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83-586: It rose to prominence as an imperial military province of the Mali Empire . After the decline of the Mali Empire, Kaabu became independent. Kansala, the imperial capital, was captured by Fula forces from the Futa Jallon during the 19th century Fula jihads . However, Kaabu's successor states across Senegambia continued to thrive even after the fall of Kansala; this lasted until total incorporation of

166-646: A jihad against non-Muslim states in the region, particularly Kaabu. Some non-Muslim Fula, pushed out of the Futa Djallon by the Torodbe, settled in Kaabu and often herded the cattle of the ruling Nyancho aristocracy. Over the course of the conflict with the Imamate, however, these immigrants were seen as a potential 'fifth column', and were oppressed and extorted, creating civil conflict in the empire. The decline of

249-532: A century later. Arab interest in the Mali Empire declined after the Songhai conquered the northern regions of the empire which formed the primary contact between Mali and the Arab world. For the later period of the Mali Empire, the major written primary sources are Portuguese accounts of the coastal provinces of Mali and neighboring societies. Mali , Mandé , Manden , and Manding are all various pronunciations of

332-493: A city on what is now the border between Guinea and Mali, was the capital for most of the empire's history, and this notion has taken hold in the popular imagination. Djibril Tamsir Niane , a Guinean historian, has been a forceful advocate of this position in recent decades. The identification of Niani as imperial capital is rooted in an (possibly erroneous) interpretation of the Arab traveler al Umari's work, as well as some oral histories. Extensive archaeological digs have shown that

415-446: A lack of archaeological evidence of significant trade activity, clearly described by Arab visitors, particularly during the 14th century, Mali's golden age. In fact, there is a conspicuous absence of archaeological samples of any kind from Niani dated to the late 13th through early 15th centuries, suggesting that Niani may have been uninhabited during the heyday of the Mali Empire. Various sources cite several other cities as capitals of

498-464: A lack of definitive archaeological evidence, and the diversity of oral traditions all contribute to this uncertainty. A particular challenge lies in interpreting early Arabic manuscripts, in which, without vowel markings and diacritics, foreign names can be read in numerous different ways (e.g. Biti, Buti, Yiti, Tati). Ibn Battuta and Leo Africanus both call the capital "Mali." Early European writers such as Maurice Delafosse believed that Niani ,

581-554: A large calabash cut in half and covered with cow skin to make a resonator, and has a notched bridge like a lute or guitar. The sound of a Kora resembles that of a harp, yet with its gourd resonator it has been classified by ethnomusicologists such as Roderick Knight as a harp-lute. The Kora was traditionally used by the griots as a tool for preserving history, ancient tradition, to memorize the genealogies of patron families and sing their praises, to act as conflict intermediaries between families, and to entertain. Its origins can be traced to

664-569: A powerful pre-Mandinka indigenous sorceress. Thus the Nyancho claimed legitimacy through conquest, traditional Mandinka patrilineal inheritance, and local matrilineal traditions. The principal tax, collected in cloth or pagnes , was known as the kabunko . Slaves worked large-scale cotton plantations to produce this form of currency. The nyancho warrior aristocracy used increasing tax revenue to fund more wars, thereby capturing more slaves, who produced more cloth, which financed still more wars. Kaabu

747-673: A series of short reigns, often ending in palace coups. While maintaining a firm grip in the south and west, and even expanding in some areas, imperial control of their northernmost provinces was slipping, as attested by the Mossi raids on Macina. In 1433–1434, the Empire lost control of Timbuktu to the Tuareg, led by Akil Ag-Amalwal. Three years later, Oualata also fell into their hands. The rising Songhai Empire conquered Mema , one of Mali's oldest possessions, in 1465. It then seized Timbuktu from

830-518: A successful hajj , kept up correspondence with Morocco and Egypt. Upon Sulayman's death in 1360, the empire was ruled by a string of short-live, cruel, or incompetent rulers. The kankoro-sigui held increasing influence as a power behind the throne. During this period the Jolof Empire was founded, and soon dominated all of northern Senegambia . In the 1370s a war between Mali imperial forces and Berber Tuareg forces from Takedda devastated

913-459: A very large group of people; the mansa kept a personal guard of some 500 men, and he gave out so many alms and bought so many things that the value of gold in Egypt and Arabia depreciated for twelve years. When he passed through Cairo , historian al-Maqrizi noted "the members of his entourage proceeded to buy Turkish and Ethiopian slave girls, singing girls and garments, so that the rate of

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996-480: Is also known through the account of Shihab al-'Umari , written in about 1340 by a geographer-administrator in Mamluk Egypt . His information about the empire came from visiting Malians taking the hajj , or pilgrim's voyage to Mecca . He had first-hand information from several sources, and from a second-hand source he learned of the visit of Mansa Musa . The traveller Ibn Battuta , who visited Mali in 1352 left

1079-505: Is fertile and populated; many markets are held every day of the week. It is said there are 7077 villages [heavily disputed] situated very close to each other. The following will give an idea how close they are. If the Sultan, for example, wishes to summon an inhabitant of a village near Lake Debo, the messenger sent goes to one of the gates of the ram-parts and from there shouts the message he is to transmit. From village to village, people repeat

1162-505: Is the name of a town or a region. Ibn Battuta who visited the capital city from 1352 to 1353, called it Mali. The 1375 Catalan Atlas portrayed a "city of Melly" ( Catalan : ciutat de Melly ) in West Africa. Leo Africanus said that the capital city was called Melli. However, Ibn Fadlallah al-Umari gives Mali as the name of the capital province and Ibn Khaldun refers to Mali as a people, with each giving different names for

1245-483: Is unclear, but there was evidently a power struggle of some kind involving the gbara or great council and donson ton or hunter guilds. Some oral traditions agree with Ibn Khaldun in indicating that a son of Sunjata, named Yerelinkon in oral tradition and Wali in Arabic, took power as Sunjata's successor. Two more of Sundiata's sons would reign, as well as a grandson, before a former slave Sakura , seized power. He

1328-687: The Bainuk language , the name of the pre-existing Bainuk kingdom. The region that would become Kaabu, stretching from the banks of the Gambia river south and east towards the Futa Djallon massif and the coast of present-day Guinea-Bissau , was thinly inhabited. Nevertheless, a Bainuk kingdom did exist, founded in the 7th century CE, that ruled from the Gambia to the Cacheu river . The earliest dynasty

1411-512: The Ghana Empire , or Wagadu, declined and trade epicentres shifted southward. The history of the Mali Empire before the 13th century is unclear, as there are conflicting and imprecise accounts by both Arab chroniclers and oral traditionalists . The first ruler for which there is accurate written information is Sundiata Keita, a warrior-prince of the Keita dynasty who was called upon to free

1494-588: The Mandinka arrived in the region around the year 1230CE. One of the generals of Sundiata Keita , Tiramakhan Traore , conquered the area, founding many new towns and making Kaabu one of Mali's western tinkuru , or provinces. He, or perhaps his sons by his Bainuk wife, defeated Kikikor, the king of the Bainuks and captured Mampatim. His son or grandson Sama Coli became the first mansa of Kaabu. The savannah areas were mostly conquered and ruled by Mandinka vassals to

1577-585: The Wolof Empire allowed Mali to reassert authority over some of its former subjects on the north bank of the Gambia, such as Wuli , by 1576. The swan song of the Mali Empire came in 1599, under the reign of Mansa Mahmud IV . The Songhai Empire had fallen to the Saadi Sultanate of Morocco eight years earlier, and Mahmud sought to take advantage of their defeat by trying to capture Jenne . Mahmud sought support from several other rulers, including

1660-482: The "seat of government" in general rather than being the name of a specific city. Such impermanent capitals are a historically widespread phenomenon, having occurred in other parts of Africa such as Ethiopia , as well as outside Africa, such as in the Holy Roman Empire . The Mansas of Mali used several symbols to demonstrate their power and influence. A red banner struck with a golden disc, referred to as

1743-510: The 'Mali djondjon' or the 'Sun Banner' of Sundiata, appears in oral histories of his coronation. Written sources have Mansa Musa using a similar banner, 'with yellow symbols ( shi’ār ) on a red background', during his visit to Cairo, as well as a parasol. Ibn Battuta records the Mansa using golden and silver lances as imperial regalia. Other royal items included a ruler's cap, slippers, arrows, and bow. The material of which they were made indicated

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1826-595: The Abubakrids, the lineage of Mansa Musa. Al-Umari, who wrote down a description of Mali based on information given to him by Abu Sa’id 'Otman ed Dukkali (who had lived 35 years in the capital), reported the realm as being square and an eight-month journey from its coast at Tura (at the mouth of the Senegal River) to Muli. Umari also describes the empire as being south of Marrakesh and almost entirely inhabited except for few places. Mali's domain also extended into

1909-510: The African people sold into slavery during the 17th and 18th centuries. According to Mandinka tradition, Kaabu remained unconquered for eight hundred and seven years. There were 47 Mansas in successions. The power of Kaabu began to wane during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. In 1776, militant Islamic Torodbe clerics established a theocratic state in the Futa Djallon . With some support from Soninke and Mandinka chiefs, they launched

1992-568: The British and French colonialist at the turn of 20th Century. To date, the influence of the Korings and Nyanchos are embedded within the sociocultural fabrics of post-independence Senegal, Gambia and Guinea Bissau. Scholars disagree on whether Kaabu was a kingdom, an empire, a federation, or some mix of these. Although there was an emperor, known as the mansaba , power was decentralized and people generally were more responsive to local leaders than

2075-408: The Mali Empire, and the identification of the listed provinces is controversial. Several of the names are spelled in a variety of ways in different manuscripts. Al-ʿUmari's list, which is quoted with slight differences by al-Qalqashandi, is as follows: Al-ʿUmari also indicates that four Amazigh tribes were subjects of Mali: Gomez instead suggests that these tribes would have inhabited territory in

2158-540: The Mali Empire, some in competition with the Niani hypothesis and others addressing different time periods. A city called Dieriba or Dioliba is sometimes mentioned as the capital or main urban center of the province of Mande in the years before Sundiata, that was later abandoned. Many oral histories point to a town called Dakajalan as the original home of the Keita clan and Sundiata's childhood home and base of operations during

2241-440: The Mali Empire. Meanwhile the swampy areas near the coast were still dominated by the natives. As in many places that saw Mandinka migrations, much of the native population was dominated or assimilated, with slaves either eventually being integrated into Mandinka society or sold via the trans-Sahara trade routes to Arab buyers. Although the rulers of Kaabu were Mandinka, many of their subjects were from ethnic groups who had resided in

2324-399: The Mansa's ultimate authority and paid tribute. At the local level (village, town and city), kun-tiguis (heads of family) elected a dougou-tigui (village-master) from a bloodline descended from that locality's founder. The county level administrators called kafo-tigui were appointed by the governor of the province. Only at the state or province level was there any real interference from

2407-588: The Songhai Empire, sacked the capital of Mali and purportedly used the royal palace as a latrine. However, the Songhai did not maintain their hold on the Malian capital. Mali's fortunes seem to have improved in the second half of the 16th century. Around 1550, Mali attacked Bighu in an effort to regain access to its gold. Songhai authority over Bendugu and Kala declined by 1571, and Mali may have been able to reassert some authority over them. The breakup of

2490-609: The Sosso army at the Battle of Kirina in approximately 1235. Maghan Sundiata was declared mansa over all the 12 kingdoms in an alliance that became the Mali Empire. During his reign, Sundiata's generals continued to expand the empire's frontiers, reaching from Kaabu in the west, Takrur , Oualata and Audaghost in the north, and the Soninke Wangara goldfields in the south. The transfer of power following Sunjata's death

2573-455: The Tuareg in 1468 under Sunni Ali Ber . In 1477, the Mossi emperor Nasséré made yet another raid into Macina, this time conquering it and the old province of BaGhana (Wagadou). In an attempt to stem the tide, Mansa Mahmud Keita II opened diplomatic relations with Portugal , receiving the envoys Pêro d'Évora and Gonçalo Enes in 1487. In 1493 he sent another envoy proposing an alliance against

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2656-507: The apparent cognate status of Mali and Mandé . The first Mande people entered the Manding region during the period of the Ghana Empire . The Manden city-state of Ka-ba (present-day Kangaba ) served as the capital and name of the province. From at least the beginning of the 11th century, Mandinka kings ruled Manden from Ka-ba in the name of the Ghanas. The ruler was elected from among

2739-471: The area for defence or putting down rebellions. This system tended to promote assimilation into the empire. The mansa's second in command was a general, thought to have been chief of the armed forces. The santigui was the chief of the treasury and managed the royal granaries and valuable goods such as gold and gems. The griot played a very important role in the royal court. He was the tutor of princes and master of ceremonies, and served as an advisor to

2822-471: The area was an important trade and manufacturing center in the 15th century, but no firm evidence of royal residence has come to light. Niani's reputation as an imperial capital may derive from its importance in the late imperial period, when the Songhai Empire to the northeast pushed Mali back to the Manding heartland. Several 21st century historians have firmly rejected Niani as a capital candidate based on

2905-545: The capital city itself. Whether Mali originated as the name of a town or region, the name was subsequently applied to the entire empire ruled from Mali. Another hypothesis suggests that the name Mali is derived from Mandé mali " hippopotamus ", an animal that had special significance to the Keitas, and that Mandé means "little manatee". A legend claims that Sunjata transformed into a hippopotamus. However, these hypotheses have been rejected by locals and are inconsistent with

2988-432: The central authority. Provinces picked their own governors via their own custom (election, inheritance, etc.) and, regardless of their title in the province, were recognised as dyamani-tigui (province-master) by the mansa . Dyamani-tiguis had to be approved by the mansa and were subject to his oversight. If the mansa didn't believe the dyamani-tigui was capable or trustworthy, a farba might be installed to oversee

3071-439: The city of Gao . The area around it became independent of Malian control around this time. Still, by the time of Mansa Musa Keita II's death in 1387, Mali was financially solvent and in control of all of its previous conquests except Gao and Dyolof. Forty years after the reign of Mansa Musa Keita I, the Mali Empire still controlled some 1,100,000 square kilometres (420,000 sq mi) of land. The late 14th century again saw

3154-590: The climax of the eleven-day Battle of Kansala , Mansaba Janke Waali Sanneh (also called Mansaba Dianke Walli) ordered the city's gunpowder stores to be set afire. The resulting explosion killed the Mandinka defenders and many of the attackers. With Kansala obliterated, Mandinka hegemony in the region came to an end. The remains of the Kaabu Empire were under Fula control until the Portuguese suppression of

3237-619: The desert. He describes it as being north of Mali but under its domination implying some sort of vassalage for the Antasar, Yantar'ras, Medussa and Lemtuna Berber tribes, with garrisons kept at Oualata , Timbuktu , Koumbi , and Gao , and responsibility of governing the Sahara given to the military commander ( sura farin ). The empire's total area included nearly all the land between the Sahara Desert and coastal forests. It spanned

3320-512: The disputes that Tiramakhan Traore 's expedition struggled with there. They founded the village of Songkunda, meaning "place of agreement," to commemorate the re-establishment of peace. The name of the area appears in written records as early as the 1456 voyage of Diego Gomes . At one point Kantora was a province of the Kabu Empire but it had different boundaries then. In particular, Duarte Pacheco Pereira noted in 1506 that Sutuco on

3403-554: The distant, almost mythical, mansaba . The component kingdoms of the empire expanded, contracted, merged, split, appeared and disappeared over time. The Mansa of Kaabu was selected from among the leaders of the provinces of Jimara, Sama, and Pachana. In contrast to prevailing patrilineal traditions among the Mande, royal inheritance passed through the mother's line, respecting pre-conquest Bainuk inheritance customs. Three other provinces - Kantora , Tumana and Mana - were direct vassals of

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3486-736: The empire. During the 17th century, the Mali Empire faced incursions from the Bamana Empire , who ultimately sacked and burned the capital in 1670. The Mali Empire rapidly disintegrated, being replaced by independent chiefdoms. The Keitas retreated to the town of Kangaba , where they became provincial chiefs. Much of the recorded information about the Mali Empire comes from 14th century Tunisian historian Ibn Khaldun , 14th century Moroccan traveller Ibn Battuta and 16th century Andalusian traveller Leo Africanus . The other major source of information comes from Mandinka oral tradition , as recorded by storytellers known as griots . Imperial Mali

3569-515: The end of the Mali Empire. As founded by Mari Djata, it was composed of the "three freely allied states" of Mali, Mema and Wagadou plus the Twelve Doors of Mali . The Twelve Doors of Mali were a coalition of conquered or allied territories, mostly within Manden, with sworn allegiance to Sundiata and his descendants. Upon stabbing their spears into the ground before Sundiata's throne, each of

3652-431: The first account of a West African kingdom made directly by an eyewitness; the others are usually second-hand. The third great account is that of Ibn Khaldun , who wrote in the early 15th century. While the accounts are of limited length, they provide a fairly good picture of the empire at its height. After Ibn Khaldun's death in 1406, there are no further Arab primary sources except for Leo Africanus , who wrote more than

3735-597: The gold dinar fell by six dirhams ." In addition to his famous hajj, Musa built mosques and palaces in Timbuktu and Gao , and took control of the valuable salt mine of Taghazza . Mansa Musa's son Maghan I ruled for only a few years before being succeeded (or overthrown) by his uncle Sulayman . Sulayman's reign continued Mali's golden age, as attested by the writer Ibn Battuta who arrived in Mali in July 1352, and he made

3818-591: The governor of Kala, Bukar. Bukar professed his support, but believing Mahmud's situation to be hopeless, secretly went over to the Moroccans. The Malian and Moroccan armies fought at Jenne on 26 April , the last day of Ramadan, and the Moroccans were victorious thanks to their firearms and Bukar's support, but Mahmud was able to escape. Around 1610, Mahmud Keita IV died. Oral tradition states that he had three sons who fought over Manden's remains. No single Keita ever ruled Manden after Mahmud Keita IV's death, resulting in

3901-567: The heads of the major clans, and at this time had little real power. Wagadou's control over Manden ended in the 12th century. The Kangaba province, free of Soninké influence, splintered into twelve kingdoms with their own faama . In approximately 1140 the Sosso kingdom of Kaniaga , another former vassal of Wagadou, began conquering the lands of its old rulers. In 1203, the Sosso king and sorcerer Soumaoro Kanté came to power and reportedly terrorised much of Manden. Sundiata Keita , born during

3984-439: The king. The mansa often liked to play the role "father of his people", dispensing justice himself in solemn sessions, and he listened personally to a subject's grievances against a farin . The post of farin was very prestigious, and his descendants could inherit it with the mansa' s approval. The mansa could also replace a farin swiftly. Most of the empire consisted of autonomous kingdoms of communities who recognized

4067-404: The kingdom around the turn of the 20th century. Some of Kaabu's constituent kingdoms, however, continued to thrive. Among these were Nyambai, Kantora , Berekolong, Kiang , Faraba, and Berefet, mainly in Gambia and parts of southern Senegal. Other Nyancho-controlled areas were Sayjo ( Sedhiou ), Kampentum ( Koumpentoum ), Kossamar ( Koussanar ) and others in today's Senegal , until the arrival of

4150-404: The latter may have begun as a suburb of the former. According to Jules Vidal and Levtzion, citing oral histories from Kangaba and Keyla, another onetime capital was Manikoro or Mali-Kura, founded after the destruction of Niani. Parallel to this debate, many scholars have argued that the Mali Empire may not have had a permanent "capital" in the sense that the word is used today, and historically

4233-555: The local people from the rule of the king of the Sosso Empire , Soumaoro Kanté . The conquest of Sosso in c.  1235 marked the emergence of Mali as a major power, with the Kouroukan Fouga as its constitution. Following the death of Sundiata Keita, in c.  1255 , the kings of Mali were referred to by the title mansa . In c.  1285 Sakoura , a former royal court slave, became emperor and

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4316-479: The maltreatment of prisoners and slaves, installing documents between clans which clearly stated who could say what about whom. Also, Sundiata divided the lands amongst the people assuring everyone had a place in the empire and fixed exchange rates for common products. The final incarnation of the Gbara, according to the surviving traditions of northern Guinea , held 32 positions occupied by 28 clans. It functioned as

4399-481: The mansa of Mali. Upon Leo Africanus 's visit at the beginning of the 16th century, his descriptions of the territorial domains of Mali showed that it was still a kingdom of considerable size. However, from 1507 onwards neighboring states such as Diarra , Great Fulo , Yatenga , and the Songhai Empire chipped away at Mali's borders. In 1542, the Songhai invaded the capital but were unsuccessful in conquering

4482-461: The modern-day countries of Senegal, southern Mauritania , Mali, northern Burkina Faso , western Niger , the Gambia , Guinea-Bissau , Guinea, the Ivory Coast and northern Ghana. By 1350, the empire covered approximately 478,819 square miles (1,240,140 km ). Al-ʿUmari reported that Mali had fourteen provinces. His list does not necessarily accurately reflect the actual organization of

4565-442: The monarch were governed by strict protocol. Conquered areas were ruled directly by the state through a farin (also called farin-ba or farba ), essentially a military governor, chosen by the Mansa. Duties of the farin included managing the garrison, collecting taxes and customs duties, and controlling the local administration of justice. He could also take power away from the native administration if required and raise an army in

4648-949: The new Songhai Empire in the north, and succession disputes. Even its historically secure possessions in what is now Senegal, the Gambia, and Guinea-Bissau were cut off by the expanding power of Koli Tenguella in the early 16th century. As Mali's authority collapsed, the Mandinka states of the region formed a federation. The number of provinces grew from three to seven, and these encompassed dozens of royal trading towns. These included among others, Firdu , Pata , Kamako , Jimara , Patim Kibo , Patim Kanjaye , Kantora , Sedhiou , Pakane Mambura , Kiang , Kudura , Nampaio , Koumpentoum , Koussanar , Barra , Niumi , Pacana etc. The kingdoms of Sine and Saloum were established at this time, ruled by Serer kings and Mandinka queens (the Guelowar dynasty), although these became independent by 1600. Kaabu's many wars of expansion produced up to half of

4731-462: The province or administer it outright. Conquered territories that had proven quiescent could receive this level of autonomy rather than remain under direct rule, but territories that were crucial to trade or subject to revolt could and did lose this privilege as well and have a farin installed to rule over them. Mali was densely populated with the Tarikh al-Sudan stating: "The territory of Jenne

4814-413: The rank of the holder: gold was the highest, and reserved for the Mansa, followed in descending order by silver, brass, iron, and wood. The rulers of Kaabu held a silver lance, for example, while the king of Guinala , one of their subordinates, held a bow and arrows of iron. The majority of the population were farmers, with this being the base of the economy, and food was abundant. Whilst cattle-rearing

4897-403: The region before the Mandinka invasion. Mandinka became a lingua franca used for trade. Mansa Sala Sane founded the city of Kansala to replace the old capital of Mampatim. It was more centrally located, and the location of the sacred wood where the new mansaba was crowned. After the middle of the 14th century, Mali saw a steep decline due to raids by the Mossi to their south, the growth of

4980-546: The remaining kingdoms into the British , Portuguese and French spheres of influence during the Scramble for Africa . Scholars and oral historians have proposed various etymologies for the name Kaabu . These include it being derived from Kaba or Kangaba, Mali , the capital of the Mali Empire ; from the Mandinka phrase kaa bung folo , meaning 'let's keep fighting'; or from Kambutchi , meaning 'the circumcised people' in

5063-501: The rise of Kaniaga, was the son of Niani's faama , Nare Fa (also known as Maghan Kon Fatta, meaning the handsome prince). Upon his father's death, he was forced into exile along with his mother and two sisters. After many years in exile, Sundiata led the combined armies of Mema , Wagadou and the Mandinka city-states in a revolt against the Kaniaga Kingdom around 1234. The combined forces of northern and southern Manden defeated

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5146-399: The ruler's cabinet, with different dignitaries given different portfolios (war, justice, economy, foreign relations, religion, etc.), and all major social groups of Mande society were represented. The Mali Empire covered a larger area for a longer period of time than any other West African state before or since. What made this possible was the decentralised nature of administration throughout

5229-513: The same word across different languages and dialects. The version recorded by medieval Arab geographers is Mali ( Arabic : مالي , romanized :  Mālī ). Mali is the Fula form of the word. In the Manding languages , the modern descendants of the language spoken at the core of the Mali Empire, Manden or Manding is the name of the region corresponding to the heartland of the Mali Empire. Medieval sources are divided over whether Mali

5312-516: The sister agreed to the sacrifice, the genie complied, and hence, the birth of the legendary Kora. Aside from oral testimony, historians propose that the Kora appeared with the apogee of war chiefs from Kaabu, allowing the tradition to spread throughout the Mande area until it was made popular by Koryang Moussa Diabate in the 19th century. Kaabu was explicitly a non-Islamic state. The most important shrine

5395-506: The slave trade, a pillar of the economy for centuries, also pushed Mandinka elites to squeeze the peasants for taxes to replace their lost trade revenues. Therefore the war against the nyancho elites of Kaabu had ethnic, religious, and class components. Up until the 1860s Kaabu had successfully repulsed on numerous occasions various Fula armies at the fort of Berekolong. In 1865, however, the Kaabu capital at Kansala came under siege from an army led by Alfa Molo Balde  [ fr ] . At

5478-571: The state. According to Burkinabé writer Joseph Ki-Zerbo , the farther a person travelled from the capital, the more decentralised the mansa 's power became. Nevertheless, the mansa managed to keep tax money and nominal control over the area without agitating his subjects into revolt. The Malian state balanced centralization and decentralization by dividing the empire into a series of provinces and vassal states that had been either conquered or annexed, respectively. These were administered in different ways. The Mali Empire reached its largest area under

5561-595: The threat of Tenguella , but this came to nothing. Songhai forces under the command of Askia Muhammad I defeated the Mali general Fati Quali Keita in 1502 and seized the province of Diafunu. In 1514, the Denianke dynasty was established in Tekrour and it was not long before the new kingdom of Great Fulo was warring against Mali's remaining provinces. In 1544 or 1545, a Songhai force led by kanfari Dawud , who later succeeded his brother Askia Ishaq as ruler of

5644-651: The three core areas. The ruling class was composed of warrior-elites made rich by slaves captured in war. These ruling nobles were from two distinctive sets of clans Koring and Nyancho (or Nyantio). The Korings were from the Sanyang and Sonko clans, whilst the Nyanchos were Manneh and Sanneh. The Korings ruled the non-royal provinces, while only those descended from Nyancho bloodlines on both sides could be elected mansa . They claimed patrilineal descent from Tiramakhan Traore, founder of Kaabu, and matrilineal descent from

5727-493: The time of the Mali empire and linked with Jali Mady Fouling Diabate, son of Bamba Diabate. According to the griots, Mady visited a local lake in which he was informed that a genie who granted wishes had resided. Upon meeting him, Mady requested that the genie make him a brand new instrument that no griot had ever owned. The genie accepted, but only under the condition that Mady release his sister into his custody. After being informed,

5810-452: The twelve kings relinquished their kingdom to the Keita dynasty. In return for their submission, they became "farbas", a combination of the Mandinka words "farin" and "ba" (great farin). Farin was a general term for northern commander at the time. These farbas would rule their old kingdoms in the name of the mansa with most of the authority they held prior to joining the empire. The Mansa held ultimate, unquestioned authority. Audiences with

5893-481: The vicinity of Mema, Ghana, and Diafunu. The identity of the capital city of the Mali Empire is a matter of dispute among historians. Scholars have located the capital in Niani, or somewhere on the Niger, or proposed that it changed several times, that there was no true capital, or even that it lay as far afield as the upper Gambia River in modern-day Senegal . Seemingly contradictory reports written by Arab visitors,

5976-628: The war against the Soso. It may have been located close to modern Kangaba . Mande bards in the region speak of the Dakajalan site, containing Sundiata's grave, as sacrosanct. Kangaba became the last refuge of the Keita royal family after the collapse of the Mali Empire, and so has for centuries been associated with Sundiata in the cultural imagination of Mande peoples. If Dakajalan was, in fact, situated near Kangaba, this may also have contributed to their conflation, beginning with Delafosse's speculation that

6059-471: The wealth of its rulers, especially Mansa Musa (Musa Keita). At its peak, Mali was the largest empire in West Africa, widely influencing the culture of the region through the spread of its language , laws, and customs. The empire began as a small Mandinka kingdom at the upper reaches of the Niger River , centered around the Manding region . It began to develop during the 11th and 12th centuries as

6142-556: The words and the message arrives almost immediately at its destination and the man in question goes to the meeting place" The Gbara or Great Assembly would serve as the Mandinka deliberative body and council of state until the collapse of the empire in 1645. Its first meeting, at the famous Kouroukan Fouga (Division of the World), had 29 clan delegates presided over by a belen-tigui (master of ceremony). The Kouroukan Fouga put in place social and economic reforms including prohibitions on

6225-450: Was a multicultural state hosting several languages, namely: Balanta , Jola-Fonyi , Mandinka , Mandjak , Mankanya , Noon (Serer-Noon), Pulaar , Serer , Sarakhule , and Wolof . Mandinka, however, was the language of the ruling class and of trade. Mandinka oral tradition holds that Kaabu was the actual birthplace of the Mande musical instrument, known as the Kora . A kora is built from

6308-565: Was a speciality of the Fulani , peoples of the Niger were raising sheep, goats, and cattle by the 14th century. The Bozo , Somono , and Sorko people specialised in fishing. Kantora Kantora District is one of the four districts of the Upper River Division of the Gambia . it is the easternmost district of the country The name derives from the Mandinka phrase "kana-ntoro," meaning "do not trouble me," referring to

6391-663: Was able to stabilize the political situation in Mali. Under his leadership, Mali conquered new territories and trade with North Africa increased. After Sakura's death, power returned to the line of Sunjata, with Qu taking the throne. He was succeeded by his son Muhammad , who launched two voyages to explore the Atlantic Ocean . After the loss of the first expedition, Muhammad led the second expedition himself. He left his cousin Kanku Musa in charge during his absence. Eventually, due to Muhammad's failure to return, Musa

6474-522: Was called the Jenung, but almost nothing is known of this period. There were Mande traders and immigrants in the area, but they were politically and demographically dominated by their local hosts. Bainuk legends describe a cruel king named Gana Sira Bana or Masopti Biaye, whose tyranny caused a general rebellion, and the kingdom split apart. These decentralized societies were ultimately unable to resist Mande expansion. According to Senegambian oral histories,

6557-577: Was deposed by his uncle Suleyman in 1341. It was during Suleyman's 19-year reign that Ibn Battuta visited Mali. Suleyman's death marked the end of Mali's Golden Age and the beginning of a slow decline. The Tarikh al-Sudan records that Mali was still a sizeable state in the 15th century. At that time, the Venetian explorer Alvise Cadamosto and Portuguese traders confirmed that the peoples who settled within Gambia River were still subject to

6640-463: Was one of Mali's most powerful rulers, greatly expanding the empire's territory. He made a pilgrimage to Mecca during the reign of Mamluk Sultan An-Nasir Muhammad (r. 1298–1308), but died on his voyage home. Mansa Musa took the throne in c.  1312 . He made a famous pilgrimage to Mecca from 1324 to 1326, where his generous gifts and his expenditure of gold caused significant inflation in Egypt. Maghan I succeeded him as mansa in 1337, but

6723-529: Was recognized as mansa in approximately 1312. The reign of Kankan Musa, better known as Mansa Musa , is considered the golden age of Mali. A devout and well-educated Muslim, he took an interest in the scholarly city of Timbuktu , which he peaceably annexed in 1324, and transformed Sankore from an informal madrasah into an Islamic university. Mansa Musa Keita's crowning achievement was his famous 1324 pilgrimage to Mecca . Accounts of how many people and how much gold he spent vary. All of them agree that he took

6806-498: Was that of the snake Tamba Dibi, set in a sacred forest of tabo trees whose fruit could supposedly protect warriors from harm. Mali Empire The Mali Empire ( Manding : Mandé or Manden Duguba ; Arabic : مالي , romanized :  Mālī ) was an empire in West Africa from c. 1226 to 1670. The empire was founded by Sundiata Keita ( c.  1214  – c.  1255 ) and became renowned for

6889-493: Was used in the Mediterranean world. Rather, authority would rest with the mansa and his court, wherever he went. Therefore, Arabic visitors may have assigned the "capital" label merely to whatever major city the mansa was based out of at the time of their visit. It has been suggested that the name given in the Arabic sources for the capital of Mali is derived the Manding word "bambi", meaning " dais ", and as such refers to

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