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56-468: The magazine was the print equivalent to the later-established Radio Télévision Libre des Mille Collines (RTLM), publishing articles harshly critical of the RPF and of Tutsis generally. Its sensationalist news was passed by word-of-mouth through the largely illiterate population. Copies of Kangura were read in public meetings and, as the genocide approached, during Interahamwe militia rallies. The journal

112-613: A "final war" to "exterminate" the Tutsis. During the genocide, the RTLM acted as a source for propaganda by inciting hatred and violence against Tutsis, against Hutus who were for the peace accord, against Hutus who married Tutsis, and by advocating the annihilation of all Tutsis in Rwanda. The RTLM reported the latest massacres, victories, and political event in a way that promoted their anti-Tutsi agenda. In an attempt to dehumanize and degrade,

168-466: A French crew, a French investigation was conducted; in 2006 it concluded that Kagame was responsible for the killing and demanded that he be prosecuted. The response from Kagame, the de facto leader of Rwanda since the genocide, was that the French were only trying to cover up their own part in the genocide that followed. A more recent French probe in a January 2012 report was falsely reported to exonerate

224-545: A November 1991 edition, Ngeze asked "What tools will we use to defeat the Inyenzi once and for all?" alongside an image of a machete . The March 1993 issue advised, "A cockroach gives birth to a cockroach ... the history of Rwanda shows us clearly that a Tutsi always stays exactly the same, that he has never changed." Kangura further asserted that some who said they were Hutus were in fact Tutsis and that these individuals could be recognized because they "lacked commitment to

280-602: A conservative political agenda and was anti-communist. However, in 1990, before the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) invasion, and because of mounting pressure from several sources—Rwanda's main ally and financial backer, France , its main funders, the IMF and the World Bank , and from its own citizens wishing for a greater voice and economic change—he agreed to allow the formation of other parties such as

336-810: A degree in mathematics and humanities. In 1958 he enrolled in Lovanium University 's medical school in Léopoldville . After the beginning of the Rwandan Revolution the following year, Habyarimana left Lovanium and enrolled in the officer training school in Kigali . He graduated with distinction in 1961 and became an aide to the Belgian commander of the force in Rwanda. He married Agathe Kanziga in 1962. On 29 June 1963 Habyarimana, as

392-455: A film and wrote a book about it. Juv%C3%A9nal Habyarimana President of Rwanda Government Presidential elections Battles/wars Juvénal Habyarimana ( Kinyarwanda: [hɑβɟɑːɾímɑ̂ːnɑ] , French: [ʒyvenal abjaʁimana] ; 8 March 1937 – 6 April 1994) was a Rwandan politician and military officer who was the second president of Rwanda , from 1973 until his assassination in 1994 . He

448-499: A government that mirrored the policies of Kayibanda. Quotas were once again applied to jobs for universities and government services which intentionally disadvantaged Tutsis. As Habyarimana continued to favor a smaller and smaller coterie of supporters, Hutu groups who felt slighted by him cooperated with Tutsis to weaken his leadership. By the start of the invasion from Uganda by the army of the Rwanda Patriotic Front,

504-684: A lieutenant, was appointed head of the Garde Nationale Rwandaise . Two years later he was made Minister of the National Guard and Police. On 5 July 1973, while serving as Army Chief of Staff and minister of defense, Habyarimana seized power in a coup d'état against the incumbent President Grégoire Kayibanda , ousting Kayibanda's ruling Parmehutu party. In 1975, he created the Mouvement Révolutionnaire National pour le Développement as

560-619: A life of its own. Roméo Dallaire , the Force Commander of UNAMIR , the United Nations peacekeeping force, would later refer to Kangura as "their [the CDR's] propaganda rag" and a "scurrilous extremist newspaper". The extensive connections of Kangura to the ruling elite appeared to give the magazine inside knowledge. "People who might otherwise have ignored [the magazine] paid attention, because Kangura seemed to know what

616-597: A private mausoleum in Gbadolite , Zaire (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo ). Mobutu promised Habyarimana's family that his body would eventually be given a proper burial in Rwanda. On 12 May 1997, as Laurent-Désiré Kabila 's ADFL rebels were advancing on Gbadolite, Mobutu had the remains flown by cargo plane to Kinshasa , where they waited on the apron of N'djili Airport for three days. On 16 May,

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672-454: A rebel army made up mostly of refugee Tutsi who had helped Uganda's Museveni seize control of the presidency, Habyarimana's supporters had shrunk down to the akazu ("little house" or "President's household"), which was mainly composed of an informal group of Hutu extremists from his home region, namely from the northwestern provinces of Gisenyi and Ruhengeri . From 1975 to 1990, the MRND and

728-593: A second ceremony, Chief Justice Joseph Kavaruganda did not appear and the suggested ministers were not sworn in, infuriating Habyarimana. On 6 April 1994, Habyarimana's private Falcon 50 jet was shot down near Kigali International Airport , killing Habyarimana. Cyprien Ntaryamira , the President of Burundi , the Chief of Staff of the Rwandan military, and numerous others also died in the attack. The plane crashed on

784-684: A significant role in inciting the Rwandan genocide that took place from April to July 1994, and has been described by some scholars as having been a de facto arm of the Hutu regime in Rwanda . The station's name is French for "Free Radio and Television of the Thousand Hills", deriving from the description of Rwanda as "Land of a Thousand Hills" . It received support from the government-controlled Radio Rwanda , which initially allowed it to transmit using their equipment. Widely listened to by

840-649: A whole had become slightly less impoverished during Habyarimana's tenure, the great majority of Rwandans remained in circumstances of extreme poverty . In 1990, the Tutsi -led Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) launched the Rwandan Civil War against his government. After three years of war, Habyarimana signed the Arusha Accords in 1993 with the RPF as a peace agreement. The following year, he died under mysterious circumstances when his plane, also carrying

896-534: Is taken from a notorious RTLM broadcast in Kigali, 1994: "You have missed some of the enemies. You must go back there and finish them off. The graves are not yet full!" The Swiss theatre maker Milo Rau 're-enacted' an RTLM radio broadcast in his play Hate Radio , which premièred in 2011 and featured on the Berliner Festspiele in 2012 (with audience discussion). He also made it into a radio-play and

952-606: The Inyenzi should have the courage to understand that they are making a slight error, they shall be exterminated." Kangura also implied threats against Juvénal Habyarimana , especially after its funders moved from the MRND to the CDR. The December 1993 issue stated that a Hutu soldier enraged by the Arusha Accords would soon assassinate the president. The January 1994 issue predicted that Habyarimana would be killed in March. Kangura had stopped publishing by 6 April 1994, when

1008-646: The President of Burundi , Cyprien Ntaryamira , was shot down by a missile near Kigali . His assassination ignited ethnic tensions in the region and helped spark the genocide against the Tutsi . Juvénal Habyarimana was born on 8 March 1937, in Gisenyi , Ruanda-Urundi to a wealthy Hutu family. After receiving a primary education, he attended the College of Saint Paul in Bukavu , Belgian Congo , where he graduated with

1064-881: The Republican Democratic Movement , the Social Democratic Party , the Liberal Party and the Christian Democratic Party . In October 1990, an attack on Habyarimana's government began when rebels from the RPF , a force of mostly Tutsi Rwandan refugees and expatriates who had served in the Ugandan army (many in key positions), crossed the border from Uganda . Habyarimana was in New York City attending

1120-484: The 1946 conviction of Nazi publisher Julius Streicher . In 2003, Ngeze was sentenced to life imprisonment ; Nahimana and Barayagwiza were also convicted. Radio T%C3%A9l%C3%A9vision Libre des Mille Collines Radio Télévision Libre des Mille Collines ( RTLM ) ( Kinyarwanda : Radiyo yigenga y'imisozi igihumbi ), nicknamed " Radio Genocide " or " Hutu Power Radio ", was a Rwandan radio station which broadcast from July 8, 1993, to July 31, 1994. It played

1176-524: The Habyarimana government were one. Under a constitution adopted in 1978, every five years the president of the MRND, Hayarimana, was automatically elected to a five-year term as president of the republic, and was confirmed in office via a referendum. Every four years, voters had the option of choosing between two MRND candidates for the legislature. All citizens of Rwanda became members of the MRND at birth. Local administrations simultaneously represented

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1232-510: The Hutu cause" and that the RPF had launched its 1990 invasion in order to reestablish the Tutsi monarchy and enslave the Hutus. The writings of founder Ngeze in the journal regularly hinted at exterminations. In issue 54, of March 1994, Ngeze stated that the RPF had a list of 1600 people who they would kill if they ever took power and warned "the accomplices of the enemy are well known. Therefore

1288-512: The MRND. Kangura was key in fomenting extremism and, in turn, became the mouthpiece of the CDR upon its founding in February 1992. The CDR was an extremist offshoot of the MRND that campaigned for a "pure Hutu" nation and prohibited Rwandans with Tutsi grandparents from joining. While initially formed to give the MRND and Habyarimana deniability for the positions espoused, the CDR soon developed

1344-549: The RPF. Members of Kagame's inner circle have come out publicly stating that the attack was ordered by Kagame himself. These include his former Chief of Staff and Ambassador to the United States Theogene Rudasingwa , the former army chief and Ambassador to India General Kayumba Nyamwasa , the former secretary in the Ministry of Defense Major Jean-Marie Micombero and others. Habyarimana's body

1400-522: The RTLM consistently referred to Tutsis and the RPF as 'cockroaches' during their broadcasts. The music of Hutu Simon Bikindi was played frequently. He had two songs, "Bene Sebahinzi" ("Sons of the Father of the Farmers"), and "Nanga Abahutu" ("I Hate Hutus"), which were later interpreted as inciting hatred against the Tutsis and genocide. And you people who live ... near Rugunga ... go out. You will see

1456-806: The Tutsi-led RPF army won control of the country in July, RTLM took mobile equipment and fled to Zaire with Hutu refugees. The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda 's (ICTR) action against RTLM began on 23 October 2000 – along with the trial of Hassan Ngeze , director and editor of the Kangura magazine. On 19 August 2003, at the tribunal in Arusha, life sentences were requested for RTLM leaders Ferdinand Nahimana , and Jean Bosco Barayagwiza . They were charged with genocide, incitement to genocide , and crimes against humanity , before and during

1512-535: The Ugandan Government of supplying the RPF, establishing a "rear command" for the group in Kampala, and "flagging off" the invasion. The Rwandan Government announced on 30 October that the war was over. On 4 August 1993 the Rwandan government and the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) signed the Arusha Accords to end the Rwandan Civil War . As stipulated by the agreement, the new transitional government

1568-566: The United Nations World Summit for Children when the attack commenced. When news of the RPF offensive broke, Habyarimana requested assistance from France in fighting the invasion. The French government responded by dispatching troops to his aid under the cover of protecting French nationals. Zairian President Mobutu Sese Seko 's contribution was to send several hundred troops of the elite Special Presidential Division (DSP). The Zairian soldiers raped Rwandan civilians in

1624-506: The bulk of the Interahamwe militia. Félicien Kabuga was allegedly heavily involved in the founding and bankrolling of RTLM, as well as Kangura magazine. In 1993, at an RTLM fundraising meeting organized by the MRND, Felicien Kabuga allegedly publicly defined the purpose of RTLM as the defence of Hutu Power . The station is considered to have preyed upon the deep animosities and prejudices of many Hutus . The hateful rhetoric

1680-431: The children of other Tutsi. Another article of December 1990 claimed that the Tutsi were prepared for a war. The back of issue six was a picture of French president François Mitterrand with the caption, "It is during hard times that one comes to know one's true friends." An editorial in the 9 February 1991 issue stated: "Let us learn about the inkotanyi [RPF supporters] and let us exterminate every last one of them". In

1736-457: The citizens remain some of the most violent areas during the genocide against Tutsis. The villages outside of the transmission zone of RTLM experienced spillover violence from villages that actually received the radio transmissions. An estimated 10% of all the violence within the genocide against Tutsis resulted from the hateful radio transmissions sent out from RTLM. Not only did RTLM increase general violence, but full radio coverage areas increased

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1792-559: The cockroaches' ( inkotanyi ) straw huts in the marsh ... I think that those who have guns should immediately go to these cockroaches ... encircle them and kill them ..." Kantano Habimana on RTLM, April 12, 1994 One of the major reasons that RTLM was so successful in communication was because other forms of news sources such as television and newspapers were not able to be as popularized because of lack of resources. In addition to this communication barrier, areas where there were high rates of illiteracy and lack of education amongst

1848-609: The country's only legal party. The government stayed almost entirely in military hands until 1978 when a new constitution was approved in a referendum . At the same time, Habyarimana was elected to a five-year term as president; as president of the MRND, he was the only candidate. He was reelected in 1983 and 1988, both times as the only candidate. A Hutu himself, he initially won favor among both Hutu and Tutsi groups given his administration's reluctance to implement policies that catered to his primarily Hutu supporters. This restraint did not last and Habyarimana eventually began to oversee

1904-766: The court overturning convictions on certain counts. On 14 December 2009, RTLM announcer Valérie Bemeriki was convicted by a gacaca court in Rwanda and sentenced to life imprisonment for her role in inciting genocidal acts. Dramatised RTLM broadcasts are heard in Hotel Rwanda . In the film Sometimes in April the main character's brother is an employee of RTLM. Controversy develops when attempting to prosecute radio broadcasters because of free speech issues. The film Shooting Dogs makes use of recordings from RTLM. The title of The New York Times journalist Bill Berkeley's novel, The Graves are Not Yet Full (2001),

1960-601: The day before Mobutu fled Zaire and the country was renamed the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Habyarimana's remains were burned under the supervision of an Indian Hindu leader. The death of Habyarimana ignited the genocide against the Tutsi by extremists from the majority Hutus, against Tutsis and those Hutus who had opposed the government in the past or who had supported the peace accords. Within 100 days, somewhere between 491,000 and 800,000 Rwandans were massacred. Habyarimana's wife, Agathe Habyarimana ,

2016-659: The general population, it projected hate propaganda against Tutsis , moderate Hutus , Belgians , and the United Nations Mission Assistant for Rwanda ( UNAMIR ). It is regarded by many Rwandan citizens (a view also shared and expressed by the UN war crimes tribunal) as having played a crucial role in creating the atmosphere of charged racial hostility that allowed the genocide against Tutsis in Rwanda to occur. A working paper published at Harvard University found that RTLM broadcasts were an important part of

2072-467: The grounds of the presidential residence. The circumstances of the crash remain unclear. At the time, the Hutu Power media claimed the plane had been shot down on orders from RPF leader Paul Kagame . Others, including the RPF, accused militant Hutus from within Habyarimana's party of orchestrating the crash to provoke anti- Tutsi outrage while simultaneously seizing power. Since the aircraft had

2128-419: The magazine's close ties with the government, it came to be viewed as a vehicle for the government of President Juvénal Habyarimana to test ideas, though Kangura did not hesitate to criticize the president over perceived concessions made during the negotiations in Arusha with the rebel Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF). Kangura criticised democracy as sowing discord between Hutu and called for rallying around

2184-488: The north of the country and looted their homes, prompting Habyarimana to expel them within a week of their arrival. With French assistance, and benefiting from the loss of RPF morale after Fred Rwigyema 's death, the Rwandan Army enjoyed a major tactical advantage. By the end of October, they had regained all the ground taken by the RPF and pushed the rebels all the way back to the Ugandan border. Habyarimana accused

2240-525: The number of persons prosecuted for any violence by about 62–69%. However, a 2018 paper questions the findings of that study. As the genocide was taking place, the United States military drafted a plan to jam RTLM's broadcasts, but this action was never taken, with officials claiming that the cost of the operation, international broadcast agreements and "the American commitment to free speech" made

2296-503: The official party as well as the local authority. Legal and party policies were communicated and enforced from the Head of State down through the local administrative units, especially the general policy of Umuganda, in which Rwandans were required to "allocate half a day's labour per week" to infrastructural projects. Habyarimana is sometimes described as a moderate though the party is said to have used right-wing propaganda methods, advanced

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2352-509: The operation unfeasible. When French forces entered Rwanda during Opération Turquoise , which was ostensibly to provide a safe zone for those escaping the genocide but was also alleged to be in support of the Hutu-dominated interim government, RTLM broadcast from Gisenyi , calling on 'you Hutus girls to wash yourselves and put on a good dress to welcome our French allies. The Tutsis girls are all dead, so you have your chance.' When

2408-399: The period of the 1994 genocide against the Tutsis. On 3 December 2003, the court found all three defendants guilty and sentenced Nahimana and Ngeze to life imprisonment and Barayagwiza to imprisonment for 35 years - this was appealed. The Appeal judgment, issued on 27 November 2007 reduced the sentences of all three - Nahimana getting 30 years, Barayagwiza getting 32 and Ngeze getting 35, with

2464-423: The plane carrying Presidents Habyarimana and Cyprien Ntaryamira of Burundi was shot down over Kigali . This sparked the genocide . Over 800,000 people were killed, mostly Tutsis but including Hutu moderates who refused to take part in the massacres or attempted to protect Tutsi from the militias. Hassan Ngeze , the founder, editor and accountant for Kangura fled the country as the RPF took control. He

2520-405: The process of mobilising the population, which complemented the mandatory Umuganda meetings. RTLM has been described as "radio genocide", "death by radio" and "the soundtrack to genocide". Planning for RTLM began in 1992 by Hutu hard-liners, in response to the increasingly non-partisan stance of Radio Rwanda and growing popularity of Rwandese Patriotic Front 's (RPF) Radio Muhabura . RTLM

2576-423: The station was founded primarily to counter the propaganda by RPF 's Radio Muhabura . In January 1994, the station broadcast messages berating UNAMIR commander Roméo Dallaire for failing to prevent the killing of approximately 50 people in a UN- demilitarized zone . After Habyarimana's private plane was shot down on April 6, 1994, RTLM joined the chorus of voices blaming Tutsis rebels, and began calling for

2632-496: Was arrested in 1997 and charged by the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda for his involvement with Kangura , as well as for his supervision of massacres in his home province of Gisenyi . His trial, grouped with that of RTLM co-founders Ferdinand Nahimana and Jean-Bosco Barayagwiza , was the first to establish that media organizations could be held responsible for inciting genocide since

2688-429: Was established the next year, and began broadcasting in July 1993. The station railed against the on-going peace talks between the predominantly Tutsis RPF and President Juvénal Habyarimana , whose family supported the radio station. It became a popular station since it offered frequent contemporary musical selections, unlike state radio, and quickly developed a faithful audience among young Rwandans, who later made up

2744-563: Was evacuated by French troops shortly after his death. She has been described as having been extremely influential in Rwandan politics. She has been accused by Rwandan Justice Minister Tharcisse Karugarama of complicity in the genocide and was denied asylum in France on the basis of evidence of her complicity. She was arrested in March 2010 in the Paris region by the police executing a Rwandan-issued international arrest warrant. In September 2011,

2800-420: Was financed by military officers, MRND members and an intelligence agency of the government. Supporters included Lt.-Col. Anatole Nsengiyumva and Protais Zigiranyirazo , both later charged by the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda . Two language editions were published twice a month in batches of 1,500 to 3,000 copies. Some of the early editions were published on government printing presses. Due to

2856-413: Was going to happen before it did," stated Kenyan journalist Mary Kimani. An article in the sixth issue, published December 1990, was the first publication of the " Hutu Ten Commandments ", which decreed that Hutus who interacted with Tutsis were traitors. The propaganda of Kangura targeted women in particular, accusing Tutsi women of seducing Hutu in order to spy on them and mollify them, but only bearing

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2912-544: Was identified lying in a flowerbed at about 21:30 on 6 April by the crash site. The corpses of the victims were taken into the presidential palace living room. Plans were initially made to take his body to the hospital, but the renewal of conflict made this difficult, and instead his corpse was stored in a freezer at a nearby army barracks. His family shortly thereafter fled to France, making no preparations for his burial. At some point following, Habyarimana's remains were obtained by Zairian President Mobutu Sese Seko and kept in

2968-412: Was nicknamed Kinani , a Kinyarwanda word meaning "invincible". An ethnic Hutu , Habyarimana served in several security positions including minister of defense under Rwanda's first president, Grégoire Kayibanda . After overthrowing Kayibanda in a coup in 1973 , he became the country's new president and eventually continued his predecessor's pro-Hutu policies. He was a dictator , and electoral fraud

3024-595: Was placed alongside the sophisticated use of humor and popular Zairean music . It frequently referred to Tutsis as "cockroaches" (example: "You [Tutsis] are cockroaches! We will kill you!"). Critics claim that the Rwandan government fostered the creation of RTLM as "Hate Radio", to circumvent the fact they had committed themselves to a ban against "harmful radio propaganda" in the UN 's March 1993 joint communiqué in Dar es Salaam . However RTLM director Ferdinand Nahimana claimed that

3080-405: Was suspected for his unopposed re-elections: 98.99% of the vote on 24 December 1978, 99.97% of the vote on 19 December 1983, and 99.98% of the vote on 19 December 1988. During his rule, Rwanda became a totalitarian , one-party state in which his MRND -party enforcers required people to chant and dance in adulation of the president at mass pageants of political "animation". While the country as

3136-538: Was to be sworn in on 5 January 1994. Habyarimana was sworn in as interim President at the Parliament building, but then suddenly departed before calling up the new Prime Minister and cabinet to be inaugurated. Habyarimana returned that afternoon with a list of new cabinet members from Hutu extremist parties, who had not been agreed upon in the Arusha Accords, to be sworn in. Having not been formally invited for

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