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73-476: When completed, KM3NeT will have a total instrumented volume of several cubic kilometres distributed over three locations in the Mediterranean: KM3NeT-Fr (offshore Toulon , France), KM3NeT-It (offshore Portopalo di Capo Passero , Sicily, Italy) and KM3NeT-Gr (offshore Pylos , Peloponnese, Greece). The KM3NeT project continues the work done for the neutrino telescope ANTARES operated offshore

146-454: A camera system has been installed for automatic tracking of bioluminescent organisms. Results from these instruments, while also important for the calibration of the detector, will be shared with ocean science institutes involved in the ANTARES collaboration. While the ANTARES detector contains an acoustic positioning system for the alignment of the free-floating detector lines, it also houses

219-560: A depth of 2475 m, hosts the ORCA ( Oscillation Research with Cosmics in the Abyss ) detector, a more compact array with more closely spaced optical modules optimised for the detection of neutrinos in the GeV range. ORCA will consist of 115 strings in a 20 m triangular grid, with a 9 m spacing between the optical modules in a string. Overall, the array is about 210 m in diameter, and

292-662: A directional neutrino telescope to locate and observe neutrino flux from cosmic origins in the direction of the Southern Hemisphere of the Earth , a complement to the South Pole neutrino detector IceCube that detects neutrinos from both hemispheres. The experiment is a recognized CERN experiment (RE6). Other neutrino telescopes designed for use in the nearby area include the Greek NESTOR telescope and

365-484: A good international connectivity to the city. ANTARES (telescope) 42°48′N 6°10′E  /  42.800°N 6.167°E  / 42.800; 6.167 ANTARES ( A stronomy with a N eutrino T elescope and A byss environmental RES earch project) is a neutrino detector residing 2.5 km under the Mediterranean Sea off the coast of Toulon , France . It is designed to be used as

438-452: A search of the galactic center for point sources of neutrinos found none. Atmospheric neutrino oscillations were also measured. In addition to the main optical detector for cosmic neutrinos, the ANTARES experiment also houses a number of instruments for the study of the deep sea environment, such as salinity and oxygen probes, sea current profilers and instrumentation for the measurement of light transmission and sound velocity. Also,

511-578: A unique experiment in Europe and thanks to the success of its predecessor ANTARES , KM3NeT has a special position within the European context. Throughout its history KM3NeT has received support from the European Union, via the participation in several European projects, but also thanks to the acknowledgement of the value of KM3NeT by the European institutions. Indeed, in 2006 KM3NeT was included in

584-738: Is a city on the French Riviera , famous for its 1793 siege , and a large port on the Mediterranean coast, with a major naval base. Located in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region, and the Provence province, Toulon is the prefecture of the Var department. The Commune of Toulon has a population of 176,198 people (2018), making it France's 13th-largest city. It is the centre of an urban unit with 580,281 inhabitants (2018),

657-431: Is also connecting the city to Nice, Marseille and Paris. The port of Toulon is the main port of departures for ferries to Corsica . The nearest airport is the regional Toulon-Hyères Airport . The proximity of Marseille-Provence Airport located at 80 kms of the city, serving international destinations in Europe, Africa, Middle East, North America and Asia and linked to the city-center by direct trains daily offers

730-569: Is also home to a number of institutes of the University of Toulon , known until 2013 as University of the South, Toulon-Var. Toulon has a campus of KEDGE Business School . Toulon figures prominently in Victor Hugo 's Les Misérables . It is the location of the infamous prison, the bagne of Toulon , in which the protagonist Jean Valjean spends nineteen years in hard labour. Toulon is also

803-460: Is connected to shore via a high-bandwidth optical network. Together, the ARCA and ORCA detectors contain 6210 optical modules. Via an electro-optical network of cables and subsea junction boxes the optical modules are connected to control stations on shore for electrical power, for detector control and for data transmission. Since the strings with optical modules move with the currents in the deep sea,

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876-513: Is due to the wall of mountains that largely protects Toulon from the weather coming from the north. With a yearly average temperature of 16.7 °C (62 °F), it is also one of the warmest cities in metropolitan France. One distinctive feature of the Toulon climate is the wind, with 115 days a year of strong winds; usually either the cold and dry Mistral or the Tramontane from the north,

949-405: Is in a house on the waterfront near Fort St. Louis. Mount Faron (584 metres (1,916 feet)) dominates the city of Toulon. The top can be reached by cable car from Toulon or by a narrow road that ascends from the west side and descends on the east side. The road is one of the stages of the annual Paris–Nice and Tour Méditerranéen bicycle races. At the top of Mount Faron is a memorial dedicated to

1022-562: Is rare but sometimes torrential; and by hot summers and mild winters. Because of its proximity to the sea, the temperature is relatively moderate. The average temperature in January, the coldest month, is 9.9 °C (50 °F), the warmest of any city in metropolitan France. In January, the maximum average temperature is 13.2 °C (56 °F). and the average minimum temperature is 6.6 °C (44 °F). The average temperature in July,

1095-566: Is the Porte d'Italie, one of the old city gates. Napoleon Bonaparte departed on his triumphant Italian campaign from this gate in 1796. Toulon has a number of museums. The Museum of the French Navy (Musée national de la marine) is located on Place Monsenergue, next on the west side of the old port, a short distance from the Hôtel de Ville. The museum was founded in 1814, during the reign of

1168-517: Is there. The area is also home of the celebrated Provençal market , which takes place every morning on the Cours Lafayette and features local products. The old town decayed in the 1980s and 1990s, but recently many of the fountains and squares have been restored and many new shops have opened. The Old Town of Toulon is known for its fountains, found in many of the small squares, each with a different character. The original system of fountains

1241-513: The ANTARES telescope. At the KM3NeT-It site a prototype string took data in 2014-2015, also during about one year. The first phase of construction has been successfully terminated. The second phase of construction has begun and comprises the completion of the ARCA and ORCA detectors at the KM3NeT-It and KM3NeT-Fr sites, respectively. For the design of the neutrino detector, KM3NeT builds on

1314-748: The Allied landings in North Africa ( Operation Torch ) the German Army occupied southern France ( Case Anton ), leading French naval officers to scuttle the French Fleet based at Toulon on 27 November 1942. The city was bombed by the Allies in November of the following year, with much of the port destroyed and five hundred residents killed. The Hôtel de Ville , centre of the administration of

1387-627: The HESS telescope in Namibia , which has a common field of view with ANTARES). Apart from this astro-particle physics aspect, the ANTARES telescope may also tackle some fundamental problems in particle physics, such as the search for dark matter in the form of neutralino annihilation in the Sun (normal solar neutrinos being outside the energy range of ANTARES) or the Galactic Center . Due to

1460-578: The Italian NEMO telescope, which are both in early design stages. The data taking of ANTARES was finished in February 2022, after 16 years of continuous operation. The array contains a set of twelve separate vertical strings of photomultiplier tubes. Each one has 75 optical modules and is about 350 meters long. They are anchored at the bottom of the sea at a depth of about 2.5 km, roughly 70 meters apart from each other. When neutrinos enter

1533-740: The ROV Victor, and for some past operations the submarine Nautile . The ANTARES project complements the IceCube Neutrino Observatory in Antarctica . The detection principles of the two projects are very similar, although ANTARES only points toward the Southern Hemisphere. Thanks to its location in the Mediterranean Sea, ANTARES is more sensitive to neutrinos with energies below 100 TeV in

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1606-535: The Siege of Toulon from Lewrie's perspective, as he commands a commandeered French barge carrying sea mortars against Lieutenant-Colonel Bonaparte's forces. Toulon is served by the Gare de Toulon railway station, offering suburban services to Marseille (1 train every 15 minutes during peak hours), regional services to Nice, and high speed connections to Paris, Strasburg, Luxemburg and Brussels. A daily night intercity train

1679-535: The black plague , coming from Marseille. Thirteen thousand people, or half the population, died. In 1790, following the French Revolution , Toulon became the administrative centre of the département of the Var . However, in 1793, the Jacobin administration of the city was swept from power, allowing Girondins and royalists to take their place; the city then rose up against the central administration of

1752-835: The 17th century to the beginning of the 20th century. It owns works by landscape artists of Provence from the late 19th century ( Paul Guigou , Auguste Aiguier , Vincent Courdouan , Félix Ziem ), and the Fauves of Provence ( Charles Camoin , Auguste Chabaud , Louis Mathieu Verdilhan ). The contemporary collections contain works from 1960 to today representing the New Realism Movement (Arman, César, Christo , Klein, Raysse); Minimalist Art ( Sol LeWitt , Donald Judd ); Support Surface (Cane, Viallat côtoient Arnal, Buren, Chacallis) and an important collection of photographs by Henri Cartier-Bresson , Dieuzaide , Edouard Boubat , Willy Ronis and André Kertész ). The Memorial Museum to

1825-458: The 1944 Allied landings in Provence ( Operation Dragoon ), and to the liberation of Toulon. Beginning in 1678, Vauban constructed an elaborate system of fortifications around Toulon. Some parts, such as the section that once ran along the present-day Boulevard de Strasbourg, were removed in the mid-19th century so the city could be enlarged, but other parts remain. One part that can be visited

1898-823: The ASTERICS project, and is still participating in the EOSC European initiative for Open Science as well as in the related ESCAPE project. Last but not least, KM3NeT is also engaged in citizen science, notably through the REINFORCE project. These projects have received funding from the European Union programmes for Research and Innovation . Toulon Toulon ( UK : / ˈ t uː l ɒ̃ / , US : / t uː ˈ l oʊ n , - ˈ l ɔː n , - ˈ l ɒ n / , French: [tulɔ̃] ; Provençal : Tolon (classical norm) , Touloun (Mistralian norm) , pronounced [tuˈlun] )

1971-649: The Emperor Napoleon. It is located today behind what was formerly the monumental gate to the Arsenal of Toulon, built in 1738. The museum building, along with the clock tower next to it, is one of the few buildings of the port and arsenal which survived Allied bombardments during World War II. It contains displays tracing the history of Toulon as a port of the French Navy . Highlights include large 18th-century ship models used to teach seamanship and models of

2044-584: The European Strategy Forum on Research Infrastructure (ESFRI) roadmap, which recognises as a priority the KM3NeT research infrastructure for Europe’s scientific needs for the next 10-20 years. The support was renewed by the Council of the European Union for the 2019-2026 period. While the first phase of the project led to the engineering of the modular detector and the construction of prototypes,

2117-587: The First Republic and joined the Federalist revolts . The new Federalist administration surrendered the city and its fleet to the British. French Republican forces then undertook the siege of Toulon , forcing the British to withdraw, taking a number of ships with them and destroying the rest of them. Napoleon Bonaparte served as an artillery captain during the event. To punish Toulon for its rebellion,

2190-658: The French Ambassador to Turkey to buy it, and brought it to Toulon on his ship, the Estafette . From Toulon it was taken to the Louvre . In August 1935, a year before the reign of the Popular Front , violent uprisings of the workers of the Toulon shipyards opposed the policy of austerity . This resulted in a large number of deaths and injuries; a state of emergency was imposed. During World War II, after

2263-584: The French aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle and her battle group. The French Mediterranean Fleet is based in Toulon. Archaeological excavations, such as those at the Cosquer Cave near Marseille , show that the coast of Provence was inhabited since at least the Paleolithic era. Greek colonists came from Phocaea , Asia Minor , in about the 7th century BC and established trading depots along

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2336-609: The Holy Roman Empire, and Toulon surrendered. In 1543, Francis I found a surprising new ally in his battle against the Holy Roman Empire. He invited the fleet of Ottoman Admiral Barbarossa to Toulon as part of the Franco-Ottoman alliance . The residents were forced to leave, and the Ottoman sailors occupied the town for the winter. See Ottoman occupation of Toulon . In 1646, a fleet was gathered in Toulon for

2409-696: The Landings in Provence (Mémorial du débarquement de Provence) is located on the summit of Mount Faron, this small museum, opened in 1964 by President Charles De Gaulle , commemorates the Allied landing in Provence in August 1944 with photos, weapons and models. The Museum of Natural History of Toulon and the Var (Musée d'histoire naturelle de Toulon et du Var) was founded in 1888, has a large collection of displays about dinosaurs, birds, mammals, and minerals, mostly from

2482-521: The Letter of Intent. The oversight, governance and management of the implementation and operation of KM3NeT is conducted by an international collaboration. The KM3NeT community consists of about 250 scientists, along with engineers and technicians. In the future and pending funding, the full neutrino telescope will contain in the order of 12000 pressure-resistant glass spheres attached to about 600 flexible vertical strings - or detection units - anchored at

2555-803: The Place de la Liberté, the Grand Hôtel, the Gardens of Alexander I, the Chalucet Hospital, the Palais de Justice, the train station, and the building now occupied by Galeries Lafayette , among others. Haussmann went on to use the same style on a much grander scale in the rebuilding of central Paris. Toulon harbour is one of the best natural anchorages on the Mediterranean and one of the largest harbours in Europe. A naval arsenal and shipyard

2628-459: The aircraft carrier Charles De Gaulle . The Museum of Old Toulon and its Region (Musée du vieux Toulon et de sa région). The Museum was founded in 1912, and contains a collection of maps, paintings, drawings, models and other artifacts showing the history of the city. The Museum of Asian Arts (Musée des arts asiatiques), in Mourillon. Located in a house with garden which once belonged to

2701-619: The biggest neutrino telescope in the Northern hemisphere (surpassing the Baikal neutrino telescope ). Lines 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10 were deployed between March and early November 2007 and connected in December 2007 and January 2008. From May 2008 the detector has been running in its complete 12-line configuration. Deployment and connection of the detector are performed in cooperation with the French oceanographic institute, IFREMER , currently using

2774-530: The birthplace of the novel's antagonist, Javert . One portion of the wall of the old bagne, or prison, where Jean Valjean was supposedly held still stands to the right of the entrance of the Old Harbour. In Anthony Powell 's novel What's Become of Waring the central characters spend a long summer holiday in Toulon's old town. Powell himself stayed at the Hotel du Port et des Negociants on two occasions in

2847-509: The city, was completed in 1970. In 1979, the University of Toulon opened. Toulon was one of four French cities where the extreme-right Front National won the local elections in 1995. The Front National was voted out of power in 2001. The old town of Toulon, the historic centre between the port, the Boulevard de Strasbourg and the Cours Lafayette, is a pedestrian area with narrow streets, small squares and many fountains. Toulon Cathedral

2920-441: The coast of France between 2008 and 2022. Using KM3NeT, scientists search for neutrinos from distant astrophysical sources like supernova remnants , gamma-ray bursts , supernovae or colliding stars. The telescope is a powerful tool in the search for dark matter in the universe. Arrays of thousands of optical sensor modules detect the faint Cherenkov light in the deep sea from charged particles originating from collisions of

2993-532: The coast, including one, called Olbia, at Saint-Pierre de l'Almanarre south of Hyères , to the east of Toulon. The Ligurians settled in the area beginning in the 4th century BC. In the 2nd century BC, the residents of Massalia (present-day Marseille) called upon the Romans to help them pacify the region. The Romans defeated the Ligurians and began to start their own colonies along the coast. A Roman settlement

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3066-491: The data to a central KM3NeT data centre for storage and further analysis by the KM3NeT scientists. The KM3NeT-It site, at a depth of 3400 m, hosts the ARCA ( Astroparticle Research with Cosmics in the Abyss ) detector, which with more widely spaced optical modules is optimised for the detection of high-energy cosmic neutrinos in the TeV–PeV range. Its strings are about 700 m long, spaced 90 m apart. The KM3NeT-Fr site, at

3139-451: The deep-sea environment and the sea bottom at depths of several kilometres. The KM3NeT 2.0 project is realising two large detectors, ARCA at KM3NeT-It and ORCA at KM3NeT-Fr. The ARCA detector is the cubic kilometre sized telescope searching for distant neutrino-sources. The ORCA detector is optimised for the measurement of the properties of the neutrino itself. In that sense, ORCA is a neutrino particle physics detector. Details can be found in

3212-547: The early 1930s and writes in the second volume of his memoirs The naval port, with its small inner harbour, row of cafés along the rade, was quite separate from the business quarter of the town. A paddle steamer plied several times a day between this roadstead and the agreeably unsophisticated plage of Les Sablettes . Joseph Conrad 's last novel, The Rover , is also set around Toulon. The last half of Dewey Lambdin 's historical fiction novel, H.M.S. Cockerel , (the sixth novel in his Alan Lewrie naval adventure series) details

3285-551: The economic, social and territorial potential of KM3NeT at regional level. In addition, the experiment also benefited from different funding through European research and innovation programmes: Finally, KM3NeT participated in many European projects, led by partners of the Collaboration. For example, KM3NeT takes part in the EMSO network , by providing long-term access for Earth and Sea sciences research. KM3NeT participated in

3358-455: The experience of the ANTARES telescope, which was operated from 30 May 2008 until the spring of 2022 and was the largest neutrino telescope in the Northern hemisphere. The capabilities in the Northern hemisphere are supplemented by the Baikal Gigaton Volume Detector at Baikal Deep Underwater Neutrino Telescope in Lake Baikal . In the Southern hemisphere, in Antarctica, the IceCube Neutrino Observatory has been in operation for many years. As

3431-413: The harbour. It was once a fishing village, and then became the home of many of the officers of the French fleet. Mourillon has a small fishing port, next to a 16th-century fort, Fort Saint Louis, which was reconstructed by Vauban. In the 1970s, the city of Toulon built a series of sheltered sandy beaches in Mourillon, which today are very popular with the Toulonais and naval families. The Museum of Asian Art

3504-407: The letters addressed to Pope Leo I from the province of Arles . A Saint Cyprian , disciple and biographer of St. Cæsarius of Arles , is also mentioned as a Bishop of Toulon. His episcopate, begun in 524, had not come to an end in 541; he converted to Catholicism two Visigothic chiefs, Mandrier and Flavian, who became anchorites and martyrs on the peninsula of Mandrier. As barbarians invaded

3577-430: The major Battle of Orbetello , also known as the Battle of Isola del Giglio, commanded by France's first Grand Admiral, the young Grand Admiral Marquis of Brézé, Jean Armand de Maillé-Bréze of 36 galleons, 20 galleys, and a large complement of minor vessels. This fleet carried aboard an army of 8,000 infantry and 800 cavalry and its baggage under Thomas of Savoy, shortly before a general in Spanish service. King Louis XIV

3650-461: The neutrinos and the water or rock in the vicinity of the detector. The position and direction of the optical modules and the time of arrival of the light on the photomultipliers inside is recorded with high precision. The trajectories of particles are reconstructed from these measurements. The research infrastructure also houses instrumentation for other sciences like marine biology , oceanography and geophysics for long-term and online monitoring of

3723-447: The ninth largest in France by population. Toulon is the second-largest French city by urban area on the Mediterranean coast after Marseille . Toulon is an important centre for naval construction, fishing, wine making, and the manufacture of aeronautical equipment, armaments, maps, paper, tobacco, printing, shoes, and electronic equipment. The military port of Toulon is the major naval centre on France's Mediterranean coast, home of

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3796-487: The oak trees. Toulon harbour became a shelter for trading ships, and the name of the town gradually changed from Telo to Tholon, Tolon, and Toulon. Toulon was Christianized in the 5th century, and the first cathedral built. Honoratus and Gratianus of Toulon (Gratien), according to the Gallia Christiana , were the first bishops of Toulon , but Louis Duchesne gives Augustalis as the first historical bishop. He assisted at councils in 441 and 442 and signed in 449 and 450

3869-437: The objective of KM3NeT 2.0 is to adapt to the scientific and technological progress made in the field of neutrino astroparticle physics. Therefore, the second inscription in the ESFRI roadmap reaffirms the interest of KM3NeT during its effective construction phase. Along with the Council, the implementation of KM3NeT installation sites also benefitted from funding through the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) , confirming

3942-400: The other hand, water contains more sources of background light than ice ( radioactive isotopes potassium -40 in the sea salt and bioluminescent organisms ), leading to a higher energy thresholds for ANTARES with respect to IceCube and making more sophisticated background-suppression methods necessary. The construction of ANTARES was completed on May 30, 2008, two years after the first string

4015-417: The position and orientation of the optical modules and thus of the photomultoplier tubes inside is dynamically monitored using an acoustic system and a compass system, respectively. Nanobeacons in each optical module are used for time calibration. At the shore of each KM3NeT installation site, a farm of computers performs the first data filter in the search for the signal of cosmic neutrinos, prior to streaming

4088-416: The region and Roman power crumbled, the town was frequently attacked by pirates and the Saracens . In 1486, Provence became part of France. Soon afterwards, in 1494, Charles VIII of France , with the intention of making France a sea power on the Mediterranean, and to support his military campaign in Italy, began constructing a military port at the harbor of Toulon. His Italian campaign failed, and in 1497,

4161-422: The region. The Hôtel des arts was opened in 1998, presents five exhibits a year of works by well-known contemporary artists. Featured artists have included Sean Scully , Jannis Kounellis , Claude Viallat , Per Kirkeby , and Vik Muniz . Toulon is subtropical, featuring a Mediterranean climate ( Köppen climate classification : Csa), characterised by abundant and strong sunshine, dry summers, and rain which

4234-421: The rulers of Genoa , who controlled commerce on that part of the Mediterranean, blockaded the new port. In 1524, as part of his longtime battle against Emperor Charles V and the Holy Roman Empire , King François I of France completed a powerful new fort, the Tour Royale, Toulon , at the entrance of the harbour. However, a few months later the commander of the new fort sold it to the commander of an Army of

4307-493: The seabed. At the end of the current phase of construction, the telescope will comprise 345 strings, 230 in the ARCA detector and 115 in the ORCA detector. The detection units support 18 spherical sensor modules each. The position of the modules and the time of arrival of light on the photomultipliers inside is measured with high precision. Each optical module is about 44 centimetres (17 in) in diameter, contains 31 three-inch photomultiplier tubes with supporting electronics, and

4380-413: The signature of "upward-going muons", a muon neutrino that has had interactions with matter below the detector (the Earth ), and much higher flux of "downward atmospheric muons". In contrast to the South Pole neutrino telescopes AMANDA and IceCube , ANTARES uses water instead of ice as its Cherenkov medium. As light in water is less scattered than in ice this results in a better resolving power . On

4453-461: The son and later the grandson of author Jules Verne , the museum contains a small but interesting collection of art objects, many donated by naval officers from the time of the French colonization of Southeast Asia. It includes objects and paintings from India, China, Southeast Asia, China Tibet and Japan. The Museum of Art (Musée d'art) was created in 1888, and contains collections of modern and contemporary art, as well as paintings of Provence from

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4526-414: The southern hemisphere of the earth, they usually continue traveling directly through it. On rare occasions, a few muon neutrinos interact with the water in the Mediterranean Sea. When this happens, they produce a high energy muon. ANTARES works by its photomultiplier tubes detecting the Cherenkov radiation emitted as the muon passes through the water. The detection techniques used discriminate between

4599-521: The southern sky, a region that includes many galactic sources. ANTARES will detect neutrinos from high energy origin, particularly in the range from 10 to 10 electronvolts (10 GeV - 100 TeV ). Over many years of operation, it may be able to produce a map of the neutrino flux from cosmic origins in the Southern Hemisphere. Of particular interest would be the detection of astrophysical point sources of neutrinos, possibly in correlation with observations in other bands (such as gamma rays sources observed by

4672-409: The strings are 200 m long. The design of the KM3NeT neutrino telescope is very modular and construction can be phased in time. In 2012, the first phase of the implementation of the KM3NeT research facility started with the construction of the seabed infrastructures at the KM3NeT-Fr and KM3NeT-It sites. A prototype KM3NeT optical module took data successfully during about a year in 2013-2014 part of

4745-417: The town lost its status as department capital and was briefly renamed Port-la-Montagne , after The Mountain faction. During the Napoleonic Wars , from 1803 until 1805 a British fleet led by Admiral Horatio Nelson blockaded Toulon. In 1820, the statue which became known as the Venus de Milo was discovered on the Greek island of Milo and seen by a French naval officer, Emile Voutier. He persuaded

4818-544: The very different methods employed, its expected sensitivity is complementary to the direct dark matter searches performed by various experiments such as DAMA , CDMS and at the LHC . Detection of neutralino signals would also confirm supersymmetry , but is not generally considered very likely at the ANTARES sensitivity level. Other possible "exotic" phenomena that could conceivably be measured by ANTARES include nuclearites or magnetic monopoles . The first neutrino detections were reported in Feb 2007. Using 6 years of data,

4891-451: The warmest month, is 24.7 °C (76 °F), with an average maximum of 29.5 °C (85 °F). and an average minimal temperature of 19.9 °C (68 °F). According to data collected by Météo-France , Toulon is the second city (after Marseille ) in metropolitan France with the most sunshine per year: an average of 2,854.1 hours a year from 1991 to 2020, compared with 2,695 hours a year for Nice and 2,472 hours for Perpignan. This

4964-552: The wet Marin ; or the Sirocco sometimes bearing reddish sand from Africa; or the wet and stormy Levant from the east. (See Winds of Provence .) The windiest month is January, with an average of 12.5 days of strong winds. The least windy month is September, with 7 days of strong winds. Toulon has a conservatory ( Conservatoire TPM , part of Conservatoire à rayonnement régional de Toulon ) which taught music, theater, dance and circus and an art academy called École supérieure d'art et de design Toulon Provence Méditerranée . Toulon

5037-405: Was built in 1599, and a small sheltered harbour, the Veille Darse, was built in 1604–1610 to protect ships from the wind and sea. The shipyard was greatly enlarged by Cardinal Richelieu , who wished to make France a Mediterranean naval power. Further additions were made by Jean-Baptiste Colbert and Vauban . Le Mourillon is a small seaside neighbourhood to the east of Toulon, near the entrance of

5110-410: Was built in the late 17th century; most were rebuilt in the 18th or early 19th century and have recently been restored. The upper town, between the Boulevard de Strasbourg and the railway station, was built in the mid-19th century under Louis Napoleon . The project was begun by Georges-Eugène Haussmann , who was prefect of the Var in 1849. Improvements to the neighbourhood included the Toulon Opera ,

5183-405: Was deployed. Initial testing began in 2000. Equipment indirectly related to the detector such as a seismometer were deployed in 2005. The first string of photomultiplier tubes was moved into place in February 2006. In September 2006 the second line was successfully connected. Lines 3, 4 and 5 were deployed at the end of 2006 and connected in January 2007. This was an important step that made Antares

5256-592: Was determined to make France a major sea power. In 1660, his Minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert ordered Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban to build a new arsenal and to fortify the town. In 1707, during the War of the Spanish Succession , Toulon successfully resisted a siege by the Imperial Army led by Duke Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia of Savoy and Prince Eugene . However, in 1720, the city was ravaged by

5329-460: Was founded at the present location of Toulon, with the name Telo Martius – Telo, either for the local god of springs Telo or from the Latin tol , the base of the hill – and Martius , for the god of war. Telo Martius became one of the two principal Roman dye manufacturing centres, producing the purple colour used in imperial robes, made from the local sea snail called murex , and from the acorns of

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