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68-699: The first references are found in the 11th-century prose text Qalandarname (The Tale of the Qalandaris) attributed to Ansari Harawi. The term Qalandariyya appears to be first applied by Sanai Ghaznavi in seminal poetic works where diverse practices are described. Particular to the Qalandari genre of poetry are items that refer to their practices of gambling, games, consuming intoxicants , syncreticism , libertinism, antinomialism, violating societal norms and Nazar ila'l-murd , things commonly referred to as Kufr or Khurafat by orthodox Muslims. The order

136-489: A 1970 Asch-style study found that when alienated, Japanese students were more susceptible to anticonformity (giving answers that were incorrect even when the group had collaborated on correct answers) one third of the time, significantly higher than has been seen in Asch studies in the past. While gender does not significantly affect a person's likelihood to conform, under certain conditions gender roles do affect such

204-402: A current judgment based on the new information or adjust the prior judgment when they are not able to retrieve the information from prior messages. The impact this comparative process can have on people's attitude change is mediated by changes in the strength of new information perceived by receivers. The effects of comparison on judgment change were mediated by changes in the perceived strength of

272-473: A deliberate rejection of an influence, even if the influence is clearly correct. Obedience is a form of social influence that derives from an authority figure, based on order or command. The Milgram experiment , Zimbardo's Stanford prison experiment , and the Hofling hospital experiment are three particularly well-known experiments on obedience, and they all conclude that humans are surprisingly obedient in

340-479: A desire not to die. In order to reduce dissonance, this smoker could change his behavior (i.e. stop smoking), change his attitude about smoking (i.e. smoking is harmful), or retain his original attitude about smoking and modify his new cognition to be consistent with the first one--"I also work out so smoking won't be harmful to me". Thus, attitude change is achieved when individuals experience feelings of uneasiness or guilt due to cognitive dissonance, and actively reduce

408-460: A feeling of psychological discomfort known as cognitive dissonance. It is difficult to measure attitude change since attitudes may only be inferred and there might be significant divergence between those publicly declared and privately held. Self-efficacy is a perception of one's own human agency; in other words, it is the perception of our own ability to deal with a situation. It is an important variable in emotional appeal messages because it dictates

476-530: A likelihood. Studies from the 1950s and 1960s concluded that women were more likely to conform than men. But a 1971 study found that experimenter bias was involved; all of the researchers were male, while all of the research participants were female. Studies thereafter found that the likelihood to conform almost equal between the genders. Furthermore, men conformed more often when faced with traditionally feminine topics, and women conformed more often when presented with masculine topics. In other words, ignorance about

544-583: A message. Instead of focusing on the argument of the message, recipients using heuristic processing focus on more readily accessible information and other unrelated cues, such as the authority or attractiveness of the speaker. Individuals who process a message through heuristic processing do not internalize the message, and thus any attitude change resulting from the persuasive message is temporary and unstable. For example, people are more likely to grant favors if reasons are provided. A study shows that when people said, "Excuse me, I have five pages to xerox. May I use

612-437: A message; they are persuaded by the content of the message, such as the strength or logic of the argument. Motivation can be determined by many factors, such as how personally relevant the topic is, and cognitive ability can be determined by how knowledgeable an individual is on the message topic, or whether or not there is a distraction in the room. Individuals who receive a message through systematic processing usually internalize

680-587: A particular synthesis or perception, or using loaded language to produce an emotional rather than a rational response to the information that is presented. Hard power is the use of military and economic means to influence the behavior or interests of other political bodies. This form of political power is often aggressive ( coercion ), and is most effective when imposed by one political body upon another of lesser military and/or economic power . Hard power contrasts with soft power , which comes from diplomacy , culture and history . Many factors can affect

748-409: A person's ability to deal with both the emotion and the situation. For example, if a person is not self-efficacious about their ability to impact the global environment, they are not likely to change their attitude or behaviour about global warming. Affective forecasting , otherwise known as intuition or the prediction of emotion, also impacts attitude change. Research suggests that predicting emotions

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816-503: A role in the willingness of an individual to conform to the standards of a group. Stanley Milgram found that conformity was higher in Norway than in France . This has been attributed to Norway's longstanding tradition of social responsibility, compared to France's cultural focus on individualism. Japan likewise has a collectivist culture and thus a higher propensity to conformity. However,

884-481: A social norm. Reactance is the adoption of a view contrary to the view that a person is being pressured to accept, perhaps due to a perceived threat to behavioral freedoms. This phenomenon has also been called anticonformity . While the results are the opposite of what the influencer intended, the reactive behavior is a result of social pressure . It is notable that anticonformity does not necessarily mean independence . In many studies, reactance manifests itself in

952-557: A specific action, command, or request, but people also alter their attitudes and behaviors in response to what they perceive others might do or think. In 1958, Harvard psychologist Herbert Kelman identified three broad varieties of social influence. Morton Deutsch and Harold Gerard described two psychological needs that lead humans to conform to the expectations of others. These include our need to be right ( informational social influence ) and our need to be liked ( normative social influence ). Informational influence (or social proof )

1020-655: A subject can lead a person to defer to "social proof" . Emotion and disposition may affect an individual's likelihood of conformity or anticonformity. In 2009, a study concluded that fear increases the chance of agreeing with a group, while romance or lust increases the chance of going against the group. A social network is a social structure made up of nodes (representing individuals or organizations) which are connected (through ties , also called edges , connections , or links ) by one or more types of interdependency (such as friendship, common interests or beliefs, sexual relations, or kinship). Social network analysis uses

1088-626: A topic, or inconsistencies between one's attitude and behavior on a certain topic. The basic idea of the Cognitive Dissonance Theory relating to attitude change, is that people are motivated to reduce dissonance which can be achieved through changing their attitudes and beliefs. Cooper & Fazio's (1984) have also added that cognitive dissonance does not arise from any simple cognitive inconsistency, but rather results from freely chosen behavior that may bring about negative consequences. These negative consequences may be threats to

1156-499: Is a broad term that relates to many different phenomena. Listed below are some major types of social influence that are being researched in the field of social psychology . For more information, follow the main article links provided. There are three processes of attitude change as defined by Harvard psychologist Herbert Kelman in a 1958 paper published in the Journal of Conflict Resolution . The purpose of defining these processes

1224-556: Is a function of one's overall attitude towards the action. Emotion plays a major role in persuasion , social influence , and attitude change. Much of attitude research has emphasised the importance of affective or emotion components. Emotion works hand-in-hand with the cognitive process, or the way we think, about an issue or situation. Emotional appeals are commonly found in advertising, health campaigns and political messages. Recent examples include no-smoking health campaigns (see tobacco advertising ) and political campaigns emphasizing

1292-445: Is a type of social influence that aims to change the behavior or perception of others through abusive , deceptive , or underhanded tactics. By advancing the interests of the manipulator, often at another's expense, such methods could be considered exploitative, abusive, devious, and deceptive. Social influence is not necessarily negative. For example, doctors can try to persuade patients to change unhealthy habits. Social influence

1360-449: Is also often aware that he or she is being urged to respond in a certain way. Compliance was demonstrated through a series of laboratory experiments known as the Asch experiments . Experiments led by Solomon Asch of Swarthmore College asked groups of students to participate in a "vision test". In reality, all but one of the participants were confederates of the experimenter, and the study

1428-440: Is an important component of decision making, in addition to the cognitive processes. How we feel about an outcome may override purely cognitive rationales. In terms of research methodology , the challenge for researchers is measuring emotion and subsequent impacts on attitude. Since we cannot see into the brain, various models and measurement tools have been constructed to obtain emotion and attitude information. Measures may include

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1496-480: Is an influence to accept information from another as evidence about reality. Informational influence comes into play when people are uncertain, either from stimuli being intrinsically ambiguous or because of social disagreement. Normative influence is an influence to conform to the positive expectations of others. In terms of Kelman's typology, normative influence leads to public compliance, whereas informational influence leads to private acceptance. Social influence

1564-520: Is consistent and committed. Even a single instance of dissent can greatly wane the strength of an influence. For example, in Milgram's first set of obedience experiments , 65% of participants complied with fake authority figures to administer "maximum shocks" to a confederate. In iterations of the Milgram experiment where three people administered shocks (two of whom were confederates), once one confederate disobeyed, only ten percent of subjects administered

1632-407: Is consistent with the individual's value system, and tends to be merged with the individual's existing values and beliefs. Therefore, behaviors adopted through internalization are due to the content of the attitude object. The expectancy-value theory is based on internalization of attitude change. This model states that the behavior towards some object is a function of an individual's intent, which

1700-433: Is generally perceived to be harmless when it respects the right of the influenced to accept or reject it, and is not unduly coercive. Depending on the context and motivations, social influence may constitute underhanded manipulation. Controlling abusers use various tactics to exert power and control over their victims. Tactics may include coercion and threats, intimidation, emotional abuse, isolation, and more. The goal of

1768-461: Is missing for an easy understanding and an education to protect from manipulators. A first tentative was published in 2012. The first pages of Influence & Systems explain why a global approach is necessary. Attitude change Attitudes are associated beliefs and behaviors towards some object. They are not stable, and because of the communication and behavior of other people, are subject to change by social influences , as well as by

1836-412: Is processed through shortcuts known as heuristics . For example, emotions are affect-based heuristics, in which feelings and gut-feeling reactions are often used as shortcuts. Systematic processing occurs when individuals are motivated and have high cognition to process a message. Individuals using systematic processing are motivated to pay attention and have the cognitive ability to think deeply about

1904-420: Is stable when little information conflicts with the behavior. Alternatively, people's attitudes may lean more radically toward the prior behavior if the conflict makes it difficult to ignore, and forces them to rationalize their past behavior. Attitudes are often restructured at the time people are asked to report them. As a result, inconsistencies between the information that enters into the reconstruction and

1972-419: The heuristic-systematic model of information processing . In the elaboration likelihood model, cognitive processing is the central route and affective/emotion processing is often associated with the peripheral route. The central route pertains to an elaborate cognitive processing of information while the peripheral route relies on cues or feelings. The ELM suggests that true attitude change only happens through

2040-727: The "reward" of internalization is "the content of the new behavior". Conformity is a type of social influence involving a change in behavior, belief, or thinking to align with those of others or with normative standards. It is the most common and pervasive form of social influence. Social psychology research in conformity tends to distinguish between two varieties: informational conformity (also called social proof , or "internalization" in Kelman's terms ) and normative conformity ("compliance" in Kelman's terms). Researchers have been studying social influence and minority influence for over thirty years. The first publication covering these topics

2108-451: The abuser is to control and intimidate the victim or to influence them to feel that they do not have an equal voice in the relationship. Political entities may employ patterns of similar techniques in the exertion of abusive power and control over persons subject to them. Propaganda is information that is not objective and is used primarily to influence an audience and further an agenda, often by presenting facts selectively to encourage

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2176-423: The area of persuasion has further explored this "comparative processing" from the perspective of focusing on comparing between different sets of information on one single issue or object instead of simply making comparisons among different issues or objects. As previous research demonstrated, analyzing information on one target product may trigger less impact of comparative information than comparing this product with

2244-429: The associated effect may only be strong in changing prior attitudes Human judgment is comparative in nature. Departing from identifying people's need to justify their own beliefs in the context of their own behaviors, psychologists also believe that people have the need to carefully evaluate new messages on the basis of whether these messages support or contradict with prior messages, regardless of whether they can recall

2312-480: The central processing route that incorporates both cognitive and affective components as opposed to the more heuristics-based peripheral route. This suggests that motivation through emotion alone will not result in an attitude change. Cognitive dissonance, a theory originally developed by Festinger (1957), is the idea that people experience a sense of guilt or uneasiness when two linked cognitions are inconsistent, such as when there are two conflicting attitudes about

2380-675: The consistency, stability, predictability, competence, moral goodness of the self-concept, or violation of general self-integrity. Research has suggested multiple routes that cognitive dissonance can be reduced. Self-affirmation has been shown to reduce dissonance, however it is not always the mode of choice when trying to reduce dissonance. When multiple routes are available, it has been found that people prefer to reduce dissonance by directly altering their attitudes and behaviors rather than through self-affirmation. People who have high levels of self-esteem, who are postulated to possess abilities to reduce dissonance by focusing on positive aspects of

2448-421: The contagion model for social influence which is assumed and used in many of the above studies. In order to address these flaws, causal inference methods have been proposed instead, to systematically disentangle social influence from other possible confounding causes when using observational data. As described above, theoretical approaches are in the form of knowledge clusters. A global theory of influence

2516-400: The copier?" they received a positive response of 60%. The statement, "Excuse me, I have five pages to xerox. I am in a rush. May I use the copier?" produced a 95% success rate. Heuristic processing examples include social proof , reciprocity , authority , and liking. The elaboration likelihood model is similar in concept to and shares many ideas with other dual processing models, such as

2584-413: The desired relationship that the identifier relates to the behavior or attitude change. Internalization is the process of acceptance of a set of norms established by people or groups that are influential to the individual. The individual accepts the influence because the content of the influence accepted is intrinsically rewarding. It is congruent with the individual's value system, and according to Kelman

2652-435: The different depths of attitude change. These include the heuristic-systematic model of information processing and the elaboration likelihood model . The heuristic-systematic model of information processing describes two depths in the processing of attitude change, systematic processing and heuristic processing. In this model information is either processed in a high-involvement and high-effort systematic way, or information

2720-409: The different levels of attitude change. Compliance refers to a change in behavior based on consequences, such as an individual's hopes to gain rewards or avoid punishment from another group or person. The individual does not necessarily experience changes in beliefs or evaluations of an attitude object, but rather is influenced by the social outcomes of adopting a change in behavior. The individual

2788-654: The dissonance through changing their attitude, beliefs, or behavior relating in order to achieve consistency with the inconsistent cognitions. Carl Hovland and his band of persuasion researchers learned a great deal during World War 2 and later at Yale about the process of attitude change. The process of how people change their own attitudes has been studied for years. Belief rationalization has been recognized as an important aspect to understand this process. The stability of people's past attitudes can be influenced if they hold beliefs that are inconsistent with their own behaviors. The influence of past behavior on current attitudes

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2856-620: The efforts of multiple Qalandari figures. Qalandari songs in Pakistan typically incorporate Qawwali styles as well as different local folk styles, such as Bhangra and intense Naqareh or Dhol drumming. Social influence Social influence comprises the ways in which individuals adjust their behavior to meet the demands of a social environment. It takes many forms and can be seen in conformity , socialization , peer pressure , obedience , leadership , persuasion , sales , and marketing . Typically social influence results from

2924-745: The fear of terrorism. Attitude change based on emotions can be seen vividly in serial killers who are faced with major stress. There is considerable empirical support for the idea that emotions in the form of fear arousal, empathy, or a positive mood can enhance attitude change under certain conditions. Important factors that influence the impact of emotional appeals include self-efficacy , attitude accessibility, issue involvement, and message/source features. Attitudes that are central to one's being are highly resistant to change while others that are less fixed may change with new experiences or information. A new attitude (e.g. to time-keeping or absenteeism or quality) may challenge existing beliefs or norms so creating

2992-416: The impact of social influence. Social impact theory was developed by Bibb Latané in 1981. This theory asserts that there are three factors which increase a person's likelihood to respond to social influence: Robert Cialdini defines six "weapons of influence" that can contribute to an individual's propensity to be influenced by a persuader: Social Influence is strongest when the group perpetrating it

3060-533: The individual adopts the new attitude, not due to the specific content of the attitude object, but because it is associated with the desired relationship. Often, children's attitudes on race, or their political party affiliations are adopted from their parents' attitudes and beliefs. Internalization refers to the change in beliefs and affect when one finds the content of the attitude to be intrinsically rewarding, and thus leads to actual change in beliefs or evaluations of an attitude object. The new attitude or behavior

3128-661: The individual's motivation to maintain cognitive consistency when cognitive dissonance occurs—when two attitudes or attitude and behavior conflict. Attitudes and attitude objects are functions of affective and cognitive components. It has been suggested that the inter-structural composition of an associative network can be altered by the activation of a single node. Thus, by activating an affective or emotional node, attitude change may be possible, though affective and cognitive components tend to be intertwined. There are three bases for attitude change: compliance , identification , and internalization . These three processes represent

3196-414: The lens of network theory to examine social relationships . Social network analysis as a field has become more prominent since the mid-20th century in determining the channels and effects of social influence. For example, Christakis and Fowler found that social networks transmit states and behaviors such as obesity, smoking, drinking and happiness. However, important flaws have been identified in

3264-400: The majority may be indifferent to the liking of the minority. A self-fulfilling prophecy is a prediction that directly or indirectly causes itself to become true due to positive feedback between belief and behavior . A prophecy declared as truth (when it is actually false) may sufficiently influence people, either through fear or logical confusion, so that their reactions ultimately fulfill

3332-448: The maximum shocks. Those perceived as experts may exert social influence as a result of their perceived expertise. This involves credibility , a tool of social influence from which one draws upon the notion of trust. People believe an individual to be credible for a variety of reasons, such as perceived experience, attractiveness, knowledge, etc. Additionally, pressure to maintain one's reputation and not be viewed as fringe may increase

3400-590: The message, resulting in a longer and more stable attitude change. According to the heuristic-systematic model of information processing, people are motivated to use systematic processing when they want to achieve a "desired level of confidence" in their judgments. There are factors that have been found to increase the use of systematic processing; these factors are associated with either decreasing an individual's actual confidence or increasing an individual's perceived confidence. These factors may include framing persuasive messages in an unexpected manner; self-relevancy of

3468-533: The message. Systematic processing has been shown to be beneficial in social influence settings. Systematic reasoning has been shown to be successful in producing more valid solutions during group discussions and greater solution accuracy. Shestowsky's (1998) research in dyad discussions revealed that the individual in the dyad who had high motivation and high need in cognition had the greater impact on group decisions. Heuristic processing occurs when individuals have low motivation and/or low cognitive ability to process

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3536-599: The movement gained popularity in Greater Khorasan and neighbouring regions, including South Asia . The Qalandariyya may have arisen from the earlier Malamatiyya and exhibited some Buddhist and Hindu influences in South Asia . The Malamatiyya condemned the use of drugs and dressed only in blankets or in hip-length hairshirts. Qalandariyya spread to Hazrat Pandua in Bengal and places in Pakistan through

3604-414: The once-false prophecy. This term is credited to sociologist Robert K. Merton from an article he published in 1948. Social contagion involves the spontaneous spread of behaviors or emotions through a group, population or social network. Social contagion consists of two categories, behavioral contagion and emotional contagion . Unlike conformity, the emotion or behavior being adopted may not represent

3672-492: The original attitudes can produce changes in prior attitudes, whereas consistency between these elements often elicits stability in prior attitudes. Individuals need to resolve the conflict between their own behaviors and the subsequent beliefs. However, people usually align themselves with their attitudes and beliefs instead of their behaviors. More importantly, this process of resolving people's cognitive conflicts that emerges cuts across both self-perception and dissonance even when

3740-477: The presence of perceived legitimate authority figures. Persuasion is the process of guiding oneself or another toward the adoption of an attitude by rational or symbolic means. US psychologist Robert Cialdini defined six "weapons of influence": reciprocity , commitment, social proof , authority , liking, and scarcity to bring about conformity by directed means. Persuasion can occur through appeals to reason or appeals to emotion . Psychological manipulation

3808-404: The prior messages after they reach a conclusion. This comparative processing mechanism is built on "information-integration theory" and "social judgement theory". Both of these theories have served to model people's attitude change in judging the new information while they have not adequately explained the influential factors that motivate people to integrate the information. More recent work in

3876-400: The public to support issues that he or she does not have the power to impose on the public. This is often referred to as using the " bully pulpit ." Likewise, celebrities do not usually possess any political power, but they are familiar to many of the world's citizens and, therefore, possess social status . Power is one of the biggest reasons an individual feels the need to follow through with

3944-563: The same answers the confederates picked. Variations in the experiments showed that compliance rates increased as the number of confederates increased, and the plateau was reached with around 15 confederates. The likelihood of compliance dropped with minority opposition, even if only one confederate gave the correct answer. The basis for compliance is founded on the fundamental idea that people want to be accurate and right. Identification explains one's change of beliefs and affect in order to be similar to someone one admires or likes. In this case,

4012-476: The same product under competing brands. When people compare different sets of information on one single issue or object, the effect of people's effort to compare new information with prior information seemed to correlate with the perceived strength of the new, strong information when considered jointly with the initial information. Comparison processes can be enhanced when prior evaluations, associated information, or both are accessible. People will simply construct

4080-416: The satisfaction derived from compliance is due to the social effect of the accepting influence (i.e., people comply for an expected reward or punishment-aversion). Identification is the changing of attitudes or behaviors due to the influence of someone who is admired. Advertisements that rely upon celebrity endorsements to market their products are taking advantage of this phenomenon. According to Kelman,

4148-425: The self, have also been found to prefer modifying cognitions, such as attitudes and beliefs, over self-affirmation. A simple example of cognitive dissonance resulting in attitude change would be when a heavy smoker learns that his sister died young from lung cancer due to heavy smoking as well, this individual experiences conflicting cognitions: the desire to smoke, and the knowledge that smoking could lead to death and

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4216-430: The suggestions of another. A person who possesses more authority (or is perceived as being more powerful) than others in a group is an icon or is most "popular" within a group. This person has the most influence over others. For example, in a child's school life, people who seem to control the perceptions of the students at school are most powerful in having a social influence over other children. Culture appears to play

4284-420: The tendency to agree with the group. This phenomenon is known as groupthink . Appeals to authority may especially effect norms of obedience . The compliance of normal humans to authority in the famous Milgram experiment demonstrate the power of perceived authority. Those with access to the media may use this access in an attempt to influence the public. For example, a politician may use speeches to persuade

4352-429: The use of physiological cues like facial expressions, vocal changes, and other body rate measures. For instance, fear is associated with raised eyebrows, increased heart rate and increased body tension. Other methods include concept or network mapping, and using primes or word cues. Many dual process models are used to explain the affective (emotional) and cognitive processing and interpretations of messages, as well as

4420-659: Was often viewed with scrutiny by Islamic authorities . The Qalandariyya are an unorthodox Tariqa of Sufi dervishes that originated in medieval al-Andalus as an answer to the state sponsored Zahirism of the Almohad Caliphate . From al-Andalus the Qalandariyya quickly spread into North Africa , the Levant , Arabia , the Iranosphere , Anatolia , Central Asia and Pakistan . In the early 12th century

4488-455: Was really about how the remaining student would react to the confederates' behavior. Participants were asked to pick, out of three line options, the line that is the same length as a sample and were asked to give the answer out loud. Unbeknown to the participants, Asch had placed a number of confederates to deliberately give the wrong answer before the participant. The results showed that 75% of responses were in line with majority influence and were

4556-489: Was to help determine the effects of social influence: for example, to separate public conformity (behavior) from private acceptance (personal belief). Compliance is the act of responding favorably to an explicit or implicit request offered by others. Technically, compliance is a change in behavior but not necessarily in attitude ; one can comply due to mere obedience or by otherwise opting to withhold private thoughts due to social pressures. According to Kelman's 1958 paper,

4624-536: Was written by social psychologist Serge Moscovici and published in 1976. Minority influence takes place when a majority is influenced to accept the beliefs or behaviors of a minority. Minority influence can be affected by the sizes of majority and minority groups, the level of consistency of the minority group, and situational factors (such as the affluence or social importance of the minority). Minority influence most often operates through informational social influence (as opposed to normative social influence ) because

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