association with fire, iron and precious metals and their reputation for being cunning tradesmen has led others to treat them with
5916-458: The ancient sepulchre's walls. External accounts of interactions with the Tuareg are available from at least the 10th century onwards. Ibn Hawkal (10th century), El-Bekri (11th century), Edrisi (12th century), Ibn Battutah (14th century), and Leo Africanus (16th century) all documented the Tuareg in some form, usually as Mulatthamin or "the veiled ones". Of the early historians, fourteenth century scholar Ibn Khaldûn probably wrote some of
6018-421: The application of animal husbandry towards carrying water, food, and supplies across the desert. Prior to the introduction of the camel , the use of oxen, mule, and horses for desert crossing was common, and trade routes followed chains of oases that were strung across the desert. The trans-saharan trade was in full motion by 500 BCE with Carthage being a major economic force for its establishment. It
6120-411: The art of making fire. They were the first hominids to leave Africa, going on to colonise the entire Old World , and perhaps later on giving rise to Homo floresiensis . Although some recent writers suggest that H. georgicus , a H. habilis descendant , was the first and most primitive hominid to ever live outside Africa, many scientists consider H. georgicus to be an early and primitive member of
6222-476: The carcasses of animals killed by other predators, both for their meat and their marrow. In hunting, H. habilis was most likely not capable of competing with large predators and was more prey than hunter, although H. habilis likely did steal eggs from nests and may have been able to catch small game and weakened larger prey such as cubs and older animals. The tools were classed as Oldowan . Roughly 1.8 million years ago, Homo ergaster first appeared in
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#17327659046726324-404: The chief of the confederation. Historically, there have been seven major confederations. In the mid-19th century, descriptions of the Tuareg and their way of life were made by the English traveller James Richardson in his journeys across the Libyan Sahara in 1845–1846. In the late 19th century, the Tuareg resisted the French colonial invasion of their central Saharan homelands and annihilated
6426-420: The conflicts in the Saharan region during the colonial and post-colonial eras. The origins and meanings of the name Tuareg have long been debated. It would appear that Twārəg is derived from the broken plural of Tārgi , a name whose former meaning was "inhabitant of Targa ", the Tuareg name of the Libyan region commonly known as Fezzan . Targa in Berber means "(drainage) channel". Another theory
6528-410: The early centuries CE. The Djenné-Djenno city-state flourished from 250 BCE to 900 CE and was influential to the development of the Ghana Empire . The Nok culture of Nigeria (lasting from 1,500 BCE to 200 CE) is known from a type of terracotta figure. There were a number of medieval empires of the southern Sahara and the Sahel, based on trans-Saharan trade , including the Ghana Empire and
6630-404: The earth and ancestresses. Norris (1976) suggests that this apparent syncretism may stem from the influence of Sufi Muslim preachers on the Tuareg. The Tuaregs have been one of the influential ethnic groups in the spread of Islam and its legacy in North Africa and adjacent Sahel. Timbuktu , an important Islamic center famed for its ulama , was established by Imasheghen Tuareg at the start of
6732-442: The eastern dialect ( Tamajaq , Tawallammat ). The exact number of Tuareg speakers per territory is uncertain. The CIA estimates that the Tuareg population in Mali constitutes approximately 0.9% of the national population (~150,000), whereas about 3.5% of local inhabitants speak Tuareg (Tamasheq) as a primary language. In contrast, Imperato (2008) estimates that the Tuareg represent around 3% of Mali's population. In antiquity,
6834-526: The extremely harsh climate of the sparsely populated Sahara, forming an effective barrier that is interrupted only by the Nile in Sudan, though navigation on the Nile was blocked by the Sudd and the river's cataracts . There is also an evident genetic divide between North Africa and sub-Saharan Africa that dates back to the Neolithic . The Sahara pump theory explains how flora and fauna (including Homo sapiens ) left Africa to penetrate Eurasia and beyond. African pluvial periods are associated with
6936-463: The fall of the Garamantes who inhabited the Fezzan (Libya) from the 1st millennium BC to the 5th century AD. Tuareg people are credited with spreading Islam in North Africa and the adjacent Sahel region. Tuareg social structure has traditionally included clan membership, social status and caste hierarchies within each political confederation. The Tuareg have controlled several trans-Saharan trade routes and have been an important party to
7038-418: The first hijra . Monroe asserts, based on archaeological evidence, that Timbuktu emerged from an urban-rural dynamic, that is, aiming to provide services to its immediate rural hinterland . In 1449, a Tuareg ruling house founded the Tenere Sultanate of Aïr (Sultanate of Agadez) in the city of Agadez in the Aïr Mountains . 18th century Tuareg Islamic scholars such as Jibril ibn 'Umar later preached
7140-507: The first millennium BCE. Trade and improved agricultural techniques supported more sophisticated societies, leading to the early civilisations of Sao , Kanem , Bornu , Shilluk , Baguirmi , and Wadai . Following the Bantu Migration into Central Africa, during the 14th century, the Luba Kingdom in southeast Congo came about under a king whose political authority derived from religious, spiritual legitimacy. The kingdom controlled agriculture and regional trade of salt and iron from
7242-534: The first millennium CE, Nilotic and Bantu -speaking peoples moved into the region , and the latter now account for three-quarters of Kenya's population. On the coastal section of Southeast Africa, a mixed Bantu community developed through contact with Muslim Arab and Persian traders, leading to the development of the mixed Arab, Persian and African Swahili City States . The Swahili culture that emerged from these exchanges evinces many Arab and Islamic influences not seen in traditional Bantu culture, as do
7344-574: The following year the Royal Niger Company was chartered under the leadership of Sir George Goldie . In 1900, the company's territory came under the control of the British government, which moved to consolidate its hold over the area of modern Nigeria. On 1 January 1901, Nigeria became a British protectorate as part of the British Empire , the foremost world power at the time. Nigeria was granted its independence in 1960 during
7446-722: The forebears of the Habesha . In northern Somalia was Barbara or the Bilad al-Barbar ("Land of the Berbers "), which was inhabited by the Eastern Baribah or Barbaroi , as the ancestors of the Somalis were referred to by medieval Arab and ancient Greek geographers, respectively. In the 19th and 20th centuries, the populations south of the Sahara were divided into three broad ancestral groups: Hamites and Semites in
7548-527: The form of the Akkadian language of Mesopotamia ( Assyria and Babylonia ) and circa 2500 BCE in the form of the Eblaite language of northeastern Syria . The distribution of the Afroasiatic languages within Africa is principally concentrated in North Africa and the Horn of Africa. Languages belonging to the family's Berber branch are mainly spoken in the north, with its speech area extending into
7650-507: The fossil record in Africa. From Homo ergaster , Homo erectus (upright man) evolved 1.5 million years ago. Some of the earlier representatives of this species were small-brained and used primitive stone tools , much like H. habilis . The brain later grew in size, and H. erectus eventually developed a more complex stone tool technology called the Acheulean . Potentially the first hominid to engage in hunting, H. erectus mastered
7752-621: The indigenous people of southern Africa. Pygmies are the pre-Bantu indigenous peoples of Central Africa. The Nilo-Saharan languages are concentrated in the upper parts of the Chari and Nile rivers of Central Africa and Southeast Africa. They are principally spoken by Nilotic peoples and are also spoken in Sudan among the Fur , Masalit , Nubian and Zaghawa peoples and in West and Central Africa among
7854-576: The interconnectedness of continental Africa, pointing to historical and cultural connections, as well as trade between North, West, and East Africa . Commentators in Arabic in the medieval period used the general term bilâd as-sûdân ("Land of the Blacks") for the vast Sudan region (an expression denoting Central and West Africa ), or sometimes extending from the coast of West Africa to Western Sudan . Its equivalent in Southeast Africa
7956-688: The king title, Manikongo . Other significant states and peoples included the Kuba Kingdom , producers of the famous raffia cloth, the Eastern Lunda , Bemba , Burundi , Rwanda , and the Kingdom of Ndongo . Nubia , covered by present-day northern Sudan and southern Egypt , was referred to as " Aethiopia " ("land of the burnt face") by the Greeks . Nubia in her greatest phase is considered sub-Saharan Africa's oldest urban civilisation. Nubia
8058-443: The land, seeking instead soldiering or intellectual work. A semi-noble stratum of the Tuareg people has been the endogamous religious clerics, the marabouts (Tuareg: Ineslemen , a loan word that means Muslim in Arabic). After the adoption of Islam, they became integral to the Tuareg social structure. According to Norris (1976), this stratum of Muslim clerics has been a sacerdotal caste, which propagated Islam in North Africa and
8160-499: The late Medieval era, states Prasse, the previously existing weapon monopoly of the nobility broke down after regional wars took a heavy toll on the noble warrior strata, and thereafter the vassals carried weapons as well and were recruited as warriors. After the start of the French colonial rule, which deprived the nobles of their powers over war and taxation, the Tuaregs belonging to the noble strata disdained tending cattle and tilling
8262-717: The link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuareg_rebellion&oldid=1192943203 " Categories : Disambiguation pages Tuareg rebellions Civil wars in Mali Civil wars in Niger Hidden categories: Short description is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Tuareg people The Tuareg people ( / ˈ t w ɑːr ɛ ɡ / ; also spelled Twareg or Touareg ; endonym : Imuhaɣ / Imušaɣ / Imašeɣăn / Imajeɣăn ) are
8364-592: The loyalty of the Tuareg noble caste, did not improve the status of the slave class. When African countries achieved widespread independence in the 1960s, the traditional Tuareg territory was divided among a number of modern states: Niger, Mali, Algeria, Libya, and Burkina Faso. Political instability and competition for resources in the Sahel has since led to conflicts between the Tuareg and neighboring African groups. There have been tight restrictions placed on nomadic life because of high population growth . Desertification
8466-470: The majority ethnic group in the Kidal Region of northeastern Mali. The Tuareg traditionally speak the Tuareg languages , also known as Tamasheq, Tamajeq or Tamahaq , depending on the dialect. These languages belong to the Berber branch of the Afroasiatic family . According to Ethnologue , there are an estimated 1.2 million Tuareg speakers. Around half of this number consists of speakers of
8568-525: The many Afro-Arab members of the Bantu Swahili people . With its original speech community centered on the coastal parts of Tanzania (particularly Zanzibar ) and Kenya – a seaboard referred to as the Swahili Coast – the Bantu Swahili language contains many Arabic loan-words as a consequence of these interactions. The earliest Bantu inhabitants of
8670-468: The massacres were the Tuaregs. The Tuareg traditionally adhered to the Berber mythology . Archaeological excavations of prehistoric tombs in the Maghreb have yielded skeletal remains that were painted with ochre . Although this ritual practice was known to the Iberomaurusians , the custom seems instead to have been primarily derived from the ensuing Capsian culture . Megalithic tombs, such as
8772-474: The military of both countries followed, with deaths into the thousands. Negotiations initiated by France and Algeria led to peace agreements in January 1992 in Mali and in 1995 in Niger, both arranging for decentralization of national power and the integration of Tuareg resistance fighters into the countries' national armies. Major fighting between the Tuareg resistance and government security forces ended after
8874-535: The most detailed commentary on the life and people of the Sahara, though he apparently never actually met them. At the turn of the 19th century, the Tuareg territory was organised into confederations, each ruled by a supreme Chief ( Amenokal ), along with a council of elders from each tribe. These confederations were sometimes called " Drum Groups " after the Amenokal's symbol of authority, a drum. Clan ( Tewsit ) elders, called Imegharan (wisemen), were chosen to assist
8976-512: The most famous being Sungbo's Eredo . Another prominent kingdom in southwestern Nigeria was the Kingdom of Benin , whose power lasted between the 15th and 19th century. Their dominance reached as far as the well-known city of Eko which was named Lagos by the Portuguese traders and other early European settlers. The Edo -speaking people of Benin are known for their famous bronze casting and rich coral, wealth, ancient science and technology and
9078-586: The nobles constitute the highest caste. They are known in the Tuareg language as imušaɣ/imuhaɣ/imajăɣăn "the proud and free". The nobles originally had a monopoly on carrying arms and owning camels, and were the warriors of the Tuareg regions. They may have achieved their social status by subjugating other Tuareg castes, keeping arms to defend their properties and vassals. They have collected tribute from their vassals. This warrior nobility has traditionally married within their caste, not to individuals in strata below their own. A collection of tribes, each led by
9180-720: The north and copper from the Zambian/Congo copper belt. Rival kingship factions which split from the Luba Kingdom later moved among the Lunda people, marrying into its elite and laying the foundation of the Lunda Empire in the 16th century. The ruling dynasty centralised authority among the Lunda under the Mwata Yamyo or Mwaant Yaav. The Mwata Yamyo's legitimacy, like that of the Luba king, came from being viewed as
9282-699: The period of decoloniszation . Archeological finds in Central Africa provide evidence of human settlement that may date back over 10,000 years. According to Zangato and Holl, there is evidence of iron-smelting in the Central African Republic and Cameroon that may date back to 3,000 to 2,500 BCE. Extensive walled sites and settlements have recently been found in Zilum , Chad. The area is located approximately 60 km (37 mi) southwest of Lake Chad, and has been radiocarbon dated to
9384-422: The pre-Islamic monogamous tradition of the nomadic Tuareg. Tuareg society has featured caste hierarchies within each clan and political confederation. These hierarchical systems have included nobles, clerics, craftsmen and unfree strata of people including widespread slavery. Traditionally, Tuareg society is hierarchical, with nobility and vassals. The linguist Karl-Gottfried Prasse (1995) indicates that
9486-713: The produce. Their Tuareg patrons were usually responsible for supplying agricultural tools, seed and clothing. The peasants' origins are also unclear. One theory postulates that they are descendants of ancient people who lived in the Sahara before they were dominated by invading groups. In contemporary times, these peasant strata have blended in with freed slaves and farm arable lands together. The Tuareg confederations acquired slaves, often of Nilotic origin, as well as tribute-paying states in raids on surrounding communities. They also took captives as war booty or purchased slaves in markets. The slaves or servile communities are locally called Ikelan (or Iklan , Eklan ), and slavery
9588-665: The revolt, but resentment among the Tuareg fueled further uprisings. This second (or third) uprising was in May 1990. In the aftermath of a clash between government soldiers and Tuareg outside a prison in Tchin-Tabaraden , Niger, Tuareg in both Mali and Niger claimed independence for their traditional homeland: Ténéré in Niger, including their capital Agadez , and the Azawad and Kidal regions of Mali. Deadly clashes between Tuareg fighters, with leaders such as Mano Dayak , and
9690-472: The saddles, tools, household items and other items for the Tuareg community. In Niger and Mali, where the largest Tuareg populations are found, the artisan castes were attached as clients to a family of nobles or vassals, carried messages over distances for their patron family, and traditionally sacrificed animals during Islamic festivals . These social strata, like caste systems found in many parts of West Africa, included singers, musicians and story tellers of
9792-555: The skin underneath giving it a blueish tint. Another term for the Tuareg is Imuhagh or Imushagh , a cognate to the northern Berber self-name Imazighen . The Tuareg today inhabit a vast area in the Sahara , stretching from far southwestern Libya to southern Algeria, Niger, Mali, Burkina Faso, and the far north of Nigeria. Their combined population in these territories exceeds 2.5 million, with an estimated population in Niger of around 2 million (11% of inhabitants) and in Mali of another 0.5 million (3% of inhabitants). The Tuareg are
9894-452: The son of a sister of the incumbent chieftain to succeed to his position. The amenokal is elected in a ritual which differs between groups. The individual amghar who lead the clans making up the confederation usually have the deciding voice. The matrilineal inheritance and mythology among Tuareg clans, states Susan Rasmussen, is a cultural vestige from the pre-Islamic era of the Tuareg society. According to Rasmussen, Tuareg society exhibits
9996-642: The value of revolutionary jihad. Inspired by these teachings, Ibn 'Umar's student Usman dan Fodio led the Sokoto jihads and established the Sokoto Caliphate . Tuareg society has traditionally featured clan membership, social status and caste hierarchies within each political confederation. Clans have been a historic part of the Tuaregs. The 7th century invasion of North Africa from the Middle East triggered an extensive migration of Tuaregs such as
10098-513: The world. This dispersal of the human species is suggested by linguistic, cultural and genetic evidence. During the 11th millennium BP , pottery was independently invented in West Africa, with the earliest pottery there dating to about 9,400 BC from central Mali. It spread throughout the Sahel and southern Sahara . After the Sahara became a desert, it did not present a totally impenetrable barrier for travelers between north and south because of
10200-644: Was Zanj ("Country of the Blacks"), which was situated in the vicinity of the Great Lakes region. The geographers drew an explicit ethnographic distinction between the Sudan region and its analogue Zanj, from the area to their extreme east on the Red Sea coast in the Horn of Africa . In modern-day Ethiopia and Eritrea was Al-Habash or Abyssinia, which was inhabited by the Habash or Abyssinians, who were
10302-423: Was a major source of gold for the ancient world. Nubians built famous structures and numerous pyramids. Sudan, the site of ancient Nubia, has more pyramids than anywhere else in the world. The Axumite Empire spanned the southern Sahara, south Arabia and the Sahel along the western shore of the Red Sea . Located in northern Ethiopia and Eritrea , Aksum was deeply involved in the trade network between India and
10404-536: Was a medieval kingdom (c. 1250–1629), which existed between the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers of Southern Africa in the territory of modern-day Zimbabwe and Mozambique . Its old capital was located at Great Zimbabwe . In 1487, Bartolomeu Dias became the first European to reach the southernmost tip of Africa. In 1652, a victualling station was established at the Cape of Good Hope by Jan van Riebeeck on behalf of
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