Kyūjitai ( Japanese : 舊字體 / 旧字体 , lit. 'old character forms') are the traditional forms of kanji (Chinese written characters used in Japanese writing). Their simplified counterparts are shinjitai ( 新字体 , 'new character forms'). Some of the simplified characters arose centuries ago and were in everyday use in both China and Japan , but they were considered inelegant, even uncouth. After World War II , simplified character forms were made official in both these countries.
49-482: Kokugaku ( Kyūjitai : 國學 , Shinjitai : 国学 ; literally "national study") was an academic movement, a school of Japanese philology and philosophy originating during the Tokugawa period . Kokugaku scholars worked to refocus Japanese scholarship away from the then-dominant study of Chinese , Confucian , and Buddhist texts in favor of research into the early Japanese classics . What later became known as
98-403: A Compugraphics system for typesetting and page layout. The magazine did not yet accept articles on floppy disks, but hoped to do so "as matters progress". Before the 1980s, practically all typesetting for publishers and advertisers was performed by specialist typesetting companies. These companies performed keyboarding, editing and production of paper or film output, and formed a large component of
147-402: A case, contained cast metal sorts , each with a single letter or symbol, but backwards (so they would print correctly). The compositor assembled these sorts into words, then lines, then pages of text, which were then bound tightly together by a frame, making up a form or page. If done correctly, all letters were of the same height, and a flat surface of type was created. The form was placed in
196-401: A family of typesetting languages with names that were derivatives of the word "SCRIPT". Later versions of SCRIPT included advanced features, such as automatic generation of a table of contents and index, multicolumn page layout, footnotes, boxes, automatic hyphenation and spelling verification. NSCRIPT was a port of SCRIPT to OS and TSO from CP-67/CMS SCRIPT. Waterloo Script was created at
245-479: A keyboard or other devices could produce the desired text. Most of the successful systems involved the in-house casting of the type to be used, hence are termed "hot metal" typesetting. The Linotype machine , invented in 1884, used a keyboard to assemble the casting matrices, and cast an entire line of type at a time (hence its name). In the Monotype System , a keyboard was used to punch a paper tape , which
294-489: A language's orthography for visual display. Typesetting requires one or more fonts (which are widely but erroneously confused with and substituted for typefaces ). One significant effect of typesetting was that authorship of works could be spotted more easily, making it difficult for copiers who have not gained permission. During much of the letterpress era , movable type was composed by hand for each page by workers called compositors . A tray with many dividers, called
343-408: A light source to selectively expose characters onto light-sensitive paper. Originally they were driven by pre-punched paper tapes . Later they were connected to computer front ends. One of the earliest electronic photocomposition systems was introduced by Fairchild Semiconductor . The typesetter typed a line of text on a Fairchild keyboard that had no display. To verify correct content of the line it
392-512: A press and inked, and then printed (an impression made) on paper. Metal type read backwards, from right to left, and a key skill of the compositor was their ability to read this backwards text. Before computers were invented, and thus becoming computerized (or digital) typesetting, font sizes were changed by replacing the characters with a different size of type. In letterpress printing, individual letters and punctuation marks were cast on small metal blocks, known as "sorts," and then arranged to form
441-405: A response to Sinocentric Neo-Confucian theories. Kokugaku scholars criticized the repressive moralizing of Confucian thinkers, and tried to re-establish Japanese culture before the influx of foreign modes of thought and behaviour. Eventually, the thinking of kokugaku scholars influenced the sonnō jōi philosophy and movement. It was this philosophy, amongst other things, that led to
490-479: A solvent the expensive sorts had to be redistributed into the typecase - called sorting or dissing - so they would be ready for reuse. Errors in sorting could later produce misprints if, say, a p was put into the b compartment. The diagram at right illustrates a cast metal sort: a face, b body or shank, c point size, 1 shoulder, 2 nick, 3 groove, 4 foot. Wooden printing sorts were used for centuries in combination with metal type. Not shown, and more
539-412: A thousand years of Chinese learning. It thus took an interest in philologically identifying the ancient, indigenous meanings of ancient Japanese texts; in turn, these ideas were synthesized with early Shinto and astronomy . The term kokugaku was used liberally by early modern Japanese to refer to the "national learning" of each of the world's nations. This usage was adopted into Chinese , where it
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#1732779832751588-624: Is considered fairly difficult to learn on its own, and deals more with appearance than structure. The LaTeX macro package, written by Leslie Lamport at the beginning of the 1980s, offered a simpler interface and an easier way to systematically encode the structure of a document. LaTeX markup is widely used in academic circles for published papers and books. Although standard TeX does not provide an interface of any sort, there are programs that do. These programs include Scientific Workplace and LyX , which are graphical/interactive editors; TeXmacs , while being an independent typesetting system, can also aid
637-718: Is still in use today (C: guoxue ). The Chinese also adopted the kokugaku term "national essence" (J: kokusui , C: 国粹 guocui ). According to scholar of religion Jason Ānanda Josephson , kokugaku played a role in the consolidation of State Shinto in the Meiji era . It promoted a unified, scientifically grounded and politically powerful vision of Shinto against Buddhism , Christianity , and Japanese folk religions , many of which were named " superstitions ." Defunct Defunct Ky%C5%ABjitai However, in Japan fewer and less drastic simplifications were made. An example
686-574: Is still included with a number of Unix and Unix-like systems, and has been used to typeset a number of high-profile technical and computer books. Some versions, as well as a GNU work-alike called groff , are now open source . The TeX system, developed by Donald E. Knuth at the end of the 1970s, is another widespread and powerful automated typesetting system that has set high standards, especially for typesetting mathematics. LuaTeX and LuaLaTeX are variants of TeX and of LaTeX scriptable in Lua . TeX
735-544: Is the character for "electric", which is still the traditional form of " 電 " in Japan, but has been simplified to 电 in mainland China (pronounced "diàn" in Chinese, and "den" in Japanese). Prior to the promulgation of the tōyō kanji list in 1946, kyūjitai were known as seiji ( 正字 , 'proper/correct characters') or seijitai ( 正字體 ). Even after kyūjitai were officially marked for discontinuation with
784-407: The kokugaku tradition began in the 17th and 18th centuries as kogaku ("ancient studies"), wagaku (" Japanese studies ") or inishie manabi ("antiquity studies"), a term favored by Motoori Norinaga and his school. Drawing heavily from Shinto and Japan's ancient literature , the school looked back to a golden age of culture and society. They drew upon ancient Japanese poetry , predating
833-657: The Apple Macintosh , Aldus PageMaker (and later QuarkXPress ) and PostScript and on the PC platform with Xerox Ventura Publisher under DOS as well as Pagemaker under Windows. Improvements in software and hardware, and rapidly lowering costs, popularized desktop publishing and enabled very fine control of typeset results much less expensively than the minicomputer dedicated systems. At the same time, word processing systems, such as Wang , WordPerfect and Microsoft Word , revolutionized office documents. They did not, however, have
882-532: The People's Republic of China , where all personal names were simplified as part of the character simplification reform carried out in the 1950s, the Japanese reform only applied to a subset of the characters in use (the tōyō kanji) and excluded characters used in proper names. Therefore, kyūjitai are still used in personal names in Japan today (see jinmeiyō kanji ). In modern Japanese, kyūjitai that appear in
931-615: The 196 new jōyō kanji, 129 were already on the Jinmeiyō Kanji List; 10 of them are used in names of Japanese prefectures, and the kanji 韓 that appears in the name of South Korea ( 韓国 Kankoku ). Four of these kanji have both a simplified and a traditional form: Hyōgai kanji are kanji that are elements of neither the Jōyō Kanji List nor the Jinmeiyō Kanji List. In Hyōgai Kanji Jitaihyō ( 表外漢字字体表 ) , traditional characters are recognized as printed standard style ( 印刷標準字体 ) while
980-591: The 1970s and early 1980s, such as Datalogics Pager, Penta, Atex , Miles 33, Xyvision, troff from Bell Labs , and IBM's Script product with CRT terminals, were better able to drive these electromechanical devices, and used text markup languages to describe type and other page formatting information. The descendants of these text markup languages include SGML , XML and HTML . The minicomputer systems output columns of text on film for paste-up and eventually produced entire pages and signatures of 4, 8, 16 or more pages using imposition software on devices such as
1029-542: The 1980s by fully digital systems employing a raster image processor to render an entire page to a single high-resolution digital image , now known as imagesetting. The first commercially successful laser imagesetter, able to make use of a raster image processor, was the Monotype Lasercomp. ECRM, Compugraphic (later purchased by Agfa ) and others rapidly followed suit with machines of their own. Early minicomputer -based typesetting software introduced in
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#17327798327511078-601: The Israeli-made Scitex Dolev. The data stream used by these systems to drive page layout on printers and imagesetters, often proprietary or specific to a manufacturer or device, drove development of generalized printer control languages, such as Adobe Systems ' PostScript and Hewlett-Packard 's PCL . Computerized typesetting was so rare that BYTE magazine (comparing itself to "the proverbial shoemaker's children who went barefoot") did not use any computers in production until its August 1979 issue used
1127-582: The University of Waterloo (UW) later. One version of SCRIPT was created at MIT and the AA/CS at UW took over project development in 1974. The program was first used at UW in 1975. In the 1970s, SCRIPT was the only practical way to word process and format documents using a computer. By the late 1980s, the SCRIPT system had been extended to incorporate various upgrades. The initial implementation of SCRIPT at UW
1176-426: The bed of a press. In this process, called stereotyping , the entire form is pressed into a fine matrix such as plaster of Paris or papier mâché to create a flong , from which a positive form is cast in type metal . Advances such as the typewriter and computer would push the state of the art even farther ahead. Still, hand composition and letterpress printing have not fallen completely out of use, and since
1225-484: The concern of the casterman, is the "set", or width of each sort. Set width, like body size, is measured in points. In order to extend the working life of type, and to account for the finite sorts in a case of type, copies of forms were cast when anticipating subsequent printings of a text, freeing the costly type for other work. This was particularly prevalent in book and newspaper work where rotary presses required type forms to wrap an impression cylinder rather than set in
1274-490: The conversion to do-it-yourself easier, but also opened up a gap between skilled designers and amateurs. The advent of PostScript, supplemented by the PDF file format, provided a universal method of proofing designs and layouts, readable on major computers and operating systems. QuarkXPress had enjoyed a market share of 95% in the 1990s, but lost its dominance to Adobe InDesign from the mid-2000s onward. IBM created and inspired
1323-414: The distinction between old and new forms of the characters. In particular, all Unicode normalization methods merge the old characters with the new ones. In the revised version of jōyō kanji, 5 kanji were removed (but preserved as jinmeiyō kanji), and 196 more kanji were added into Jōyō Kanjihyō of originally 1945 kanji; 6 of these new kanji have a traditional and a simplified form. They are underlined in
1372-428: The eventual collapse of the Tokugawa shogunate in 1868 and the subsequent Meiji Restoration . The kokugaku school held that the Japanese national character was naturally pure, and would reveal its inherent splendor once the foreign (Chinese) influences were removed. The "Chinese heart" was considered different from the "true heart" or "Japanese Heart". This true Japanese spirit needed to be revealed by removing
1421-506: The following list. The Jinmeiyō Kanji List contains 212 traditional characters still used in names. The modern form ( shinjitai ), which appears in the Jōyō Kanji List, is given in parentheses. The Jinmeiyō Kanji List also contains 631 additional kanji that are not elements of the Jōyō Kanji List; 18 of them have a variant: The following 5 kanji were removed from the Jōyō Kanji List in 2010, but were preserved as jinmeiyō kanji. They have no simplified form. 勺 and 匁 are kokuji . Of
1470-566: The graphic arts industry. In the United States, these companies were located in rural Pennsylvania, New England or the Midwest, where labor was cheap and paper was produced nearby, but still within a few hours' travel time of the major publishing centers. In 1985, with the new concept of WYSIWYG (for What You See Is What You Get) in text editing and word processing on personal computers, desktop publishing became available, starting with
1519-466: The help of scripting languages. YesLogic's Prince is another one, which is based on CSS Paged Media. During the mid-1970s, Joe Ossanna , working at Bell Laboratories , wrote the troff typesetting program to drive a Wang C/A/T phototypesetter owned by the Labs; it was later enhanced by Brian Kernighan to support output to different equipment, such as laser printers . While its use has fallen off, it
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1568-508: The introduction of digital typesetting, it has seen a revival as an artisanal pursuit. However, it is a small niche within the larger typesetting market. The time and effort required to manually compose the text led to several efforts in the 19th century to produce mechanical typesetting. While some, such as the Paige compositor , met with limited success, by the end of the 19th century, several methods had been devised whereby an operator working
1617-418: The negative film, resulting in a column of black type on white paper, or a galley . The galley was then cut up and used to create a mechanical drawing or paste up of a whole page. A large film negative of the page is shot and used to make plates for offset printing . The next generation of phototypesetting machines to emerge were those that generated characters on a cathode-ray tube display. Typical of
1666-559: The official spelling of proper names are sometimes replaced with the modern shinjitai form. In the 2,136 Jōyō Kanji ( 常用漢字 ) , there are 364 pairs of simplified and traditional characters (for example, 亜 is the simplified form of 亞 ). The kanji 弁 is used to simplify three different traditional kanji ( 辨 , 瓣 , and 辯 ). Within the jōyō kanji, there are 62 characters the old forms of which may cause problems displaying: Kyōiku kanji (26): Secondary-school kanji (36): These characters are Unicode CJK Unified Ideographs for which
1715-539: The old form (kyūjitai) and the new form (shinjitai) have been unified under the Unicode standard. Although the old and new forms are distinguished under the JIS X 0213 standard, the old forms map to Unicode CJK Compatibility Ideographs which are considered by Unicode to be canonically equivalent to the new forms and may not be distinguished by user agents. Therefore, depending on the user environment, it may not be possible to see
1764-411: The photo of the composing stick, a lower case 'q' looks like a 'd', a lower case 'b' looks like a 'p', a lower case 'p' looks like a 'b' and a lower case 'd' looks like a 'q'. This is reputed to be the origin of the expression "mind your p's and q's". It might just as easily have been "mind your b's and d's". A forgotten but important part of the process took place after the printing: after cleaning with
1813-473: The preparation of TeX documents through its export capability. GNU TeXmacs (whose name is a combination of TeX and Emacs , although it is independent from both of these programs) is a typesetting system which is at the same time a WYSIWYG word processor . SILE borrows some algorithms from TeX and relies on other libraries such as HarfBuzz and ICU , with an extensible core engine developed in Lua . By default, SILE's input documents can be composed in
1862-472: The promulgation of the tōyō kanji list, they were used in print frequently into the 1950s due to logistical delays in changing over typesetting equipment. Kyūjitai continue in use to the present day because when the Japanese government adopted the simplified forms, it did not ban the traditional forms. Thus, traditional forms are used when an author wishes to use them and the publisher agrees. Unlike in
1911-421: The rise of medieval Japan 's feudal orders in the mid-twelfth century, and other cultural achievements to show the emotion of Japan. One famous emotion appealed to by the kokugakusha is ' mono no aware '. The word kokugaku , coined to distinguish this school from kangaku ("Chinese studies"), was popularized by Hirata Atsutane in the 19th century. It has been translated as 'Native Studies' and represented
1960-541: The simplified characters are recognized as simple conventional style ( 簡易慣用字体 ). Here are some examples of hyōgai kanji that have a simplified and a traditional form: In 2010, 67 hyōgai kanji were added to the Jōyō Kanji List; 2 of them have a traditional and a simplified form: Kokuji are characters that were created in Japan and were not taken over from China. Some of them, e.g. 腺 , are now also used in Chinese, but most of them are not. The Jōyō Kanji List currently contains 9 kokuji ( 働 and 畑 are kyōiku kanji): 匁
2009-431: The text for a page. The size of the type was determined by the size of the character on the face of the sort. A compositor would need to physically swap out the sorts for a different size to change the font size. During typesetting, individual sorts are picked from a type case with the right hand, and set from left to right into a composing stick held in the left hand, appearing to the typesetter as upside down. As seen in
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2058-646: The type were the Alphanumeric APS2 (1963), IBM 2680 (1967), I.I.I. VideoComp (1973?), Autologic APS5 (1975), and Linotron 202 (1978). These machines were the mainstay of phototypesetting for much of the 1970s and 1980s. Such machines could be "driven online" by a computer front-end system or took their data from magnetic tape. Type fonts were stored digitally on conventional magnetic disk drives. Computers excel at automatically typesetting and correcting documents. Character-by-character, computer-aided phototypesetting was, in turn, rapidly rendered obsolete in
2107-542: The typographic ability or flexibility required for complicated book layout, graphics, mathematics, or advanced hyphenation and justification rules ( H and J ). By 2000, this industry segment had shrunk because publishers were now capable of integrating typesetting and graphic design on their own in-house computers. Many found the cost of maintaining high standards of typographic design and technical skill made it more economical to outsource to freelancers and graphic design specialists. The availability of cheap or free fonts made
2156-521: Was a SCRIPT variant developed at IBM in the 1980s. DWScript is a version of SCRIPT for MS-DOS, named after its author, D. D. Williams, but was never released to the public and only used internally by IBM. Script is still available from IBM as part of the Document Composition Facility for the z/OS operating system. The standard generalized markup language ( SGML ) was based upon IBM Generalized Markup Language (GML). GML
2205-631: Was a set of macros on top of IBM Script. DSSSL is an international standard developed to provide a stylesheets for SGML documents. XML is a successor of SGML. XSL-FO is most often used to generate PDF files from XML files. The arrival of SGML/XML as the document model made other typesetting engines popular. Such engines include Datalogics Pager, Penta, Miles 33's OASYS, Xyvision's XML Professional Publisher , FrameMaker , and Arbortext . XSL-FO compatible engines include Apache FOP , Antenna House Formatter , and RenderX 's XEP . These products allow users to program their SGML/XML typesetting process with
2254-556: Was documented in the May 1975 issue of the Computing Centre Newsletter, which noted some the advantages of using SCRIPT: The article also pointed out SCRIPT had over 100 commands to assist in formatting documents, though 8 to 10 of these commands were sufficient to complete most formatting jobs. Thus, SCRIPT had many of the capabilities computer users generally associate with contemporary word processors. SCRIPT/VS
2303-463: Was removed from the Jōyō Kanji List in 2010, but is still used as jinmeiyō kanji. The Jinmeiyō Kanji List currently contains 16 kokuji: Typesetting Typesetting is the composition of text for publication, display, or distribution by means of arranging physical type (or sort ) in mechanical systems or glyphs in digital systems representing characters (letters and other symbols). Stored types are retrieved and ordered according to
2352-460: Was then fed to control a casting machine. The Ludlow Typograph involved hand-set matrices, but otherwise used hot metal. By the early 20th century, the various systems were nearly universal in large newspapers and publishing houses. Phototypesetting or "cold type" systems first appeared in the early 1960s and rapidly displaced continuous casting machines. These devices consisted of glass or film disks or strips (one per font ) that spun in front of
2401-419: Was typed a second time. If the two lines were identical a bell rang and the machine produced a punched paper tape corresponding to the text. With the completion of a block of lines the typesetter fed the corresponding paper tapes into a phototypesetting device that mechanically set type outlines printed on glass sheets into place for exposure onto a negative film . Photosensitive paper was exposed to light through
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