81-796: The KH-11 KENNEN (later renamed CRYSTAL , then Evolved Enhanced CRYSTAL System , and codenamed 1010 and Key Hole ) is a type of reconnaissance satellite first launched by the American National Reconnaissance Office (NRO) in December 1976. Manufactured by Lockheed in Sunnyvale, California , the KH-11 was the first American spy satellite to use electro-optical digital imaging , and so offer real-time optical observations. Later KH-11 satellites have been referred to by outside observers as KH-11B or KH-12, and by
162-520: A Titan IV launch vehicle was used. The three most recent launches since 2011 were carried out by Delta IV Heavy launch vehicles. The KH-11 replaced the KH-9 film return satellite, among others, the last of which was lost in a liftoff explosion in 1986. All KH-11 satellites are in either of two standard planes in Sun-synchronous orbits . As shadows help to discern ground features, satellites in
243-528: A precursor to pharmaceuticals and agrochemicals , as well as a long-term storable propellant for in- space spacecraft propulsion. Additionally, hydrazine is used in various rocket fuels and to prepare the gas precursors used in air bags . Hydrazine is used within both nuclear and conventional electrical power plant steam cycles as an oxygen scavenger to control concentrations of dissolved oxygen in an effort to reduce corrosion. As of 2000 , approximately 120,000 tons of hydrazine hydrate (corresponding to
324-485: A 2.54 m (100 in) diameter f/2 primary mirror, iv) gigabit/s data link, v) long on-orbit operational lifetime for the imaging satellites, and vi) communication satellites to facilitate close-to-realtime downlink of the images. KH-11s are believed to resemble the Hubble Space Telescope in size and shape, as they were shipped in similar containers. Their length is believed to be 19.5 meters, with
405-495: A 64% solution of hydrazine in water by weight) were manufactured worldwide per year. Hydrazines are a class of organic substances derived by replacing one or more hydrogen atoms in hydrazine by an organic group. The name "hydrazine" was coined by Emil Fischer in 1875; he was trying to produce organic compounds that consisted of mono-substituted hydrazine. By 1887, Theodor Curtius had produced hydrazine sulfate by treating organic diazides with dilute sulfuric acid; however, he
486-562: A KH-11 (USA-129) satellite from the ground. The pictures, despite being taken with a 250 mm (10 in) aperture telescope from a range of 336 kilometres (209 mi), show major details such as dishes and solar panels, as well as some elements whose function is not known. Estimated unit costs, including launch and in 1990 dollars, range from US$ 1.25 to US$ 1.75 billion (inflation adjusted $ 2.92 to $ 4.08 billion in 2023). According to US Senator Kit Bond initial budget estimates for each of
567-533: A KH-11 satellite in late 1976. One of the initial on-orbit challenges were failures of the Traveling-wave tubes , which did amplify the communications signals sent from the imaging satellite to the relay satellites, and from the relay satellites to the ground stations. During crossings of the ionosphere , ions could built-up on the outside of the tubes, which were operated at 14,000 volt. This resulted in repeated sparking, and depositing of carbon traces inside
648-459: A constellation of communication relay satellites in higher orbits. The initial communications relay payload is believed to have operated at a frequency of 60 GHz, as radio emission at this frequency is blocked by Earth's atmosphere, and thus not detectable from the ground. Launch of the initial two Satellite Data System satellites occurred in June and August 1976, i.e. ahead of the first launch of
729-581: A diameter of up to 3 meters (120 in). A NASA history of the Hubble, in discussing the reasons for switching from a 3-meter main mirror to a 2.4-meter (94 in) design, states: "In addition, changing to a 2.4-meter mirror would lessen fabrication costs by using manufacturing technologies developed for military spy satellites". Different versions of the KH-11 vary in mass. Early KH-11s were reported to be comparable in mass to HEXAGON, i.e. about 12,000 kg (26,000 lb). Later blocks are believed to have
810-472: A face". Five generations of U.S. electro-optical reconnaissance have been identified: Block I refer to the original KH-11 satellite, of which five were launched between 19 December 1976 and 17 November 1982. The three Block II satellites are in the open literature referred to as KH-11B, the alleged DRAGON codename, or CRYSTAL , and are believed to be capable of taking infrared images in addition to optical observations. The first or second Block II satellite
891-521: A ketone catalyst, in a procedure called the Peroxide process (sometimes called Pechiney-Ugine-Kuhlmann process, the Atofina–PCUK cycle, or ketazine process). The net reaction is: In this route, the ketone and ammonia first condense to give the imine , which is oxidised by hydrogen peroxide to the oxaziridine , a three-membered ring containing carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen. Next, the oxaziridine gives
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#1732779905667972-464: A mass of around 17,000 kg (37,000 lb) to 19,600 kg (43,200 lb). It has been reported that KH-11s are equipped with a hydrazine -powered propulsion system for orbital adjustments. In order to increase the orbital lifetime of KH-11s, plans existed for refuelling the propulsion module during service visits by the Space Shuttle . It has been speculated that the propulsion module
1053-661: A positive association observed between hydrazine exposure and lung cancer. Based on cohort and cross-sectional studies of occupational hydrazine exposure, a committee from the National Academies of Sciences , Engineering and Medicine concluded that there is suggestive evidence of an association between hydrazine exposure and lung cancer, with insufficient evidence of association with cancer at other sites. The European Commission 's Scientific Committee on Occupational Exposure Limits (SCOEL) places hydrazine in carcinogen "group B—a genotoxic carcinogen". The genotoxic mechanism
1134-495: A primary mirror with a diameter of 2.4 meters, and are evolutionary upgrades to the previous blocks built by Lockheed. Based on the published hazard areas for the launch, an orbital inclination of 74° has been deduced for NROL-71. This could indicate that NROL-71 is targeted for a Type II Multi Sun-Synchronous Orbit , which would enable the satellite to study the ground at a range of local hour effects (shadow direction and length, daily activities, etc.). The Misty satellite
1215-435: A process for decontaminating protective clothing. The guidance also assigns responsibilities and requirements for proper PPE, employee training, medical surveillance and emergency response. USAF bases requiring the use of hydrazine generally have specific base regulations governing local requirements for safe hydrazine use and emergency response. Hydrazine, H 2 N−NH 2 , contains two amine groups NH 2 connected by
1296-582: A related application, sodium azide , the gas-forming agent in air bags , is produced from hydrazine by reaction with sodium nitrite . Hydrazine is also used as a long-term storable propellant on board space vehicles, such as the Dawn mission to Ceres and Vesta, and to both reduce the concentration of dissolved oxygen in and control pH of water used in large industrial boilers. The F-16 fighter jet, Eurofighter Typhoon , Space Shuttle , and U-2 spy plane use hydrazine to fuel their Emergency Start System in
1377-676: A replacement for hydrazine, given its potential ban across the European Union. Promising alternatives include nitrous oxide -based propellant combinations, with development being led by commercial companies Dawn Aerospace , Impulse Space , and Launcher . The first nitrous oxide-based system ever flown in space was by D-Orbit onboard their ION Satellite Carrier in 2021, using six Dawn Aerospace B20 thrusters. Potential routes of hydrazine exposure include dermal, ocular, inhalation and ingestion. Hydrazine exposure can cause skin irritation/contact dermatitis and burning, irritation to
1458-561: A single bond between the two nitrogen atoms. Each N−NH 2 subunit is pyramidal. The structure of the free molecules was determined by gas electron diffraction and microwave spectroscopy . The N–N single bond length is 1.447(2) Å (144.7(2) pm ), the N-H distance is 1.015(2) Å , the N-N-H angles are 106(2)° and 112(2)°, the H-N-H angle is 107°. The molecule adopts a gauche conformation with
1539-431: A small volume of liquid, making hydrazine a fairly efficient thruster propellant with a vacuum specific impulse of about 220 seconds. Reaction 2 is the most exothermic, but produces a smaller number of molecules than that of reaction 1. Reaction 3 is endothermic and reverts the effect of reaction 2 back to the same effect as reaction 1 alone (lower temperature, greater number of molecules). The catalyst structure affects
1620-422: A standard plane east of a noon/midnight orbit observe the ground at local afternoon hours, while satellites in a western plane observe the ground at local morning hours. Historically launches have therefore been timed to occur either about two hours before or one hour after local noon (or midnight), respectively. The orbits are such that ground-tracks repeat after a certain number of days, currently each four days for
1701-487: A torsion angle of 91(2)° (dihedral angle between the planes containing the N-N bond and the bisectors of the H-N-H angles). The rotational barrier is twice that of ethane . These structural properties resemble those of gaseous hydrogen peroxide , which adopts a "skewed" anticlinal conformation, and also experiences a strong rotational barrier. The structure of solid hydrazine was determined by X-ray diffraction. In this phase
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#17327799056671782-407: Is 19.41 MJ/kg (8345 BTU/lb). Hydrazine is a convenient reductant because the by-products are typically nitrogen gas and water. This property makes it useful as an antioxidant , an oxygen scavenger , and a corrosion inhibitor in water boilers and heating systems. It also directly reduces salts of less active metals (e.g., bismuth, arsenic, copper, mercury, silver, lead, platinum, and palladium) to
1863-515: Is a standard propellant for experimental bulk-loaded liquid propellant artillery . The propellant mixture above is one of the most predictable and stable, with a flat pressure profile during firing. Misfires are usually caused by inadequate ignition. The movement of the shell after a mis-ignition causes a large bubble with a larger ignition surface area, and the greater rate of gas production causes very high pressure, sometimes including catastrophic tube failures (i.e. explosions). From January–June 1991,
1944-427: Is a very effective way to photograph much territory at high resolution, when satellites ran out of film or capsules they became useless. The Film Read-Out KH-7 GAMBIT (FROG) served as NRO Program A's competitor to NRO Program B's initial electro-optical imagery (EOI) satellite. After a precursor EOI study with the codeword Zoster, President Nixon on 23 September 1971 approved the development of an EOI satellite under
2025-816: Is also possible in small amounts from tobacco smoke. The official U.S. guidance on hydrazine as a carcinogen is mixed but generally there is recognition of potential cancer-causing effects. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) lists it as a "potential occupational carcinogen". The National Toxicology Program (NTP) finds it is "reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen". The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) grades hydrazine as "A3—confirmed animal carcinogen with unknown relevance to humans". The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) grades it as "B2—a probable human carcinogen based on animal study evidence". The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) rates hydrazine as "2A—probably carcinogenic to humans" with
2106-429: Is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula N 2 H 4 . It is a simple pnictogen hydride , and is a colourless flammable liquid with an ammonia -like odour. Hydrazine is highly hazardous unless handled in solution as, for example, hydrazine hydrate ( N 2 H 4 · x H 2 O ). Hydrazine is mainly used as a foaming agent in preparing polymer foams , but applications also include its uses as
2187-693: Is believed to have been derived from the KH-11, but modified to make it invisible to radar , and hard to detect visually. The first Misty satellite, USA-53 , was released by the Space Shuttle Atlantis on mission STS-36 in 1990. The USA-144 satellite, launched on 22 May 1999 by a Titan IV B from Vandenberg Air Force Base may have been a second Misty satellite, or an Enhanced Imaging System spacecraft. The satellites are sometimes identified as KH-12s. In January 2011, NRO donated to NASA two space Optical Telescope Assemblies with 2.4 meters (94 in) diameter primary mirrors, similar in size to
2268-657: Is defined as the acceptable peak concentration for unpredicted, single, short-term emergency exposures of the general public and represents rare exposures in a worker's lifetime. For hydrazine the 1-hour SPEGL is 2 ppm, with a 24-hour SPEGL of 0.08 ppm. A complete surveillance programme for hydrazine should include systematic analysis of biologic monitoring, medical screening and morbidity/mortality information. The CDC recommends surveillance summaries and education be provided for supervisors and workers. Pre-placement and periodic medical screening should be conducted with specific focus on potential effects of hydrazine upon functioning of
2349-404: Is difficult to diprotonate: Exposure to extremely strong bases or alkali metals generates deprotonated hydrazide salts. Most explode on exposure to air or moisture. Ideally, the combustion of hydrazine in oxygen produces nitrogen and water: An excess of oxygen gives oxides of nitrogen, including nitrogen monoxide and nitrogen dioxide : The heat of combustion of hydrazine in oxygen (air)
2430-488: Is related to Lockheed's Satellite Support Bus (SSB), which had been derived from the Satellite Control Section (SCS) developed by Lockheed for KH-9. A CIA history states that the primary mirror on the first KH-11s measured 2.34 meters (92 in), but sizes increased in later versions. NRO led the development of a computer controlled mirror polishing technique, which was subsequently also used for
2511-422: Is that it can produce over 200 m W /cm more than a similar hydrogen cell without requiring (expensive) platinum catalysts. Because the fuel is liquid at room temperature, it can be handled and stored more easily than hydrogen. By storing the hydrazine in a tank full of a double-bonded carbon - oxygen carbonyl , the fuel reacts and forms a safe solid called hydrazone . By then flushing the tank with warm water,
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2592-511: Is the predecessor to the peroxide process. It employs sodium hypochlorite as oxidant instead of hydrogen peroxide. Like all hypochlorite-based routes, this method produces an equivalent of salt for each equivalent of hydrazine. Hydrazine forms a monohydrate N 2 H 4 ·H 2 O that is denser (1.032 g/cm ) than the anhydrous form N 2 H 4 (1.021 g/cm ). Hydrazine has basic ( alkali ) chemical properties comparable to those of ammonia : (for ammonia K b = 1.78 × 10 ) It
2673-578: The U-2 , and due to public concern about a technological gap between the West and the Soviet Union. It was expedited significantly after the shooting of a U-2 in 1960. Meanwhile, in the Soviet Union, a decree that authorized the development of sputnik apparently authorized a program for a satellite to be used for photo reconnaissance. This design evolved into Vostok, while another version became Zenit, which
2754-725: The U.S. Army Research Laboratory conducted a review of early bulk-loaded liquid propellant gun programs for possible relevance to the electrothermal chemical propulsion program. The United States Air Force (USAF) regularly uses H-70, a 70% hydrazine 30% water mixture, in operations employing the General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon fighter aircraft and the Lockheed U-2 "Dragon Lady" reconnaissance aircraft. The single jet engine F-16 utilizes hydrazine to power its Emergency Power Unit (EPU), which provides emergency electrical and hydraulic power in
2835-603: The Viking program landers in the 1970s as well as the Mars landers Phoenix (May 2008), Curiosity (August 2012), and Perseverance (February 2021). During the Soviet space program , unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine (also discovered by Fischer in 1875) was used instead of hydrazine. Together with nitric oxidizers it became known as " devil's venom " due to its highly dangerous nature. In all hydrazine mono-propellant engines,
2916-576: The hydrazone by treatment with ammonia , which process creates the nitrogen-nitrogen single bond. This hydrazone condenses with one more equivalent of ketone. The resulting azine is hydrolyzed to give hydrazine and regenerate the ketone, methyl ethyl ketone : Unlike most other processes, this approach does not produce a salt as a by-product. The Olin Raschig process , first announced in 1907, produces hydrazine from sodium hypochlorite (the active ingredient in many bleaches ) and ammonia without
2997-525: The 1950s, a Soviet hoax had led to American fears of a bomber gap . In 1968, after gaining satellite photography, the United States' intelligence agencies were able to state with certainty that "No new ICBM complexes have been established in the USSR during the past year". President Lyndon B. Johnson told a gathering in 1967: I wouldn't want to be quoted on this ... We've spent $ 35 or $ 40 billion on
3078-510: The Earth" in order "to determine the status of a potential enemy's war-making capability". During the mid-late 1950s, both the United States and the Soviet Union took interest into reconnaissance satellites. The United States began the CORONA project, which encompassed several series of launches starting in 1959 and ending in 72. This program was made a priority to photograph denied areas, replace
3159-534: The Germans, a designation also used later for the ethanol/water fuel for the V-2 missile . Hydrazine is used as a low-power monopropellant for the maneuvering (RCS/Reaction control system) thrusters of spacecraft, and was used to power the Space Shuttle 's auxiliary power units (APUs). In addition, mono-propellant hydrazine-fueled rocket engines are often used in terminal descent of spacecraft. Such engines were used on
3240-572: The Hubble Space Telescope, yet with steerable secondary mirrors and shorter focal length (resulting in a wider field of view). These were initially believed to be KH-11 series "extra hardware", but were later attributed to the cancelled Future Imaging Architecture program. The mirrors are to be used by NASA as the primary and spare for the Roman Space Telescope . In 1978, a young CIA employee named William Kampiles
3321-607: The KH-11 are highly classified, as are the images they produce. The satellites are believed to have been the source of some imagery of the Soviet Union and China made public in 1997; images of Sudan and Afghanistan made public in 1998 related to the response to the 1998 U.S. embassy bombings ; and a 2019 photo, provided by then President Donald Trump , of a failed Iranian rocket launch. Before KENNEN, National Reconnaissance Office spy satellites like KH-9 HEXAGON returned film photographs to Earth in capsules. Although film
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3402-418: The N-N bond has a length of 1.46 Å and the nearest non-bonded distances are 3.19, 3.25 and 3.30 Å . Diverse synthetic pathways for hydrazine production have been developed. The key step is the creation of the N –N single bond. The many routes can be divided into those that use chlorine oxidants (and generate salt) and those that do not. Hydrazine can be synthesized from ammonia and hydrogen peroxide with
3483-752: The NRO assigned a "worth more than $ 5 billion" to the final two legacy KH-11 satellites. Reconnaissance satellite A reconnaissance satellite or intelligence satellite (commonly, although unofficially, referred to as a spy satellite ) is an Earth observation satellite or communications satellite deployed for military or intelligence applications. The first generation type (i.e., Corona and Zenit ) took photographs, then ejected canisters of photographic film which would descend back down into Earth's atmosphere. Corona capsules were retrieved in mid-air as they floated down on parachutes . Later, spacecraft had digital imaging systems and downloaded
3564-1025: The Union Address , President Jimmy Carter argued that all of humanity benefited from the presence of American spy satellites: ...photo-reconnaissance satellites, for example, are enormously important in stabilizing world affairs and thereby make a significant contribution to the security of all nations. Reconnaissance satellites have been used to enforce human rights, through the Satellite Sentinel Project , which monitors atrocities in Sudan and South Sudan . Additionally, companies such as GeoEye and DigitalGlobe have provided commercial satellite imagery in support of natural disaster response and humanitarian missions. Spy satellites are commonly seen in spy fiction and military fiction . Some works of fiction that focus specifically on spy satellites include: Hydrazine Hydrazine
3645-477: The case of KH-11 photographs which were sent to Jane's Defence Weekly in 1984, or US President Donald Trump tweeting a classified image of the aftermath of a failed test of Iran's Safir rocket in 2019. On 16 March 1955, the United States Air Force officially ordered the development of an advanced reconnaissance satellite to provide continuous surveillance of "preselected areas of
3726-577: The committee cited references hydrazine's reaction with endogenous formaldehyde and formation of a DNA-methylating agent. In the event of a hydrazine exposure-related emergency, NIOSH recommends removing contaminated clothing immediately, washing skin with soap and water, and for eye exposure removing contact lenses and flushing eyes with water for at least 15 minutes. NIOSH also recommends anyone with potential hydrazine exposure to seek medical attention as soon as possible. There are no specific post-exposure laboratory or medical imaging recommendations, and
3807-407: The event of an engine flame out. The EPU activates automatically, or manually by pilot control, in the event of loss of hydraulic pressure or electrical power in order to provide emergency flight controls. The single jet engine U-2 utilizes hydrazine to power its Emergency Starting System (ESS), which provides a highly reliable method to restart the engine in flight in the event of a stall. Hydrazine
3888-876: The event of an engine stall. Hydrazine is a precursor to several pharmaceuticals and pesticides. Often these applications involve conversion of hydrazine to heterocyclic rings such as pyrazoles and pyridazines . Examples of commercialized bioactive hydrazine derivatives include cefazolin , rizatriptan , anastrozole , fluconazole , metazachlor, metamitron, metribuzin , paclobutrazol , diclobutrazole, propiconazole , hydrazine sulfate , diimide , triadimefon , and dibenzoylhydrazine . Hydrazine compounds can be effective as active ingredients in insecticides, miticides, nematicides , fungicides, antiviral agents, attractants, herbicides, or plant growth regulators. The Italian catalyst manufacturer Acta (chemical company) has proposed using hydrazine as an alternative to hydrogen in fuel cells . The chief benefit of using hydrazine
3969-673: The exposure limit. However, this odor threshold varies greatly and should not be used to determine potentially hazardous exposures. For aerospace personnel, the United States Air Force uses an emergency exposure guideline, developed by the National Academy of Sciences Committee on Toxicology, which is utilized for non-routine exposures of the general public and is called the Short-Term Public Emergency Exposure Guideline (SPEGL). The SPEGL, which does not apply to occupational exposures,
4050-434: The eyes, skin, liver, kidneys, hematopoietic, nervous and respiratory systems. Common controls used for hydrazine include process enclosure, local exhaust ventilation and personal protective equipment (PPE). Guidelines for hydrazine PPE include non-permeable gloves and clothing, indirect-vent splash resistant goggles, face shield and in some cases a respirator. The use of respirators for the handling of hydrazine should be
4131-487: The eyes/nose/throat, nausea/vomiting, shortness of breath, pulmonary edema, headache, dizziness, central nervous system depression, lethargy, temporary blindness, seizures and coma. Exposure can also cause organ damage to the liver, kidneys and central nervous system. Hydrazine is documented as a strong skin sensitizer with potential for cross-sensitization to hydrazine derivatives following initial exposure. In addition to occupational uses reviewed above, exposure to hydrazine
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#17327799056674212-478: The failure of the FIA in 2005, NRO ordered from Lockheed two additional legacy hardware KH-11s. USA-224 , the first of these, was launched in early 2011 two years ahead of the initial schedule estimate. According to Lew Allen , the initial key design elements were specified by Edwin H. Land . They included i) solid state focal plane array, ii) integrated circuits for complex data processing, iii) large, fast optics with
4293-461: The hydrazine is passed over a catalyst such as iridium metal supported by high-surface-area alumina (aluminium oxide), which causes it to decompose into ammonia ( NH 3 ), nitrogen gas ( N 2 ), and hydrogen ( H 2 ) gas according to the three following reactions: The first two reactions are extremely exothermic (the catalyst chamber can reach 800 °C in a matter of milliseconds, ) and they produce large volumes of hot gas from
4374-481: The images via encrypted radio links. In the United States, most information available about reconnaissance satellites is on programs that existed up to 1972, as this information has been declassified due to its age. Some information about programs before that time is still classified information , and a small amount of information is available on subsequent missions. A few up-to-date reconnaissance satellite images have been declassified on occasion, or leaked, as in
4455-606: The initial codeword Zaman. In November 1971, this codeword was changed to Kennen, which is Middle English for "to perceive". Initial director of the ZAMAN/KENNEN Program Group was Charles R. "Charlie" Roth, who in Oct 1975 was succeeded by Rutledge P. (Hap) Hazzard. Data is transmitted through a network of communications satellites ; the Satellite Data System (SDS). The initial ground station for
4536-543: The last resort as a method of controlling worker exposure. In cases where respirators are needed, proper respirator selection and a complete respiratory protection program consistent with OSHA guidelines should be implemented. For USAF personnel, Air Force Occupational Safety and Health (AFOSH) Standard 48-8, Attachment 8 reviews the considerations for occupational exposure to hydrazine in missile, aircraft and spacecraft systems. Specific guidance for exposure response includes mandatory emergency shower and eyewash stations and
4617-460: The liquid hydrazine hydrate is released. Hydrazine has a higher electromotive force of 1.56 V compared to 1.23 V for hydrogen. Hydrazine breaks down in the cell to form nitrogen and hydrogen which bonds with oxygen, releasing water. Hydrazine was used in fuel cells manufactured by Allis-Chalmers Corp. , including some that provided electric power in space satellites in the 1960s. A mixture of 63% hydrazine, 32% hydrazine nitrate and 5% water
4698-505: The medical work-up may depend on the type and severity of symptoms. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends potential exposures be treated symptomatically with special attention given to potential lung and liver damage. Past cases of hydrazine exposure have documented success with pyridoxine ( vitamin B6 ) treatment. The odor threshold for hydrazine is 3.7 ppm, thus if a worker is able to smell an ammonia-like odor then they are likely over
4779-407: The names "Advanced KENNEN", "Improved Crystal" and "Ikon". Official budget documents refer to the latest generation of electro-optical satellites as Evolved Enhanced CRYSTAL System . The Key Hole series was officially discontinued in favor of a random numbering scheme after repeated public references to KH-7 GAMBIT , KH-8 GAMBIT 3 , KH-9 HEXAGON , and KH-11 KENNEN satellites. The capabilities of
4860-491: The orbital plane of the secondary satellite in the West plane is located 10° to the west of the primary satellite. KH-11 satellites require periodic reboosts to counter atmospheric drag , or to adjust their ground track to surveillance requirements. Based on data collected by amateur observers, the following orbital characteristics of OPS 5705 were calculated by amateur skywatcher Ted Molczan . On 4 September 2010, amateur astrophotographer Ralf Vandebergh took some pictures of
4941-586: The polishing of the primary mirror of the Hubble Space Telescope. Later satellites had larger mirrors, with a diameter of around 2.9 to 3.1 meters (110 to 120 in). Jane's Defence Weekly indicates that the secondary mirror in the Cassegrain reflecting telescope system could be moved, allowing images to be taken from angles unusual for a satellite. Also, there are indications that the satellite can take images every five seconds. The initial KH-11 camera system offered frame and strip modes. The focal plane
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#17327799056675022-452: The primary satellites in the East and West orbital plane. The constellation consists of two primary and two secondary satellites (one primary and one secondary per plane). The orbital planes of the two primary satellites in the East and West plane are separated by 48° to 50°. The orbital plane of the secondary satellite in the East plane is located 20° to the east of the primary satellite, while
5103-668: The processing of the digital imaging was a secret National Reconnaissance Office facility in Area 58 , later confirmed to be located in Fort Belvoir in Virginia . In 1999, NRO selected Boeing as the prime contractor for the Future Imagery Architecture (FIA) program, aimed at replacing the KH-11 satellites by a more cost effective constellation of smaller, and also more capable reconnaissance satellites. After
5184-844: The proportion of the NH 3 that is dissociated in reaction 3; a higher temperature is desirable for rocket thrusters, while more molecules are desirable when the reactions are intended to produce greater quantities of gas. Since hydrazine is a solid below 2 °C, it is not suitable as a general purpose rocket propellant for military applications. Other variants of hydrazine that are used as rocket fuel are monomethylhydrazine , CH 3 NHNH 2 , also known as MMH (melting point −52 °C), and unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine , (CH 3 ) 2 NNH 2 , also known as UDMH (melting point −57 °C). These derivatives are used in two-component rocket fuels, often together with dinitrogen tetroxide , N 2 O 4 . A 50:50 mixture by weight of hydrazine and UDMH
5265-487: The publication Jane's Defence Weekly . In 1985, Morison was convicted in Federal Court on two counts of espionage and two counts of theft of government property, and was sentenced to two years in prison. He was pardoned by President Clinton in 2001. In 2019 Donald Trump , as President of the United States, tweeted a classified image of the aftermath of a failed test of Iran's Safir rocket, which some believe
5346-531: The recorded image. The first charge-coupled device (CCD) detectors for KH-11 were developed by Westinghouse Electric Corporation at their Baltimore facility in the later 1970s. KH-11 Block II might have been the first reconnaissance satellite equipped for imaging with an 800 × 800 pixels CCD. Later block satellites may include signals intelligence capabilities and greater sensitivity in broader light spectrums (probably into infrared ). Communication to and data downloads from KH-11 satellites are routed through
5427-451: The space program. And if nothing else had come out of it except the knowledge that we gained from space photography, it would be worth ten times what the whole program has cost. Because tonight we know how many missiles the enemy has and, it turned out, our guesses were way off . We were doing things we didn't need to do. We were building things we didn't need to build. We were harboring fears we didn't need to harbor. During his 1980 State of
5508-475: The tubes, ultimately shorting them out. The issue could be abated by changing the orbiting satellite's orientation during crossing of the ionosphere, and was finally solved by better shielding of the tubes in follow-up satellites. Ground stations for the receipt of KH-11 data have been reported to be located in Fort Belvoir , VA, the former Buckley Air National Guard Base , CO, and Kapaun Air Station , Germany. A perfect 2.4-meter (94 in) mirror observing in
5589-520: The two legacy KH-11 satellites ordered from Lockheed in 2005 were higher than for the latest Nimitz -class aircraft carrier (CVN-77) with its projected procurement cost of $ 6.35 billion as of May 2005. In 2011, after the launch of USA-224 , DNRO Bruce Carlson announced that the procurement cost for the satellite had been $ 2 billion under the initial budget estimate, which would put it at about $ 4.4 billion (inflation adjusted $ 5.96 billion in 2023). In April 2014,
5670-495: The use of a ketone catalyst. This method relies on the reaction of monochloramine with ammonia to create the N –N single bond as well as a hydrogen chloride byproduct: Related to the Raschig process, urea can be oxidized instead of ammonia. Again sodium hypochlorite serves as the oxidant. The net reaction is shown: The process generates significant by-products and is mainly practised in Asia. The Bayer Ketazine Process
5751-478: The visual spectrum (i.e. at a wavelength of 500 nm) has a diffraction limited resolution of around 0.05 arcsec , which from an orbital altitude of 250 km (160 mi) corresponds to a ground sample distance of 6 cm (2.4 in). Operational resolution should be worse due to effects of the atmospheric turbulence . Astronomer Clifford Stoll estimates that such a telescope could resolve up to "a couple inches. Not quite good enough to recognize
5832-571: Was accused of selling a KH-11 System Technical Manual describing design and operation to the Soviets. Kampiles was convicted of espionage and initially sentenced to 40 years in prison. Later, this term was reduced, and after serving 18 years, Kampiles was released in 1996. In 1984 Samuel Loring Morison , an intelligence analyst at the Naval Intelligence Support Center, forwarded three classified images taken by KH-11 to
5913-912: Was an eightfold increase in the download rate compared to earlier models to facilitate improved real-time access and increased area coverage. From Block III on, the typical lifetime of the satellites increased to about 15 years, possibly related to a higher lift-off mass, which facilitates larger fuel reserves for countering atmospheric drag. Three electro-optical satellites launched in October 2005, January 2011, and August 2013 are attributed to Block IV. A new generation of clandestine communications satellites launched to inclined geosynchronous orbits have led to speculations that these are in support of Block V electro-optical satellites scheduled for launch in late 2018 (NROL-71) and 2021 (NROL-82). The two satellites have been built by Lockheed Martin Space Systems, have
5994-518: Was an unmanned reconnaissance satellite. Zenit was launched from 1961 to 1994, however the last flight in 1994 was as a test payload. Both the CORONA and Zenit satellites had to be recovered and used film, making them distinct from future reconnaissance satellites that could transmit photos without returning film to earth. There are several major types of reconnaissance satellite. Examples of reconnaissance satellite missions: On 28 August 2013, it
6075-418: Was equipped with an array of light-sensitive silicon diodes, which converted brightness values to electrical signals. The packaging density was sufficiently high (several hundred diodes per inch) to match the ground sample distance of the CORONA satellites . The recorded digital signal was encrypted and transmitted to a ground station in near real time, and written to film by means of a laser in order to recreate
6156-608: Was first used as a component in rocket fuels during World War II . A 30% mix by weight with 57% methanol (named M-Stoff in the German Luftwaffe ) and 13% water was called C-Stoff by the Germans. The mixture was used to power the Messerschmitt Me 163B rocket-powered fighter plane, in which the German high test peroxide T-Stoff was used as an oxidizer. Unmixed hydrazine was referred to as B-Stoff by
6237-476: Was lost in a launch failure. Four Block III satellites, commonly called KH-12 or Improved CRYSTAL were launched between November 1992 and October 2001. The name "Improved CRYSTAL" refers to the "Improved Metric CRYSTAL System" (IMCS). Metric describes the capability to fix Datum references (markings) in an image relative to the World Geodetic System for mapping purposes. Another improvement
6318-509: Was taken from the USA-224 satellite. In Seymour Hersh's book The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal & American Foreign Policy Ari Ben-Menashe says that Israel had stolen images from the KH-11 in order to target missiles at the Soviet Union. Nine KH-11 satellites were launched between 1976 and 1990 aboard Titan-3D and Titan-34D launch vehicles, with one launch failure. For the following five satellite launches between 1992 and 2005,
6399-503: Was thought that "a $ 1-billion high-powered spy satellite capable of snapping pictures detailed enough to distinguish the make and model of an automobile hundreds of miles below" was launched from California's Vandenberg Air Force Base using a Delta IV Heavy launcher, America's highest-payload space launch vehicle at the time. On 17 February 2014, a Russian Kosmos-1220 originally launched in 1980 and used for naval missile targeting until 1982, made an uncontrolled atmospheric entry . During
6480-660: Was unable to obtain pure hydrazine, despite repeated efforts. Pure anhydrous hydrazine was first prepared by the Dutch chemist Lobry de Bruyn in 1895. The nomenclature is a bi-valent form, with prefix hydr- used to indicate the presence of hydrogen atoms and suffix beginning with -az- , from azote , the French word for nitrogen . The largest use of hydrazine is as a precursor to blowing agents . Specific compounds include azodicarbonamide and azobisisobutyronitrile , which produce 100–200 mL of gas per gram of precursor. In
6561-534: Was used in the engine of the service propulsion system of the Apollo command and service module , both the ascent and descent engines of the Apollo Lunar Module and Titan II ICBMs and is known as Aerozine 50 . These reactions are extremely exothermic, and the burning is also hypergolic (it starts burning without any external ignition). There are ongoing efforts in the aerospace industry to find
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