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61-400: The Köppen climate classification is one of the most widely used climate classification systems. It was first published by German-Russian climatologist Wladimir Köppen (1846–1940) in 1884, with several later modifications by Köppen, notably in 1918 and 1936. Later, German climatologist Rudolf Geiger (1894–1981) introduced some changes to the classification system in 1954 and 1961, which

122-654: A planet or moon that is covered in ice . Ice caps form because high- latitude regions receive less energy as solar radiation from the sun than equatorial regions, resulting in lower surface temperatures . A desert is a landscape form or region that receives very little precipitation . Deserts usually have a large diurnal and seasonal temperature range, with high or low, depending on location daytime temperatures (in summer up to 45 °C or 113 °F), and low nighttime temperatures (in winter down to 0 °C or 32 °F) due to extremely low humidity . Many deserts are formed by rain shadows , as mountains block

183-561: A location is considered to have a wet summer (Cw) when more precipitation falls within the summer months than the winter months while a location is considered to have a dry summer (Cs) when more precipitation falls within the winter months. This additional criterion applies to locations that satisfies both Ds and Dw as well. Continental climates have at least one month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)) and at least one month averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). Polar and alpine climates has every month of

244-534: A location's latitude. Modern climate classification methods can be broadly divided into genetic methods, which focus on the causes of climate, and empiric methods, which focus on the effects of climate. Examples of genetic classification include methods based on the relative frequency of different air mass types or locations within synoptic weather disturbances. Examples of empiric classifications include climate zones defined by plant hardiness , evapotranspiration, or associations with certain biomes , as in

305-488: A main group (the first letter). All climates except for those in the E group are assigned a seasonal precipitation subgroup (the second letter). For example, Af indicates a tropical rainforest climate . The system assigns a temperature subgroup for all groups other than those in the A group, indicated by the third letter for climates in B , C , D , and the second letter for climates in E . For example, Cfb indicates an oceanic climate with warm summers as indicated by

366-518: A mean temperature of 10 °C (50 °F) or higher; D temperate —4 to 7 months have a mean temperature of 10 °C or higher; and E boreal climate —1 to 3 months have a mean temperature of 10 °C or higher. Otherwise, the tropical climates and polar climates remained the same as the original Köppen climate classification. Devised by the American climatologist and geographer C. W. Thornthwaite , this climate classification method monitors

427-547: A potential evaporation between 14 centimetres (5.5 in) and 43 centimetres (17 in). A mesothermal climate lacks persistent heat or persistent cold, with potential evaporation between 57 centimetres (22 in) and 114 centimetres (45 in). A megathermal climate is one with persistent high temperatures and abundant rainfall, with potential annual evaporation in excess of 114 centimetres (45 in). Continental climate In continental climates, precipitation tends to be moderate in amount, concentrated mostly in

488-524: A pronounced dry season, with the driest month having precipitation less than 60 mm (2.4 in) and less than 100 − ( t o t a l a n n u a l p r e c i p i t a t i o n ( m m ) 25 ) {\textstyle 100-\left({\frac {\mathrm {total\,annual\,precipitation\,(mm)} }{25}}\right)} of average monthly precipitation. Examples Most places that have this climate are found at

549-418: A pure equatorial climate (Balikpapan, Kuala Lumpur, Kuching, Lae, Medan, Paramaribo, Pontianak, and Singapore) with the dominant ITCZ aerological mechanism and no cyclones or a subequatorial climate with occasional hurricanes (Davao, Ratnapura, Victoria). ( Note . The term aseasonal refers to the lack in the tropical zone of large differences in daylight hours and mean monthly (or daily) temperature throughout

610-458: A typical Cwb climate, they tend to have rainfall spread evenly throughout the year. They have characteristics of both the Cfb and Cfa climates, but unlike these climates, they have a high diurnal temperature variation and low humidity, owing to their inland location and relatively high elevation . Examples Climate classification Climate classifications are systems that categorize

671-577: A year. They are widespread on Africa , and are found in India , the northern parts of South America , Malaysia , and Australia . The humid subtropical climate zone where winter rainfall (and sometimes light snowfall ) is associated with storms that the westerlies steer from west to east at the time of low sun (winter). In summer, high pressure dominates as the westerlies move north. Most summer rainfall occurs during thunderstorms and from occasional tropical cyclones . Humid subtropical climates lie on

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732-409: Is BW (arid: desert climate ); if it is in the range of 50%–100% of the threshold, the classification is BS (semi-arid: steppe climate ). A third letter can be included to indicate temperature. Here, h signifies low-latitude climate (average annual temperature above 18 °C) while k signified middle-latitude climate (average annual temperature below 18 °C). Desert areas situated along

793-413: Is calculated as follows: Multiply the average annual temperature in °C by 20, then add According to the modified Köppen classification system used by modern climatologists, total precipitation in the warmest six months of the year is taken as a reference instead of the total precipitation in the high-sun half of the year. If the annual precipitation is less than 50% of this threshold, the classification

854-636: Is determined by multiplying the average annual temperature in Celsius by 20, then adding: If the annual precipitation is less than 50% of this threshold, the classification is BW (arid: desert climate); if it is in the range of 50%–100% of the threshold, the classification is BS ( semi-arid : steppe climate). A third letter can be included to indicate temperature. Here, h signifies low-latitude climates (average annual temperature above 18 °C (64.4 °F)) while k signifies middle-latitude climates (average annual temperature less than 18 °C). In addition, n

915-656: Is rare and is predominantly found in climate fringes and isolated areas of the Cascades and Andes Mountains, as the dry-summer climate extends further poleward in the Americas than elsewhere. Rare instances of this climate can be found in some coastal locations in the North Atlantic and at high altitudes in Hawaii. Examples These climates usually occur on the eastern coasts and eastern sides of continents, usually in

976-697: Is somewhat more stable than winter weather. Continental climates are considered as temperate climate varieties due to their location in the temperate zones, but are classified separately from other temperate climates in the Köppen climate classification system where they are identified by their first letter, a capital D . In the Trewartha climate classification , they are identified as Dc . Continental climate has at least one month averaging below 0 °C (32 °F) and at least one month averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). Annual precipitation in this zone

1037-440: Is the six-month period that is cooler. Tropical climates have an average temperature of 18 °C (64.4 °F) or higher every month of the year, with significant precipitation . Desert and semi-arid climates are defined by low precipitation in a region that does not fit the polar (EF or ET) criteria of no month with an average temperature greater than 10 °C (50 °F). The precipitation threshold in millimeters

1098-482: Is thus sometimes called the Köppen–Geiger climate classification . The Köppen climate classification divides climates into five main climate groups, with each group being divided based on patterns of seasonal precipitation and temperature. The five main groups are A (tropical), B (arid), C (temperate), D (continental), and E (polar). Each group and subgroup is represented by a letter. All climates are assigned

1159-405: Is used to denote a climate characterized by frequent fog and H for high altitudes. Temperate climates have the coldest month averaging between 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F)) and 18 °C (64.4 °F) and at least one month averaging above 10 °C (50 °F). For the distribution of precipitation in locations that both satisfy a dry summer (Cs) and a dry winter (Cw),

1220-669: Is usually between 600 millimetres (24 in) and 1,200 millimetres (47 in), The timing of intermediate spring-like or autumn-like temperatures in this zone vary depending on latitude and/or elevation. For example, spring may arrive as soon as March (in Northern hemisphere , September in Southern hemisphere ) in the southern (in Northern hemisphere, northern in Southern hemisphere), parts of this zone or as late as May (November) in

1281-690: The Guajira , and Coro , western Venezuela , the northernmost peninsulas in South America, which receive <300  mm total annual precipitation, practically all in two or three months). This condition extends to the Lesser Antilles and Greater Antilles forming the circum-Caribbean dry belt. The length and severity of the dry season diminish inland (southward); at the latitude of the Amazon River—which flows eastward, just south of

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1342-523: The equator . This climate has no natural seasons in terms of thermal and moisture changes. When it is dominated most of the year by the doldrums low-pressure system due to the presence of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and when there are no cyclones then the climate is qualified as equatorial. When the trade winds dominate most of the year, the climate is a tropical trade-wind rainforest climate. Examples Some of

1403-583: The equatorial line—the climate is Af . East from the Andes , between the dry, arid Caribbean and the ever-wet Amazon are the Orinoco River's Llanos or savannas , from where this climate takes its name. Sometimes As is used in place of Aw if the dry season occurs during the time of higher sun and longer days (during summer). This is the case in parts of Hawaii , northwestern Dominican Republic, East Africa, southeast India and northeast Sri Lanka, and

1464-474: The 'rainy season' (and the 'high water season') is called invierno (Spanish) or inverno (Portuguese), though it could occur in the Northern Hemisphere summer; likewise, the 'dry season (and 'low water season') is called verano or verão , and can occur in the Northern Hemisphere winter). This type of climate results from the monsoon winds which change direction according to

1525-512: The Brazilian Northeastern Coast. In places that have this climate type, the dry season occurs during the time of lower sun and shorter days generally because of rain shadow effects during the 'high-sun' part of the year. Examples These climates are characterized by the amount of annual precipitation less than a threshold value that approximates the potential evapotranspiration . The threshold value (in millimeters)

1586-565: The Earth's landmass is considered either arid or semi-arid, including southwest North America, southwest South America, most of northern and a small part of southern Africa, southwest and portions of eastern Asia, as well as much of Australia. Studies suggest that precipitation effectiveness (PE) within the Thornthwaite moisture index is overestimated in the summer and underestimated in the winter. This index can be effectively used to determine

1647-717: The Equator and 25 north and south latitude. A monsoon is a seasonal prevailing wind which lasts for several months, ushering in a region's rainy season. Regions within North America , South America , Sub-Saharan Africa , Australia and East Asia are monsoon regimes. A tropical savanna is a grassland biome located in semi-arid to semi- humid climate regions of subtropical and tropical latitudes , with average temperatures remaining at or above 18 °C (64 °F) all year round, and rainfall between 750 millimetres (30 in) and 1,270 millimetres (50 in)

1708-491: The Köppen classification has five primary types labeled A through E. These primary types are A) tropical, B) dry, C) mild mid-latitude, D) cold mid-latitude, and E) polar. Tropical climates are defined as locations where the coolest monthly mean temperature is above 18 C (64.4 F). This tropical zone is further broken down into rainforest, monsoon, and savanna based on seasonal rainfall. These climates are most often located between

1769-829: The Mediterranean climates in the 40s and 50s latitudes. However, in southeast Australia, southeast South America, and extreme southern Africa this climate is found immediately poleward of temperate climates, on places near the coast and at a somewhat lower latitude. In western Europe, this climate occurs in coastal areas up to 68°N in Norway. These climates are dominated all year round by the polar front, leading to changeable, often overcast weather. Summers are mild due to cool ocean currents. Winters are milder than other climates in similar latitudes, but usually very cloudy, and frequently wet. Cfb climates are also encountered at high elevations in certain subtropical and tropical areas, where

1830-666: The case of the Köppen climate classification. A common shortcoming of these classification schemes is that they produce distinct boundaries between the zones they define, rather than the gradual transition of climate properties more common in nature. Climate classification systems include: The simplest classification is that involving air masses . The Bergeron classification is the most widely accepted form of air mass classification. Air mass classification involves three letters. The first letter describes its moisture properties, with c used for continental air masses (dry) and m for maritime air masses (moist). The second letter describes

1891-653: The climate of the lands in the Mediterranean Basin , parts of western North America , parts of Western and South Australia , in southwestern South Africa and in parts of central Chile . The climate is characterized by hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters. A steppe is a dry grassland with an annual temperature range in the summer of up to 40 °C (104 °F) and during the winter down to −40 °C (−40 °F). A subarctic climate has little precipitation, and monthly temperatures which are above 10 °C (50 °F) for one to three months of

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1952-594: The climate would be that of a subtropical/tropical rainforest if not for the altitude. These climates are called "highlands". Examples Subtropical highland climates with uniform rainfall ( Cfb ) are a type of oceanic climate mainly found in the highlands of Australia , such as in or around the Great Dividing Range in the north of the state of New South Wales , and also sparsely in other continents, such as in South America , among others. Unlike

2013-569: The criteria for an arid or semi-arid climate , are classified as continental. Most climates in this zone are found from 35 latitude to 55 latitude, mostly in the northern hemisphere. An oceanic climate is typically found along west coasts in higher middle latitudes of all the world's continents, and in southeastern Australia , and is accompanied by plentiful precipitation year-round, cool summers, and small annual ranges of temperatures. Most climates of this type are found from 45 latitude to 55 latitude. The Mediterranean climate regime resembles

2074-446: The degree of summer heat— a indicates warmest month average temperature above 22 °C (71.6 °F) while b indicates warmest month averaging below 22 °C but with at least four months averaging above 10 °C (50.0 °F), and c indicates one to three months averaging above 10 °C (50.0 °F). These climates usually occur on the western sides of continents between the latitudes of 30° and 45°. These climates are in

2135-448: The east side of continents, roughly between latitudes 20° and 40° degrees away from the equator . A humid continental climate is marked by variable weather patterns and a large seasonal temperature variance, cold and often very snowy winters, and warm summers. Places with more than three months of average daily temperatures above 10 °C (50 °F) and a coldest month temperature below −3 °C (27 °F) and which do not meet

2196-460: The ending b . Climates are classified based on specific criteria unique to each climate type. As Köppen designed the system based on his experience as a botanist , his main climate groups are based on the types of vegetation occurring in a given climate classification region. In addition to identifying climates, the system can be used to analyze ecosystem conditions and identify the main types of vegetation within climates. Due to its association with

2257-520: The equatorward limit of frozen ground and snow cover lasting for a month or more. The second letter indicates the precipitation pattern— w indicates dry winters (driest winter month average precipitation less than one-tenth wettest summer month average precipitation). s indicates at least three times as much rain in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer. f means significant precipitation in all seasons (neither above-mentioned set of conditions fulfilled). The third letter indicates

2318-1028: The ground below it, it is labeled w. While air mass identification was originally used in weather forecasting during the 1950s, climatologists began to establish synoptic climatologies based on this idea in 1973. Based upon the Bergeron classification scheme is the Spatial Synoptic Classification system (SSC). There are six categories within the SSC scheme: Dry Polar (similar to continental polar), Dry Moderate (similar to maritime superior), Dry Tropical (similar to continental tropical), Moist Polar (similar to maritime polar), Moist Moderate (a hybrid between maritime polar and maritime tropical), and Moist Tropical (similar to maritime tropical, maritime monsoon, or maritime equatorial). The Köppen classification depends on average monthly values of temperature and precipitation. The most commonly used form of

2379-399: The high 20s and 30s latitudes. Unlike the dry summer Mediterranean climates, humid subtropical climates have a warm and wet flow from the tropics that creates warm and moist conditions in the summer months. As such, summer (not winter as is the case in Mediterranean climates) is often the wettest season. The flow out of the subtropical highs and the summer monsoon creates a southerly flow from

2440-570: The middle latitudes to be closer to vegetation zoning and genetic climate systems. The Trewartha climate classification changes were seen as most effective on the large landmasses in Asia and North America , where many areas fall into a single group ( C ) in the Köppen–Geiger system. For example, under the standard Köppen system, Washington and Oregon are classed into the same climate zone ( Csb ) as parts of Southern California , even though

2501-472: The north (south). Summers are warm or hot while winters are below freezing and sustain lots of frost. Continental climates exist where cold air masses infiltrate during the winter from shorter days and warm air masses form in summer under conditions of high sun and longer days. Places with continental climates are as a rule either far from any moderating effect of oceans or are so situated that prevailing winds tend to head offshore. Such regions get quite warm in

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2562-419: The number of herbivore and mammal species numbers within a given area. The index is also used in studies of climate change. Thermal classifications within the Thornthwaite scheme include microthermal, mesothermal, and megathermal regimes. A microthermal climate is one of low annual mean temperatures, generally between 0 °C (32 °F) and 14 °C (57 °F) which experiences short summers and has

2623-801: The outer margins of the tropical zone from the low teens to the mid-20s latitudes, but occasionally an inner-tropical location (e.g., San Marcos, Antioquia , Colombia) also qualifies. The Caribbean coast, eastward from the Gulf of Urabá on the Colombia – Panamá border to the Orinoco River delta, on the Atlantic Ocean (about 4,000  km), have long dry periods (the extreme is the BWh climate (see below), characterized by very low, unreliable precipitation, present, for instance, in extensive areas in

2684-465: The path of moisture and precipitation to the desert. The Trewartha climate classification (TCC) or the Köppen–Trewartha climate classification (KTC) is a climate classification system first published by American geographer Glenn Thomas Trewartha in 1966. It is a modified version of the Köppen–Geiger system , created to answer some of its deficiencies. The Trewartha system attempts to redefine

2745-469: The places with this climate are indeed uniformly and monotonously wet throughout the year (e.g., the northwest Pacific coast of South and Central America , from Ecuador to Costa Rica ; see, for instance, Andagoya , Colombia), but in many cases, the period of higher sun and longer days is distinctly wettest (as at Palembang , Indonesia) or the time of lower sun and shorter days may have more rain (as at Sitiawan , Malaysia). Among these places, some have

2806-420: The plant life of a given region, the system is useful in predicting future changes of plant life within that region. The Köppen climate classification system was modified further within the Trewartha climate classification system in 1966 (revised in 1980). The Trewartha system sought to create a more refined middle latitude climate zone, which was one of the criticisms of the Köppen system (the climate group C

2867-420: The polar front region in winter, and thus have moderate temperatures and changeable, rainy weather. Summers are hot and dry, due to the domination of the subtropical high-pressure systems, except in the immediate coastal areas, where summers are milder due to the nearby presence of cold ocean currents that may bring fog but prevent rain. Examples Dry-summer climates sometimes extend to additional areas where

2928-583: The seasons. This climate has a driest month (which nearly always occurs at or soon after the "winter" solstice for that side of the equator) with rainfall less than 60 mm (2.4 in), but at least 100 − ( t o t a l a n n u a l p r e c i p i t a t i o n ( m m ) 25 ) {\textstyle 100-\left({\frac {\mathrm {total\,annual\,precipitation\,(mm)} }{25}}\right)} of average monthly precipitation. Examples Aw climates have

2989-780: The soil water budget using evapotranspiration. It monitors the portion of total precipitation used to nourish vegetation over a certain area. It uses indices such as a humidity index and an aridity index to determine an area's moisture regime based upon its average temperature, average rainfall, and average vegetation type. The lower the value of the index in any given area, the drier the area is. The moisture classification includes climatic classes with descriptors such as hyperhumid, humid, subhumid, subarid, semi-arid (values of −20 to −40), and arid (values below −40). Humid regions experience more precipitation than evaporation each year, while arid regions experience greater evaporation than precipitation on an annual basis. A total of 33 percent of

3050-516: The summer, achieving temperatures characteristic of tropical climates but are colder than any other climates of similar latitude in the winter. In the Köppen climate system, these climates grade off toward temperate climates equator-ward where winters are less severe and semi-arid climates or arid climates where precipitation becomes inadequate for tall-grass prairies and shrublands. In Europe these climates may grade off into oceanic climates ( Cfb ) or subpolar oceanic climates ( Cfc ) in which

3111-410: The thermal characteristic of its source region: T for tropical , P for polar , A for Arctic or Antarctic, M for monsoon , E for equatorial , and S for superior air (dry air formed by significant downward motion in the atmosphere). The third letter is used to designate the stability of the atmosphere . If the air mass is colder than the ground below it, it is labeled k. If the air mass is warmer than

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3172-452: The tropics that brings warm and moist air to the lower east sides of continents. This flow is often what brings the frequent and strong but short-lived summer thundershowers so typical of the more southerly subtropical climates like the southeast United States, southern China, and Japan. Examples Cfb climates usually occur in the higher middle latitudes on the western sides of continents; they are typically situated immediately poleward of

3233-434: The two regions have strikingly different weather and vegetation. Another example was classifying cities like London or New York in the same climate group ( C ) as Brisbane or New Orleans , despite great differences in seasonal temperatures and native plant life. Trewartha's modifications to the 1899 Köppen climate system sought to reclass the middle latitudes into three groups: C ( subtropical )—8 or more months have

3294-580: The warmer months. Only a few areas—in the mountains of the Pacific Northwest of North America and in Iran , northern Iraq , adjacent Turkey , Afghanistan , Pakistan , and Central Asia —show a winter maximum in precipitation. A portion of the annual precipitation falls as snowfall, and snow often remains on the ground for more than a month. Summers in continental climates can feature thunderstorms and frequent hot temperatures; however, summer weather

3355-408: The warmest month average temperatures do not reach 22 °C (71.6 °F), most often in the 40s latitudes. These climates are classified as Csb . Examples Cold summer Mediterranean climates ( Csc ) exist in high-elevation areas adjacent to coastal Csb climate areas, where the strong maritime influence prevents the average winter monthly temperature from dropping below 0 °C. This climate

3416-675: The west coasts of continents at tropical or near-tropical locations characterized by frequent fog and low clouds, although these places rank among the driest on earth in terms of actual precipitation received, can be labeled BWn with the n denoting a climate characterized by frequent fog. An equivalent BSn category can be found in foggy coastal steppes. In the Köppen climate system, temperate climates are defined as having an average temperature above 0 °C (32 °F) (or −3 °C (26.6 °F), as noted previously) in their coldest month but below 18 °C (64.4 °F). The average temperature of −3 °C (26.6 °F) roughly coincides with

3477-471: The world's climates . A climate classification may correlate closely with a biome classification, as climate is a major influence on life in a region. One of the most used is the Köppen climate classification scheme first developed in 1884. There are several ways to classify climates into similar regimes. Originally, climes were defined in Ancient Greece to describe the weather depending upon

3538-473: The year with an average temperature below 10 °C (50 °F). Tropical climates are characterized by constant high temperatures (at sea level and low elevations); all 12 months of the year have average temperatures of 18 °C (64.4 °F) or higher; and generally high annual precipitation. They are subdivided as follows: All 12 months have an average precipitation of at least 60 mm (2.4 in). These climates usually occur within 10° latitude of

3599-411: The year, with permafrost in large parts of the area due to the cold winters. Winters within subarctic climates usually include up to six months of temperatures averaging below 0 °C (32 °F). Tundra occurs in the far Northern Hemisphere , north of the taiga belt, including vast areas of northern Russia and Canada . A polar ice cap , or polar ice sheet, is a high- latitude region of

3660-457: The year. Annual cyclic changes occur in the tropics, but not as predictably as those in the temperate zone, albeit unrelated to temperature, but to water availability whether as rain, mist, soil, or groundwater. Plant response (e.g., phenology ), animal (feeding, migration, reproduction, etc.), and human activities (plant sowing, harvesting, hunting, fishing, etc.) are tuned to this 'seasonality'. Indeed, in tropical South America and Central America,

3721-430: Was too general). The Köppen climate classification scheme divides climates into five main climate groups: A (tropical), B (arid), C (temperate), D (continental), and E (polar). The second letter indicates the seasonal precipitation type, while the third letter indicates the level of heat. Summers are defined as the six-month period that is warmer either from April to September and/or October to March, while winter

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