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24-578: Koehler is a transliteration of the German occupational surname Köhler , literally meaning " charcoal burner ". Notable people with the surname include: Transliteration For instance, for the Greek term ⟨ Ελληνική Δημοκρατία ⟩ , which is usually translated as ' Hellenic Republic ', the usual transliteration into the Latin script is ⟨Hellēnikḗ Dēmokratía⟩ ; and

48-468: A rough breathing: ἐνῑ́κᾱἑ for Attic ἐνῑ́κησε . In Unicode , the code point assigned to the rough breathing is U+0314  ̔   COMBINING REVERSED COMMA ABOVE . It is intended to be used in all alphabetic scripts (including Greek and Latin). It was also used in the original Latin transcription of Armenian for example with U+0074 t LATIN SMALL LETTER T in t̔ . The pair of space + combining rough breathing

72-455: Is U+02BD ◌ʽ MODIFIER LETTER REVERSED COMMA . It may bind typographically with the letter encoded before it to its left, to create ligatures for example with U+0074 t LATIN SMALL LETTER T in tʽ , and it is used for the modern Latin transcription of Armenian (which no longer uses the combining version). It is also encoded for compatibility as U+1FFE ◌῾ GREEK DASIA mostly for usage in

96-406: Is common, as for Burmese , for instance. In Modern Greek , the letters ⟨η, ι, υ⟩ and the letter combinations ⟨ει, oι, υι⟩ are pronounced [i] (except when pronounced as semivowels ), and a modern transcription renders them as ⟨i⟩. However, a transliteration distinguishes them; for example, by transliterating them as ⟨ē, i, y⟩ and ⟨ei, oi, yi⟩. (As the ancient pronunciation of ⟨η⟩ was [ɛː] , it

120-558: Is not present in most forms of English and is often transliterated as "kh" as in Nikita Khrushchev . Many languages have phonemic sounds, such as click consonants , which are quite unlike any phoneme in the language into which they are being transliterated. Some languages and scripts present particular difficulties to transcribers. These are discussed on separate pages. Examples of languages and writing systems and methods of transliterating include: Rough breathing In

144-565: Is often transliterated as ⟨ē⟩.) On the other hand, ⟨αυ, ευ, ηυ⟩ are pronounced /af, ef, if/ , and are voiced to [av, ev, iv] when followed by a voiced consonant – a shift from Ancient Greek /au̯, eu̯, iu̯/ . A transliteration would render them all as ⟨au, eu, iu⟩ no matter the environment these sounds are in, reflecting the traditional orthography of Ancient Greek, yet a transcription would distinguish them, based on their phonemic and allophonic pronunciations in Modern Greek. Furthermore,

168-571: Is opposed to letter transcription , which is a letter by letter conversion of one language into another writing system. Still, most systems of transliteration map the letters of the source script to letters pronounced similarly in the target script, for some specific pair of source and target language. Transliteration may be very close to letter-by-letter transcription if the relations between letters and sounds are similar in both languages. For many script pairs, there are one or more standard transliteration systems. However, unsystematic transliteration

192-414: Is transliterated ⟨D⟩ though pronounced as [ð] , and ⟨η⟩ is transliterated ⟨ī⟩ , though it is pronounced [i] (exactly like ⟨ι⟩ ) and is not long . Transcription , conversely, seeks to capture sound, but phonetically approximate it into the new script; ⟨ Ελληνική Δημοκρατία ⟩ corresponds to [eliniˈci ðimokraˈtia] in

216-540: The International Phonetic Alphabet . While differentiation is lost in the case of [i] , note the allophonic realization of /k/ as a palatalized [c] when preceding front vowels /e/ and /i/ . Angle brackets ⟨ ⟩ may be used to set off transliteration, as opposed to slashes / / for phonemic transcription and square brackets for phonetic transcription. Angle brackets may also be used to set off characters in

240-488: The Russian term ⟨ Российская Республика ⟩ , which is usually translated as ' Russian Republic ', can be transliterated either as ⟨Rossiyskaya Respublika⟩ or alternatively as ⟨Rossijskaja Respublika⟩ . Transliteration is the process of representing or intending to represent a word, phrase, or text in a different script or writing system. Transliterations are designed to convey

264-547: The Wade–Giles system of romanization for Mandarin Chinese . Herbert Giles and others have used a left (opening) curved single quotation mark for the same purpose; the apostrophe , backtick , and visually similar characters are often seen as well. The rough breathing comes from the left-hand half of the letter H. In some archaic Greek alphabets , the letter was used for [ h ] ( Heta ), and this usage survives in

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288-471: The polytonic orthography of Ancient Greek , the rough breathing ( Ancient Greek : δασὺ πνεῦμα , romanized :  dasỳ pneûma or δασεῖα daseîa ; Latin : spiritus asper ) character is a diacritical mark used to indicate the presence of an / h / sound before a vowel , diphthong , or after rho . It remained in the polytonic orthography even after the Hellenistic period, when

312-659: The soft palate but on the uvula , but the pronunciation varies between different dialects of Arabic . The letter is sometimes transliterated into "g", sometimes into "q" or " ' " (for in Egypt it is silent) and rarely even into "k" in English. Another example is the Russian letter "Х" (kha) . It is pronounced as the voiceless velar fricative /x/ , like the Scottish pronunciation of ⟨ch⟩ in "lo ch ". This sound

336-533: The Greek script in documents where dasia was encoded before the Greek capital letter it modifies (it is then not appropriate for transliterating Armenian and Semitic scripts to the Latin script). When U+1FFE ῾ GREEK DASIA is used incorrectly after a Latin letter it is supposed to modify, for example with U+0074 t LATIN SMALL LETTER T in t῾d , a visible small gap will occur between

360-468: The Greek script, where it may be used before Greek capital letters to its right and aligned differently, e.g. with U+0391 ῾Α GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA , where the generic space+combining dasia should be used after the letter it modifies to its left (the space is inserted so that the dasia will be to the left instead of above that letter). Basically, U+1FFE was encoded for full roundtrip compatibility with legacy 8-bit encodings of

384-475: The Latin letter H . In other dialects, it was used for the vowel [ ɛː ] ( Eta ), and this usage survives in the modern system of writing Ancient Greek , and in Modern Greek . The rough breathing ( ̔ ) is placed over an initial vowel, or over the second vowel of an initial diphthong. An upsilon or rho at the beginning of a word always takes a rough breathing. In some writing conventions,

408-459: The contracted vowel takes the apostrophe or coronis (identical to the smooth breathing ). Under the archaizing influence of Katharevousa , this change has been preserved in modern Greek neologisms coined on the basis of ancient words, e.g. πρωθυπουργός ('prime minister'), from πρῶτος ('first') and ὑπουργός ('minister'), where the latter was originally aspirated. In the ancient Laconian dialect, medial intervocalic σ would become

432-461: The initial letter ⟨h⟩ reflecting the historical rough breathing ⟨ ̔⟩ in words such as ⟨Hellēnikḗ⟩ would intuitively be omitted in transcription for Modern Greek, as Modern Greek no longer has the /h/ sound. A simple example of difficulties in transliteration is the Arabic letter qāf . It is pronounced, in literary Arabic, approximately like English [k], except that the tongue makes contact not on

456-522: The leading Latin letter t and the Greek dasia, and the Greek dasia may interact typographically with the Latin letter d following it to suppress this gap, like in Greek. There is a polytonic Greek code range in Unicode, covering precomposite versions (i.e. breathing mark + vowel or rho, or vowel with pitch accent and/or iota subscript): Ἁ ἁ, Ἇ ἇ, ᾏ ᾇ, ᾉ ᾁ, Ἑ ἑ, Ἡ ἡ, Ἧ ἧ, ᾟ ᾗ, ᾙ ᾑ, Ἱ ἱ, Ἷ ἷ, Ὁ ὁ, Ῥ ῥ, Ὑ ὑ, Ὗ ὗ, Ὡ ὡ, Ὧ ὧ, ᾯ ᾧ, and ᾩ ᾡ. The rough breathing

480-400: The original script. Conventions and author preferences vary. Systematic transliteration is a mapping from one system of writing into another, typically grapheme to grapheme. Most transliteration systems are one-to-one , so a reader who knows the system can reconstruct the original spelling. Transliteration, which adapts written form without altering the pronunciation when spoken out,

504-446: The pronunciation of the original word in a different script, allowing readers or speakers of that script to approximate the sounds and pronunciation of the original word. Transliterations do not change the pronunciation of the word. Thus, in the Greek above example, ⟨λλ⟩ is transliterated ⟨ll⟩ though it is pronounced exactly the same way as [l] , or the Greek letters, ⟨λλ⟩ . ⟨Δ⟩

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528-400: The rough breathing is written on the second of two rhos in the middle of a word. This is transliterated as rrh in Latin. In crasis (contraction of two words), when the second word has a rough breathing, the contracted vowel does not take a rough breathing. Instead, the consonant before the contracted vowel changes to the aspirated equivalent (i.e., π → φ, τ → θ, κ → χ), if possible, and

552-402: The sound disappeared from the Greek language. In the monotonic orthography of Modern Greek phonology , in use since 1982, it is not used at all. The absence of an /h/ sound is marked by the smooth breathing . The character, or those with similar shape such as U+02BB ʻ MODIFIER LETTER TURNED COMMA , have also been used for a similar sound by Thomas Wade (and others) in

576-511: Was also used in the early Cyrillic alphabet when writing the Old Church Slavonic language. In this context it is encoded as Unicode U+0485 ҅ COMBINING CYRILLIC DASIA PNEUMATA In Latin transcription of Semitic languages , especially Arabic and Hebrew , either U+02BD ʽ MODIFIER LETTER REVERSED COMMA or a symbol similar to it , U+02BF ◌ʿ MODIFIER LETTER LEFT HALF RING ,

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