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56-599: Kammanu was a Luwian speaking Neo-Hittite state in a plateau ( Malatya Plain ) to the north of the Taurus Mountains and to the west of Euphrates river in the late 2nd millennium BC, formed from part of Kizzuwatna after the collapse of the Hittite Empire . Its principal city was Melid . This Ancient Near East –related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Luwian The two varieties of Proto-Luwian or Luwian (in

112-517: A d in word final position can be dropped, and an s may be added between two dental consonants and so *ad-tuwari becomes aztuwari ('you all eat') ( ds and z are phonetically identical). There were two grammatical genders : animate and inanimate/neuter. There are two grammatical numbers : singular and plural. Some animate nouns could also take a collective plural in addition to the regular numerical plural. Luwian had six cases : The vocative case occurs rarely in surviving texts and only in

168-583: A change of theme. The following example sentence demonstrates several common features of Luwian: a final verb, the particle chain headed by the conjunction a- , the quotative clitic -wa , and the preverb sarra adding directionality to the main verb awiha . a=wa and= QUOT api-n DEM - ABL wattaniy-ati land- ABL . PL pihammi-s glorified- NOM Neo-Hittite The states called Neo-Hittite , Syro-Hittite (in older literature), or Luwian-Aramean (in modern scholarly works) were Luwian and Aramean regional polities of

224-499: A dispersal of settlements and ruralization, with the appearance of large numbers of hamlets, villages, and farmsteads. Syro-Hittite states emerged in the process of such major landscape transformation, in the form of regional states with new political structures and cultural affiliations. David Hawkins was able to trace a dynastic link between the Hittite imperial dynasty and the "Great Kings" and "Country-lords" of Melid and Karkamish of

280-1971: A gradual spread of alphabetic writing in Aramaic and Phoenician . During the cultural interactions on the Levantine coast of Syro-Palestine and North Syria in the tenth through 8th centuries BCE, Greeks and Phrygians adopted the alphabetic writing from the Phoenicians. ( Shamshi-Adad dynasty 1808–1736 BCE) (Amorites) Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi (Non-dynastic usurpers 1735–1701 BCE) Puzur-Sin Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi ( Adaside dynasty 1700–722 BCE) Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II Second Intermediate Period Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon

336-494: A logogram, a determinative or a syllabogram , or a combination thereof. The signs are numbered according to Laroche's sign list, with a prefix of 'L.' or '*'. Logograms are transcribed in Latin in capital letters. For example, *90, an image of a foot, is transcribed as PES when used logographically, and with its phonemic value ti when used as a syllabogram. In the rare cases where the logogram cannot be transliterated into Latin, it

392-441: A set symbolic value) are rare. Instead, most writing is done with the syllabic characters, where a single symbol stands for a vowel, or a consonant-vowel pair (either VC or CV). A striking feature is the consistent use of 'full-writing' to indicate long vowels, even at the beginning of words. In this system a long vowel is indicated by writing it twice. For example, īdi "he goes" is written i-i-ti rather than i-ti , and ānda "in"

448-543: A specific designation for western regions (ancient Aram ). For ancient Luwians, Syria was designation for Assyria proper, thus revealing the later Greek use of the term Syria as very different from its original meaning, and also anachronistic if used in modern scientific descriptions of historical realities, related to Luwian and Aramean states of the Iron Age. The collapse of the Hittite New Kingdom

504-445: Is subject-object-verb , but words can be moved to the front of the sentence for stress or to start a clause. Relative clauses are normally before the antecedent , but they sometimes follow the antecedent. Dependent words and adjectives are normally before their head word. Enclitic particles are often attached to the first word or conjunction. Various conjunctions with temporal or conditional meaning are used to link clauses. There

560-499: Is "closely related" to Cuneiform Luwian. Similarly, Alice Mouton and Ilya Yakubovich separate Luwian into two distinct varieties: cuneiform and hieroglyphic – the latter of a more prestigious and elite use. Cuneiform Luwian (or Kizzuwatna Luwian) is the corpus of Luwian texts attested in the tablet archives of Hattusa ; it is essentially the same cuneiform writing system used in Hittite . In Laroche's Catalog of Hittite Texts,

616-463: Is also used, as a broad designation for the entire period of Anatolian history spanning from the 12th to the 6th century BCE. Anachronistic uses of Syrian labels in modern scholarly literature were additionally challenged after the recent discovery of the bilingual Çineköy inscription from the 8th century BCE, written in Luwian and Phoenician languages. The inscription contained references to

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672-411: Is no coordinating conjunction, but main clauses can be coordinated with the enclitic -ha , which is attached to the first word of the following clause. In narratives, clauses are linked by using the prosecutive conjunctions: a- before the first word of the following clause means 'and then', and pā , can be an independent conjunction at the start of a clause and the enclitic -pa indicates contrast or

728-409: Is now obsolete. The dialect of Luwian hieroglyphic inscriptions appears to be either Empire Luwian or its descendant, Iron Age Luwian. The earliest hieroglyphs appear on official and royal seals, dating from the early 2nd millennium BC, but only from the 14th century BC is the unequivocal evidence for a full-fledged writing system. Dutch Hittitologist Willemijn Waal has argued that Luwian Hieroglyphic

784-458: Is rendered through its approximate Hittite equivalent, recorded in Italic capitals, e.g. *216 ARHA . The most up-to-date sign list is that of Marazzi (1998). Hawkins, Morpurgo-Davies and Neumann corrected some previous errors about sign values, in particular emending the reading of symbols *376 and *377 from i, ī to zi, za . Some signs are used as reading aid, marking the beginning of a word,

840-634: Is seen as a specific regional phenomenon, particularly in light of significant linguistic distinctions between the two main regional languages, with Luwian belonging to the Anatolian group of Indo-European languages and Aramaic belonging to the Northwest Semitic group of Semitic languages . Several questions related to the regional grouping of Luwian and Aramaean states are viewed differently among scholars, including some views that are critical towards such grouping in general. One of

896-631: Is usually associated with the gradual decline of Eastern Mediterranean trade networks and the resulting collapse of major Late Bronze Age cities in the Levant, Anatolia and the Aegean. At the beginning of the 12th century BCE, Wilusa ( Troy ) was destroyed and the Hittite New Kingdom suffered a sudden devastating attack from the Kaskas , who occupied the coasts around the Black Sea , and who joined with

952-425: Is written a-an-ta rather than an-ta . Hieroglyphic Luwian ( luwili ) is the corpus of Luwian texts written in a native script, known as Anatolian hieroglyphs . It is recorded in official and royal seals and a small number of monumental inscriptions. Once thought to be a variety of the Hittite language , "Hieroglyphic Hittite" was formerly used to refer to the language of the same inscriptions, but this term

1008-582: The Aegean Sea , the possessive suffix was sometimes considered evidence of a shared non-Indo-European language or an Aegean Sprachbund preceding the arrivals of Luwians and Greeks . It is, however, possible to account for the Luwian possessive construction as a result of case attraction in the Indo-European noun phrase. Adjectives agree with nouns in number and gender. Forms for the nominative and

1064-558: The Bronze Age Aegean. These archaisms are often regarded as supporting the view that the Proto-Indo-European language ( PIE ) had three distinct sets of velar consonants : plain velars , palatovelars , and labiovelars . For Melchert, PIE *ḱ → Luwian z (probably [ts] ); *k → k ; and *kʷ → ku (probably [kʷ] ). Luwian has also been enlisted for its verb kalut(t)i(ya)- , which means "make

1120-610: The Hittite Code the geographical term Luwiya is replaced with Arzawa a western Anatolian kingdom corresponding roughly with Mira and the Seha River Land. Therefore, several scholars shared the view that Luwian was spoken—to varying degrees—across a large portion of western Anatolia, including Troy ( Wilusa ), the Seha River Land ( Sēḫa ~ Sēḫariya , i.e., the Greek Hermos river and Kaikos valley), and

1176-466: The Hittite language , Luwian continued to be spoken in the Neo-Hittite states of Syria , such as Milid and Carchemish , as well as in the central Anatolian kingdom of Tabal that flourished in the 8th century BC. A number of scholars in the past attempted to argue for the Luwian homeland in western Anatolia. According to James Mellaart , the earliest Indo-Europeans in northwest Anatolia were

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1232-699: The Iron Age , situated in southeastern parts of modern Turkey and northwestern parts of modern Syria , known in ancient times as lands of Hatti and Aram . They arose following the collapse of the Hittite New Kingdom in the 12th century BCE, and lasted until they were subdued by the Assyrian Empire in the 8th century BCE. They are grouped together by scholars, on the basis of several cultural criteria, that are recognized as similar and mutually shared between both societies, northern ( Luwian ) and southern ( Aramaean ). Cultural exchange between those societies

1288-597: The Kurgan hypothesis as applicable to Anatolian). However, kaluti need not imply a wheel and so need not have been derived from a PIE word with that meaning. The IE words for a wheel may well have arisen in those other IE languages after the Anatolian split. Luwian was among the languages spoken during the 2nd and 1st millennia BC by groups in central and western Anatolia and northern Syria . The earliest Luwian texts in cuneiform transmission are attested in connection with

1344-721: The Mira-Kuwaliya kingdom with its core being the Maeander valley. In a number of recent publications, however, the geographic identity between Luwiya and Arzawa was rejected or doubted. In the post-Hittite era, the region of Arzawa came to be known as Lydia (Assyrian Luddu , Greek Λυδία), where the Lydian language was in use. The name Lydia has been derived from the name Luwiya (Lydian * lūda - < * luw(i)da - < luwiya -, with regular Lydian sound change y > d ). The Lydian language , however, cannot be regarded as

1400-650: The Mysians . They proceeded to destroy almost all Hittite sites but were finally defeated by the Assyrians beyond the southern borders near the Tigris . Hatti , Arzawa ( Lydia ), Alashiya ( Cyprus ), Ugarit and Alalakh were destroyed. Hattusa , the Hittite capital, was completely destroyed. Following this collapse of large cities and the Hittite state, the Early Iron Age in northern Mesopotamia saw

1456-485: The present , which is used to express future events as well, and the preterite . The following active voice endings have been attested: The conjugation is very similar to the Hittite ḫḫi conjugation . For the mediopassive , the following endings are attested: A single participle can be formed with the suffix -a(i)mma . It has a passive sense for transitive verbs and a stative sense for intransitive verbs. The infinitive ends in -una . The usual word order

1512-623: The 13th-century Hittite imperial monuments to the Early Iron Age Syro-Hittite inscriptions of Karkemish, Melid, Aleppo and elsewhere. Luwian hieroglyphs were chosen by many of the Syro-Hittite regional kingdoms for their monumental inscriptions, which often appear in bi- or tri-lingual inscriptions with Aramaic , Phoenician or Akkadian versions. The Early Iron Age in Northern Mesopotamia also saw

1568-405: The 1930s. Corrections to the readings of certain signs as well as other clarifications were given by David Hawkins, Anna Morpurgo Davies and Günther Neumann in 1973, generally referred to as "the new readings". A more elaborate monumental style is distinguished from more abstract linear or cursive forms of the script. In general, relief inscriptions prefer monumental forms, and incised ones prefer

1624-443: The Anatolian branch. This suggests that these languages formed a sub-branch within Anatolian. Some linguists follow Craig Melchert in referring to this broader group as Luwic, whereas others refer to the "Luwian group" (and, in that sense, "Luwian" may mean several distinct languages). Likewise, Proto-Luwian may mean the common ancestor of the whole group, or just the ancestor of Luwian (normally, under tree-naming conventions , were

1680-524: The Early Iron Age, proving an uninterrupted continuity between the Late Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age at those sites. Aside from literary evidence from inscriptions, the uninterrupted cultural continuity of Post-Hittite states in the region, during the transitional period between the Late Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age, is now further confirmed by recent archaeological work at the Temple of

1736-457: The Kingdom of Kizzuwatna in southeastern Anatolia, as well as a number of locations in central Anatolia. Beginning in the 14th century BC, Luwian-speakers came to constitute the majority in the Hittite capital Hattusa . It appears that by the time of the collapse of the Hittite Empire ca . 1180 BC, the Hittite king and royal family were fully bilingual in Luwian. Long after the extinction of

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1792-617: The Luwian hieroglyphic script, by then aged more than 700 years, falls into oblivion. The first report of a monumental inscription dates to 1850, when an inhabitant of Nevşehir reported the relief at Fraktin . In 1870, antiquarian travellers in Aleppo found another inscription built into the south wall of the Al-Qaiqan Mosque . In 1884, Polish scholar Marian Sokołowski  [ pl ] discovered an inscription near Köylütolu , in western Turkey . The largest known inscription

1848-484: The Luwian sounds are unlikely to have been pharyngeal. In transcriptions of Luwian cuneiform, š is traditionally distinguished from s , since they were originally distinct signs for two different sounds, but in Luwian, both signs probably represented the same s sound. A noteworthy phonological development in Luwian is rhotacism ; in some cases, d , l , and n become r . For example, * īdi ('he gets') becomes īri and wala- ('die') becomes wara- . Additionally,

1904-791: The Storm God on the citadel of Aleppo , and Ain Dara temple , where the Late Bronze Age temple buildings continue into the Iron Age without hiatus, with repeated periods of construction in the Early Iron Age. The Syro–Hittite states may be divided into two groups: a northern group where Hittite rulers remained in power, and a southern group where Aramaeans came to rule from about 1000 BCE. These states were highly decentralised structures; some appear to have been only loose confederations of sub-kingdoms. The northern group includes: The southern group includes: Luwian monumental inscriptions in Anatolian hieroglyphs continue almost uninterrupted from

1960-463: The accusative differ only in the animate gender and even then, only in the singular. For the sake of clarity, the table includes only the endings beginning with -a , but endings can also begin with an -i . The forms are largely derived from the forms of the nominal declension, with an -as- before the case ending that would be expected for nouns. In addition to personal pronouns typical of Anatolian languages, Luwian also has demonstrative pronouns ,

2016-427: The branch to be called Luwic, its ancestor should be known as Proto-Luwic or Common Luwic; in practice, such names are seldom used). Luwic or Luwian (in the broad sense of the term), is one of three major sub-branches of Anatolian, alongside Hittite and Palaic . As Luwian has numerous archaisms, it is regarded as important to the study of Indo-European languages ( IE ) in general, the other Anatolian languages, and

2072-494: The corpus of Hittite cuneiform texts with Luwian insertions runs from CTH 757–773, mostly comprising rituals. Cuneiform Luwian texts are written in several dialects, of which the most easily identifiable are Kizzuwatna Luwian, Ištanuwa Luwian, and Empire Luwian. The last dialect represents the vernacular of Hattusan scribes of the 14th–13th centuries BC and is mainly attested through Glossenkeil words in Hittite texts. Compared to cuneiform Hittite, logograms (signs with

2128-618: The direct descendant of Luwian and probably does not even belong to the Luwic group (see Anatolian languages ). Therefore, none of the arguments in favour of the Luwian linguistic dominance in Western Asia Minor can be regarded as compelling, although the issue continues to be debated. Luwian was split into many dialects, which were written in two different writing systems. One of these was the Cuneiform Luwian which used

2184-473: The end of a word, or identifying a sign as a logogram. These are not mandatory and are used inconsistently. The reconstruction of the Luwian phoneme inventory is based mainly on the written texts and comparisons with the known development of other Indo-European languages. Two series of stops can be identified, one transliterated as geminate in the cuneiform script. These fortis and lenis stops may have been distinguished by either voicing or gemination. The contrast

2240-641: The extensive Luwian presence in western Anatolia in the late second millennium BC. In the Old Hittite version of the Hittite Code , some, if not all, of the Luwian-speaking areas were called Luwiya . Widmer (2007) has argued that the Mycenaean term ru-wa-ni-jo , attested in Linear B , refers to the same area. but the stem * Luwan- was recently shown to be non-existent. In a corrupt late copy of

2296-556: The form of Old Babylonian cuneiform that had been adapted for the Hittite language . The other was Hieroglyphic Luwian , which was written in a unique native hieroglyphic script. The differences between the dialects are minor, but they affect vocabulary, style, and grammar. The different orthographies of the two writing systems may also hide some differences. According to Hittitologist Alwin Kloekhorst , Hieroglyphic Luwian may also be known as Empire Luwian or Iron Age Luwian, and

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2352-748: The forms given in the table, Luwian also had a demonstrative pronoun formed from the stem za-/zi- , but not all cases are known, and also a relative pronoun , which was declined regularly: kwis (nominative singular animate), kwin (accusative singular animate), kwinzi (nominative/accusative plural animate), kwati (ablative/instrumental singular), kwanza (dative/locative plural), kwaya (nominative/accusative plural inanimate). Some indefinite pronouns whose meanings are not entirely clear are also transmitted. Like many other Indo-European languages, Luwian distinguishes two numbers (singular and plural) and three persons . There are two moods : indicative and imperative but no subjunctive . There are two tenses :

2408-408: The genitive plural. In hieroglyphic Luwian, as in Hittite, the classical Indo-European suffixes -as for the genitive singular and -an for the plural are used. The special form of possessive adjectives with a plural possessor is restricted to Kizzuwatna Luwian and probably represents a calque from Hurrian . Because of the prevalence of -assa place names and words scattered around all sides of

2464-778: The horse-riders who came to this region from the north and founded Demircihöyük ( Eskişehir Province ) in Phrygia c. 3000 BC. They were allegedly ancestors of the Luwians who inhabited Troy II, and spread widely in the Anatolian peninsula. He cited the distribution of a new type of wheel-made pottery, Red Slip Wares, as some of the best evidence for his theory. According to Mellaart, the proto-Luwian migrations to Anatolia came in several distinct waves over many centuries. The recent detailed review of Mellaart's claims suggests that his ethnolinguistic conclusions cannot be substantiated on archaeological grounds. Other arguments were advanced for

2520-468: The linear form, but the styles are in principle interchangeable. Texts of several lines are usually written in boustrophedon style. Within a line, signs are usually written in vertical columns, but as in Egyptian hieroglyphs , aesthetic considerations take precedence over correct reading order. The script consists of the order of 500 unique signs, some with multiple values; a given sign may function as

2576-580: The most contested issues within the field is related to the choice of proper terms for this group of states. On that issue, scholars are divided into several categories. Some prefer terms that are derived from endonymic (native) names for Luwians and Arameans , thus using terms like Luwian-Aramean or Aramean-Luwian . Others prefer to use terms that are derived from various exonymic (foreign) names, thus proposing designations like Syrian-Anatolian or Syro-Anatolian , based on Greek term Anatolia , combined with anachronistic application of Syrian labels, in

2632-497: The narrow sense of these names) are known after the scripts in which they were written: Cuneiform Luwian ( CLuwian ) and Hieroglyphic Luwian ( HLuwian ). There is no consensus as to whether these were a single language or two closely related languages. Several other Anatolian languages – particularly Carian , Lycian , and Milyan (also known as Lycian B or Lycian II) – are now usually identified as related to Luwian – and as mutually connected more closely than other constituents of

2688-443: The neighbouring Assyria , inscribed in a specific form that renders as Syria , thus providing additional (and in the same time the oldest) evidence for the dominant scholarly view on the origins and primary meanings of the term Syria , that originated as an apheretic form of the term Assyria, and was redefined much later, by ancient Greeks, who introduced a territorial distinction between two names, and started to use term Syria as

2744-414: The rounds of" and is probably derived from *kalutta/i- "circle". It has been argued that this derives from a proto-Anatolian word for " wheel ", which in turn would have derived from the common word for "wheel" found in all other Indo-European families. The wheel was invented in the 5th millennium BC and, if kaluti does derive from it, then the Anatolian branch left PIE after its invention (so validating

2800-473: The sense that was introduced much later, by ancient Greeks, as their designation for Arameans and their land ( Aram ). Such preference for foreign terms, advocated by some western scholars, is viewed as being culturally biased , and thus insensitive towards native (endonymic) terminology. Some scholars still use older terms, like Syro-Hittite and Neo-Hittite , but those terms have several additional meanings in scholarly literature. More precise term Post-Hittite

2856-404: The singular. In the animate gender, an -i- is inserted between the stem and the case ending. In hieroglyphic Luwian, the particle -sa/-za is added to the nominative/accusative inanimate case ending. In the genitive case, cuneiform and hieroglyphic Luwian differ sharply from each other. In cuneiform Luwian the possessive suffix -assa is used for the genitive singular and -assanz- is used for

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2912-663: The stress and word position. For example, annan occurs alone as an adverb as ānnan ('underneath') but as a preposition , it becomes annān pātanza ('under the feet'). The characters that are transliterated as -h- and -hh- have often been interpreted as pharyngeal fricatives [ħ] and [ʕ] . However, they may have instead been uvular [χ] and [ʁ] or velar fricatives [x] and [ɣ] . In loans to Ugaritic, these sounds are transcribed with <ḫ> and <ġ>, while in Egyptian they are transcribed with 𓐍 ḫ and 𓎼 g. As both of these languages had pharyngeal consonants,

2968-487: The which are formed from apa- and za-/zi- . The case endings are similar those of Hittite, but not all cases are attested for personal pronouns. In the third person, the demonstrative pronoun apa- occurs instead of the personal pronoun. Possessive pronouns and demonstrative pronouns in apa- are declined as adjectives. All known forms of the personal pronouns are given, but it is not clear how their meanings differed or how they changed for different cases. In addition to

3024-540: Was already used for writing on wooden writing boards from the early second millennium BC onwards , but the argument has not been widely accepted. The first monumental inscriptions confirmed as Luwian date to the Late Bronze Age , c. 14th to 13th centuries BC. After some two centuries of sparse material, the hieroglyphs resume in the Early Iron Age , c. 10th to 8th centuries BC. In the early 7th century BC,

3080-478: Was excavated in 1970 in Yalburt, northwest of Konya . Luwian hieroglyphic texts contain a limited number of lexical borrowings from Hittite , Akkadian , and Northwest Semitic ; the lexical borrowings from Greek are limited to proper nouns, although common nouns borrowed in the opposite direction do exist. A decipherment was presented by Emmanuel Laroche in 1960, building on partial decipherments proposed since

3136-411: Was lost initially and finally, suggesting that any voicing only appeared intervocalically. The following table provides a minimal consonant inventory, as can be reconstructed from the script. The existence of other consonants, which were not differentiated in writing, is possible. There are only three vowels , a , i , and u , which could be short or long. Vowel length is not stable but changes with

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