Misplaced Pages

#218781

69-450: Kantian ethics is deontological , revolving entirely around duty rather than emotions or end goals. All actions are performed in accordance with some underlying maxim or principle, which are vastly different from each other; it is according to this that the moral worth of any action is judged. Kant's ethics are founded on his view of rationality as the ultimate good and his belief that all people are fundamentally rational beings. This led to

138-512: A means to an end , but always as ends in themselves . The formulation of autonomy concludes that rational agents are bound to the moral law by their own will, while Kant's concept of the Kingdom of Ends requires that people act as if the principles of their actions establish a law for a hypothetical kingdom. The tremendous influence of Kant's moral thought is evident both in the breadth of appropriations and criticisms it has inspired and in

207-424: A basis for the ethical law by the concept of duty . Kant began his ethical theory by arguing that the only virtue that can be an unqualified good is a good will. No other virtue, or thing in the broadest sense of the term, has this status because every other virtue, every other thing, can be used to achieve immoral ends. For example, the virtue of loyalty is not good if one is loyal to an evil person. The good will

276-528: A conflict between duties arises, the perfect duty must be followed. The foundation of Kant's ethics is the categorical imperative, for which he provides four formulations. Kant made a distinction between categorical and hypothetical imperatives . A hypothetical imperative is one that we must obey if we want to satisfy our desires: 'go to the doctor' is a hypothetical imperative because we are only obliged to obey it if we want to get well. A categorical imperative binds us regardless of our desires: everyone has

345-507: A contradiction in the will. The former are classified as perfect duties , the latter as imperfect . A perfect duty always holds true. Kant eventually argues that there is in fact only one perfect duty—the categorical imperative. An imperfect duty allows flexibility—beneficence is an imperfect duty because we are not obliged to be completely beneficent at all times, but may choose the times and places in which we are. Kant believed that perfect duties are more important than imperfect duties: if

414-618: A deficiency in one's natural inclinations to act, nor undermines the motives and feelings that are essential to friendship. For Baron, being governed by duty does not mean that duty is always the primary motivation to act; rather, it entails that considerations of duty are always action-guiding. A responsible moral agent should take an interest in moral questions, such as questions of character. These should guide moral agents to act from duty. In her 1981 doctoral dissertation The Standpoint of Practical Reason , philosopher Christine Korsgaard argues that there are four basic types of interpretation of

483-471: A duty to not lie, regardless of circumstances and even if it is in our interest to do so. These imperatives are morally binding because they are based on reason, rather than contingent facts about an agent. Unlike hypothetical imperatives, which bind us insofar as we are part of a group or society which we owe duties to, we cannot opt out of the categorical imperative because we cannot opt out of being rational agents . The categorical imperative makes our duty to

552-416: A formulation. He specifically identifies two "families" of philosophers whose works might be considered relevant to the evolution of such a modern secular philosophy. In one such family, Beck calls our attention to philosophers who utilized an appeal to mankind's scientific and philosophical endeavors in order to impose various limits upon the scope, validity and content of religious beliefs. Beck included

621-506: A long-standing proponent of a Kantian and rationalist approach to moral philosophy . His distinctive ideas were first presented in the short monograph The Possibility of Altruism, published in 1970. That book seeks by reflection on the nature of practical reasoning to uncover the formal principles that underlie reason in practice and the related general beliefs about the self that are necessary for those principles to be truly applicable to us. Nagel defends motivated desire theory about

690-431: A means, it is morally obligatory that they are treated as such. This does not mean that we can never treat a human as a means to an end, but that when we do, we also treat them as an end in themselves. Kant's formula of autonomy expresses the idea that an agent is obliged to follow the categorical imperative because of their rational will, rather than any outside influence. Kant believed that any moral law motivated by

759-409: A moral duty "to limit ourselves to actions that are right, that duty is not part of [right] itself.") Its basic political idea is that "each person’s entitlement to be his or her own master is only consistent with the entitlements of others if public legal institutions are in place." The Doctrine of Virtue is concerned with duties of virtue or "ends that are at the same time duties." It is here, in

SECTION 10

#1732765071219

828-414: A perfectly rational being must also be perfectly moral, because a perfectly rational being subjectively finds it necessary to do what is rationally necessary. Because humans are not perfectly rational (they partly act by instinct ), Kant believed that humans must conform their subjective will with objective rational laws, which he called conformity obligation . Kant argued that the objective law of reason

897-439: A practical law, yet regardless of whether or not that is so, it is always the principle that the person themself acts from. Maxims lapse into mere subjectivity, and thus become unable to qualify as practical laws, if they produce a contradiction in conception or a contradiction in the will when universalized. A contradiction in conception happens when, if a maxim were to be universalized, it ceases to make coherent sense because

966-451: A reason, now, to take out insurance. The strength of the reason ought not to be hostage to the strength of one's current desires. The denial of this view of prudence, Nagel argues, means that one does not really believe that one is one and the same person through time. One is dissolving oneself into distinct person-stages. Within the framework of his extensive editorial commentaries on the works of Kant, Lewis White Beck strove to illustrate

1035-698: A theory of justice. She argues that the rejection of certain principles, such as deception and coercion, provides a starting point for basic conceptions of justice, which she argues are more determinate for human beings that the more abstract principles of equality or liberty . Nevertheless, she concedes that these principles may seem to be excessively demanding: there are many actions and institutions that do rely on non-universalisable principles, such as injury. In his paper " The Schizophrenia of Modern Ethical Theories ", philosopher Michael Stocker challenges Kantian ethics (and all modern ethical theories) by arguing that actions from duty lack certain moral value. He gives

1104-700: A tool to make decisions with means that the only thing able to restrain the principles we adopt is that they could be adopted by all. If we cannot will that everyone adopts a certain principle, then we cannot give them reasons to adopt it. To use reason, and to reason with other people, we must reject those principles that cannot be universally adopted. In this way, O'Neill reached Kant's formulation of universalisability without adopting an idealistic view of human autonomy. This model of universalisability does not require that we adopt all universalisable principles, but merely prohibits us from adopting those that are not. From this model of Kantian ethics, O'Neill begins to develop

1173-474: A very different moral theory than the one typically attributed to him on the basis of his foundational works alone. Biographer of Kant, Manfred Kuhn, suggested that the values Kant's parents held, of "hard work, honesty, cleanliness, and independence", set him an example and influenced him more than their pietism did. In the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy , Michael Rohlf suggests that Kant

1242-413: A will that overcomes hindrances in order to keep the moral law. A dutiful will is thus a special case of a good will that becomes visible in adverse conditions. Kant argues that only such acts performed with regard to duty have moral worth. This is not to say that acts performed merely in accordance with duty are worthless (these still merit approval and encouragement), but that distinctively moral esteem

1311-405: A world. For instance, holding the maxim kill anyone who annoys you and applying it universally would result in self termination. Thus holding this maxim is irrational as it ends up being impossible to hold it. Universalizing a maxim (statement) leads to it being valid, or to one of two contradictions—a contradiction in conception (where the maxim, when universalized, is no longer a viable means to

1380-480: Is a priori , existing externally from rational being. Just as physical laws exist prior to physical beings, rational laws (morality) exist prior to rational beings. Therefore, according to Kant, rational morality is universal and cannot change depending on circumstance. Some have postulated a similarity between the first formulation of the categorical imperative and the Golden Rule . Kant himself criticized

1449-625: Is a contemporary Kantian ethicist who supports a Kantian approach to issues of social justice . O'Neill argues that a successful Kantian account of social justice must not rely on any unwarranted idealizations or assumption. She notes that philosophers have previously charged Kant with idealizing humans as autonomous beings, without any social context or life goals, though maintains that Kant's ethics can be read without such an idealization . O'Neill prefers Kant's conception of reason as practical and available to be used by humans, rather than as principles attached to every human being. Conceiving of reason as

SECTION 20

#1732765071219

1518-408: Is a hypothetical state of existence that is derived from Kant's categorical imperative . A Kingdom of Ends is composed entirely of rational beings, whom Kant defines as those capable of moral deliberation (though his definition expands in other areas) who must choose to act by laws that imply an absolute necessity. It is from this point of view that they must judge themselves and their actions. Though

1587-429: Is an improvement on Kant's, and rejects the dualistic framework of Kant's ethics. Kant distinguished between the phenomena world, which can be sensed and experienced by humans, and the noumena , or spiritual world, which is inaccessible to humans. This dichotomy was necessary for Kant because it could explain the autonomy of a human agent: although a human is bound in the phenomenal world, their actions are free in

1656-428: Is because their moral incentives are chosen over and above any opposing inclinations. Kant wished to move beyond the conception of morality as externally imposed duties, and present an ethics of autonomy , when rational agents freely recognize the claims reason makes upon them. Applying the categorical imperative , duties arise because failure to fulfill them would either result in a contradiction in conception or in

1725-418: Is distinguished from an "objective principle or 'practical law. ' " While "the latter is valid for every rational being and is a 'principle according to which they ought to act[,]' a maxim 'contains the practical rule which reason determines in accordance with the conditions of the subject (often their ignorance or inclinations) and is thus the principle according to which the subject does act. ' " A maxim may be

1794-409: Is given to acts that are performed out of duty, or from duty, alone. Kant's conception of duty does not entail that people perform their duties grudgingly. Although duty often constrains people and prompts them to act against their inclinations, it still comes from an agent's volition : they desire to keep the moral law from respect of the moral law. Thus, when an agent performs an action from duty it

1863-400: Is good or bad conform to his system, but denied that any action performed for reasons other than rational actions can be good (saving someone who is drowning simply out of a great pity for them is not a morally good act). Kant also denied that the consequences of an act in any way contribute to the moral worth of that act—his reasoning being (highly simplified for brevity) that the physical world

1932-498: Is independent of religion . Louis Pojman has suggested four strong influences on Kant's ethics: German philosopher Jürgen Habermas has proposed a theory of discourse ethics that he claims is a descendant of Kantian ethics. He proposes that action should be based on communication between those involved, in which their interests and intentions are discussed so they can be understood by all. Rejecting any form of coercion or manipulation, Habermas believes that agreement between

2001-603: Is logically impossible to universalize—we could not conceive of a world where this maxim was universalized. A maxim can also be immoral if it creates a contradiction in the will when universalized. This does not mean it is logically impossible to universalize, but that doing so leads to a state of affairs that no rational being would desire. Kant believed that morality is the objective law of reason : just as objective physical laws necessitate physical actions (e.g., apples fall down because of gravity ), objective rational laws necessitate rational actions . He thus believed that

2070-524: Is not consequently left entirely adrift without a moral compass. According to Beck's reading, Kant clearly asserts that mankind should regard moral law "as if" it were a divine command which unites people "as if" they were in common allegiance to such a "supposed" deity. This is accomplished through Kant's appeal to a different rational basis for religious thoughts and values which can be found in mankind's moral consciousness. Philosopher Onora O'Neill , who studied under John Rawls at Harvard University ,

2139-494: Is not intrinsically wrong, but immoral consequences can occur when people misunderstand what they are duty-bound to do. Duty need not be seen as cold and impersonal: one may have a duty to cultivate their character or improve their personal relationships. Baron further argues that duty should be construed as a secondary motive—that is, a motive that regulates and sets conditions on what may be done, rather than prompt specific actions. She argues that, seen this way, duty neither reveals

Kantianism - Misplaced Pages Continue

2208-510: Is outside our full control, and thus we cannot be held accountable for the events that occur in it. The formulations of the categorical imperative : In political philosophy , Kant has had wide and increasing influence with major political philosophers of the late twentieth century. For example, John Rawls drew heavily on his inspiration in setting out the basis for a liberal view of political institutions. The nature of Rawls' use of Kant has engendered serious controversy but has demonstrated

2277-409: Is singularly unique in that it is always good and maintains its moral value regardless of whether or not it achieves its moral intentions. Kant regarded the good will as a single moral principle that freely chooses to use the other virtues for genuinely moral ends. For Kant, a good will has a broader conception than a will that acts from duty. A will that acts from duty alone is distinguishable as

2346-495: Is the Kingdom of Ends : A rational being belongs as a member to the kingdom of ends when he gives universal laws in it but is also himself subject to these laws. He belongs to it as sovereign when, as lawgiving, he is not subject to the will of any other. A rational being must always regard himself as lawgiving in a kingdom of ends possible through freedom of the will, whether as a member or as sovereign . This formulation requires that actions be considered as if their maxim

2415-660: Is to provide a law for a hypothetical Kingdom of Ends. Accordingly, people have an obligation to act upon principles that a community of rational agents would accept as laws. In such a community, each individual would only accept maxims that can govern every member of the community without treating any member merely as a means to an end. Although the Kingdom of Ends is an ideal—the actions of other people and events of nature ensure that actions with good intentions sometimes result in harm—we are still required to act categorically, as legislators of this ideal kingdom. As Kant explains in

2484-440: Is to treat humanity as an end in itself : So act that you use humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, always at the same time as an end, never merely as a means. Kant argued that rational beings can never be treated merely as means to ends ; they must always also be treated as ends in themselves , requiring that their own reasoned motives must be equally respected. This derives from Kant's claim that

2553-524: The Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (and as its title directly indicates), that short 1785 text is "nothing more than the search for and establishment of the supreme principle of morality. " Kant further states, just because moral laws are to hold for every rational being as such, to derive them from the universal concept of a rational being as such, and in this way to set forth completely

2622-747: The Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals and the Critique of Practical Reason , or is not at least aware that his other ethical writings discuss other important details about Kant's moral philosophy as a whole since "one is all the more misled if he is not aware that they form only part of the picture." As part of the Enlightenment tradition, Kant based his ethical theory on the belief that reason should be used to determine how people ought to act. He did not attempt to prescribe specific action, but instructed that reason should be used to determine how to behave. In his combined works, Kant construed as

2691-422: The "maxim would necessarily destroy itself as soon as it was made a universal law." For example, if maxims equivalent to 'I will break a promise when doing so secures my advantage' were universalized, no one would trust any promises, so the idea of a promise would become meaningless; the maxim would be self-contradictory because, when universalized, promises cease to be meaningful. The maxim is not moral because it

2760-464: The Golden Rule as neither purely formal nor necessarily universally binding. His criticism can be seen in a footnote stating: Let it not be thought that the trite quod tibi non vis fieri etc. [what you do not want others to do to you, etc.] can serve as norm of principle here. For it is, though with various limitations, only derived from the latter. It can be no universal law because it contains

2829-414: The action and the desire. Nagel contrasts this view with a rival view which believes that a moral agent can only accept that he or she has a reason to act if the desire to carry out the action has an independent justification. An account based on presupposing sympathy would be of this kind. There is a very close parallel between prudential reasoning in one's own interests and moral reasons to act to further

Kantianism - Misplaced Pages Continue

2898-475: The categorical imperative—particularly Kant's second formulation of it—each one will treat all others as being ends in themselves, instead of mere means to achieving one's own pursuits. This systematic whole is the Kingdom of Ends. People can only belong to the Kingdom of Ends when they become subject to these universal laws. Such rational beings must regard themselves simultaneously as sovereign when making laws, and as subject when obeying them. Morality, therefore,

2967-419: The constituents of morality and entitling their possessors to equal justice. Rawls dismissed much of Kant's dualisms, arguing that the structure of Kantian ethics, once reformulated, is clearer without them—he described this as one of the goals of A Theory of Justice . Thomas Nagel has been highly influential in the related fields of moral and political philosophy . Supervised by John Rawls , Nagel has been

3036-407: The desire to fulfill some other interest would deny the categorical imperative, leading him to argue that the moral law must only arise from a rational will. This principle requires people to recognize the right of others to act autonomously and means that, as moral laws must be universalizable, what is required of one person is required of all. Another formulation of Kant's categorical imperative

3105-418: The domain of ethics, that The Metaphysics of Morals' s greatest innovation is to be found. According to Kant's account, "ordinary moral reasoning is fundamentally teleological—it is reasoning about what ends we are constrained by morality to pursue, and the priorities among these ends we are required to observe." More specifically, There are two sorts of ends that it is our duty to have: our own perfection and

3174-411: The end) or a contradiction in will (where the will of a person contradicts what the universalisation of the maxim implies). The first type leads to a "perfect duty", and the second leads to an "imperfect duty". Kant's ethics focus, then, only on the maxim that underlies actions, and judges these to be good or bad solely on how they conform to reason. Kant showed that many of our common sense views of what

3243-466: The example of Smith, who visits his friend in hospital out of duty, rather than because of the friendship; he argues that this visit seems morally lacking because it is motivated by the wrong thing. Marcia Baron has attempted to defend Kantian ethics on this point. After presenting a number of reasons that we might find acting out of duty objectionable, she argues that these problems only arise when people misconstrue what their duty is. Acting out of duty

3312-498: The existence of a society, at which the society is ordered: this is the original position . This should take place from behind a veil of ignorance , where no one knows what their own position in society will be, preventing people from being biased by their own interests and ensuring a fair result. Rawls' theory of justice rests on the belief that individuals are free, equal, and moral; he regarded all human beings as possessing some degree of reasonableness and rationality, which he saw as

3381-623: The formula of universal law: Korsgaard argues that the Practical Contradiction Interpretation is the correct interpretation. She further argues that there are two ways a maxim may violate the formula of universal law: Kingdom of Ends The Kingdom of Ends ( German : Reich der Zwecke ) is a part of the categorical imperative theory of Immanuel Kant . It is regularly discussed in relation to Kant's moral theory and its application to ethics and philosophy in general. The kingdom of ends centers on

3450-416: The ground neither of duties to oneself nor of duties of love to others (for many a man would gladly agree that others should not benefit him if only he might be excused from showing them beneficence), and finally it does not contain the ground of duties owed to others; for a criminal would argue on this ground against the judge punishing him, and so forth Kant's second formulation of the categorical imperative

3519-418: The happiness of others ( MS 6:385). "Perfection" includes both our natural perfection (the development of our talents, skills, and capacities of understanding) and moral perfection (our virtuous disposition) ( MS 6:387). A person’s "happiness" is the greatest rational whole of the ends the person set for the sake of her own satisfaction ( MS 6:387–8). Kant's elaboration of this teleological doctrine offers up

SECTION 50

#1732765071219

3588-428: The idea that "it is impossible to think of anything at all in the world, or indeed even beyond it, that could be considered good without limitation except a good will ." The theory was developed in the context of Enlightenment rationalism . It states that an action can only be moral if it is motivated by a sense of duty, and its maxim may be rationally willed a universal, objective law. Central to Kant's theory of

3657-423: The intelligible world. For Habermas, morality arises from discourse, which is made necessary by their rationality and needs, rather than their freedom. The social contract theory of political philosopher John Rawls , developed in his work A Theory of Justice , was influenced by Kant's ethics. Rawls argued that a just society would be fair . To achieve this fairness, he proposed a hypothetical moment prior to

3726-407: The interests of another person. When one reasons prudentially, for example about the future reasons that one will have, one allows the reason in the future to justify one's current action without reference to the strength of one's current desires. If a hurricane were to destroy someone's car next year at that point he will want his insurance company to pay him to replace it: that future reason gives him

3795-452: The manner in which Kantian ethics might prove relevant to several of the moral dilemmas which confronted mankind in the mid 20th century. In his Six Secular Philosophers (1966) Beck argued than a modern secular philosophy which accommodates religious thoughts and values can be successfully formulated through an appeal to mankind's freedom of thought. With this in mind, he illustrated the central role which Kantian ethics might assume within such

3864-635: The many real world contexts in which it has found application. Although all of Kant's works develop his ethical theory, it is most clearly defined in the Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals , the Critique of Practical Reason , and the Metaphysics of Morals . Additionally, while the Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals is important for understanding Kant's ethics, one gets an incomplete understanding of his moral thought if one only reads

3933-426: The metaphysics of morals itself, however, continues to apply. Moreover, the account provided in the latter Metaphysics of Morals provides "a very different account of ordinary moral reasoning" than the one suggested by the Groundwork. The Doctrine of Right deals with juridical duties, which are "concerned only with protecting the external freedom of individuals" and indifferent to incentives. (Although we do have

4002-436: The moral law a requirement of reason which holds for us as rational agents; therefore, rational moral principles apply to all rational agents at all times. Kant's first formulation of the categorical imperative is that of universalizability : Act only in accordance with that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it become a universal law. Kant defines maxim as a "subjective principle of volition," which

4071-448: The moral law is the categorical imperative . Kant formulated the categorical imperative in various ways. His principle of universalizability requires that, for an action to be permissible, it must be possible to apply it to all people without a contradiction occurring. Kant's formulation of humanity, the second formulation of the categorical imperative, states that as an end in itself , humans are required never to treat others merely as

4140-437: The most important part of Kant's ethics, the formulation of the categorical imperative , which is the criterion for whether a maxim is good or bad. Simply put, this criterion amounts to a thought experiment : to attempt to universalize the maxim (by imagining a world where all people necessarily acted in this way in the relevant circumstances) and then see if the maxim and its associated action would still be conceivable in such

4209-434: The motivation of moral action. According to motivated desire theory, when a person is motivated to moral action it is indeed true that such actions are motivated—like all intentional actions—by a belief and a desire. But it is important to get the justificatory relations right: when a person accepts a moral judgment he or she is necessarily motivated to act. But it is the reason that does the justificatory work of justifying both

SECTION 60

#1732765071219

4278-424: The parties is crucial for a moral decision to be reached. Like Kantian ethics, discourse ethics is a cognitive ethical theory , in that it supposes that truth and falsity can be attributed to ethical propositions. It also formulates a rule by which ethical actions can be determined and proposes that ethical actions should be universalizable, in a similar way to Kant's ethics. Habermas argues that his ethical theory

4347-434: The second and third formulations of the categorical imperative . These help form the basis for Kant's universalizing ethical theory for society. Kant introduced the concept in his Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (4:439), considering a world in which all human beings are treated as ends (meaning treated as if they and their well-being are the goal), not as mere means to an end for other people. The Kingdom of Ends

4416-471: The sense of duty , the rational respect for law, motivates morality : it demands that we respect the rationality of all beings. A rational being cannot rationally consent to be used merely as a means to an end, so they must always be treated as an end. Kant justified this by arguing that moral obligation is a rational necessity: that which is rationally willed is morally right. Because all rational agents rationally will themselves to be an end and never merely

4485-464: The term is usually translated as "Kingdom of Ends", the German word Reich is perhaps more appropriately translated as " realm ". Kant uses it to mean the "systematic union of different rational beings under common laws." These common laws, established by the categorical imperative , are the gauge used to evaluate the worthiness of an individual's actions. When the kingdom's individuals live together by

4554-415: The vitality of Kantian considerations across a wider range of questions than was once thought plausible. Kantian ethics Kantian ethics refers to a deontological ethical theory developed by German philosopher Immanuel Kant that is based on the notion that "I ought never to act except in such a way that I could also will that my maxim should become a universal law." It is also associated with

4623-591: The whole of morals, [a metaphysics of morals] needs anthropology for its application to human beings. His promised Metaphysics of Morals , however, was much delayed and did not appear until its two parts, The Doctrine of Right and The Doctrine of Virtue, were published separately in 1797 and 1798. In the twelve years between the Groundwork and The Doctrine of Right, Kant decided that the metaphysics of morals and its application should, after all, be integrated (though still as distinct from practical anthropology). The distinction between its groundwork (or foundation) and

4692-671: The works of Baruch Spinoza , David Hume and Immanuel Kant within this family. In Beck's view, Kantian ethics paved the way toward a more comprehensive modern secular philosophical paradigm in several ways. By specifically rejecting Spinoza's appeal to a strict monism , Kant parted ways with Spinoza's reliance upon a deity to assume a central role in modern ethical theory. Beck argued further that Kant's ethical theories are in agreement with Hume's assertion that scientific interpretations of nature cannot by themselves serve to confirm religious belief. Yet, as Beck quickly reminds his readers, Kant also distanced himself from Hume by insisting that mankind

4761-457: Was influenced by his teacher, Martin Knutzen , himself influenced by the work of Christian Wolff and John Locke , and who introduced Kant to the work of English physicist Isaac Newton . Eric Entrican Wilson and Lara Denis emphasize David Hume 's influence on Kant's ethics. Both of them try to reconcile freedom with a commitment to causal determinism and believe that morality’s foundation

#218781