The Sundaland heath forests , also known as Kerangas forest , is a type of tropical moist forest found on the island of Borneo , which is divided between Brunei , Indonesia , and Malaysia , as well as on the Indonesian islands of Belitung and Bangka , which lie to the west of Borneo.
41-473: The word Kerangas , which means "land which cannot grow rice", comes from the Iban language . Heath forests occur on acidic sandy soils that are the result of the area's siliceous parent rocks. Permanently waterlogged heath forests are known as kerapah forests. Open-canopied woodlands are known as padang . The sandy soil of the heath forest are often lacking in nutrients; it is generally considered that nitrogen
82-446: A few interrogative words: sapa , nama , ni , lapa , kemaya and berapa . Sapa Who empu own jam watch tu? this Sapa empu jam tu? Who own watch this Koin%C3%A9 language In linguistics , a koine or koiné language or dialect (pronounced / ˈ k ɔɪ n eɪ / ; from Ancient Greek κοινή 'common') is a standard or common dialect that has arisen as
123-532: A halt. Jimbun Tawai, the former vice chairman of Sarawak Dayak Iban Association, called this period under Crown Colony as "golden era" of the Iban language. After the closure of BLB, other smaller publishers continue in this niche such as the Kuching-based publishing company named Klasik . Examples of works include ensera (Iban epic story) and cherita kelulu (morality novellas). Christian churches such as
164-846: A number of linguists have recently argued that language change lies with the individual. Linguist Paul Kerswill identifies two types of koinés, namely, regional and immigrant: Kerswill also examined the Norwegian dialects that emerged in two towns around smelters built at the head of the Sørfjord branch of the Hardangerfjord in the mid-20th century. Both towns, Odda and Tyssedal , drew migrants from different parts of Norway. The workers in Odda came predominantly (86%) from western Norway . In Tyssedal, only about one third came from western Norway, another third came from eastern Norway and
205-456: A result of the contact, mixing, and often simplification of two or more mutually intelligible varieties of the same language. As speakers already understood one another before the advent of the koiné, the process of koineization is not as drastic as pidginization and creolization . Unlike pidginization and creolization, there is often no prestige dialect target involved in koineization. The normal influence between neighbouring dialects
246-517: Is a particular case of dialect contact, and it typically occurs in new settlements , to which people have migrated from different parts of a single language area. Koineization typically takes two or three generations to complete, but it can be achievable within the first generation. Language variation is systematic in that it can be related to social divisions within a community, such as class and gender . Change can be shown to originate with particular social groups based on those divisions. However,
287-422: Is adopted by Sarawak Royal Ranger Regiment as their motto. The battle cry is also used in speeches and car stickers to evoke the warrior spirit of the Iban people. The word "Oo-ha", an Iban call for celebration, was popularised by the former chief minister of Sarawak Adenan Satem as a form of "hello" before giving speeches in order to motivate a crowd. The Chinese-predominant Sarawak United Peoples' Party used
328-687: Is also related to other dialects such as Sebuyau, Kendayan , Balau and Selaku. According to the oral history of the Iban people, Benedict Sandin , in 1968, plotted the ancestry of the Iban people as descendants from the Kapuas Hulu Range, the border of Sarawak-Kalimantan. The Iban people arrived in Sarawak in the 16th century, and settled in the regions of Batang Lupar drainage basin and Undop river in southern Sarawak. From there, they migrated north, east, and west, and expanded into Saribas, Batang Sadong, Batang Layar, and Batang Lupar rivers. In
369-409: Is being referred in relation to the location of the addressee to the speaker. There are three demonstrative pronouns in Iban depending on location to the speaker. They can only be used to refer to an addressee (human) and cannot be used to refer to inanimate objects. Examples: Demonstrative adverbs in Iban are closely related to the demonstrative pronouns in Iban grammar. For example, corresponding to
410-473: Is not regarded as koineization. A koiné variety emerges as a new spoken variety in addition to the originating dialects. It does not change any existing dialect, which distinguishes koineization from the normal evolution of dialects. While similar to zonal auxiliary languages , koiné languages arise naturally, rather than being constructed. The term koine , meaning "common" in Greek, was first used to refer to
451-538: Is the nutrient which is most lacking for plant growth in these forests. This is in contrast to many other lowland rain forests where phosphorus is considered to be lacking. A more recent hypothesis, proposed by Proctor (1999), is that these forests are growing on soils which are highly acidic, such that hydrogen ion toxicity prevents the growth of non-adapted species. Moreover, heath forests' low soil pH hampers organic matter decomposition thus further slowing nutrient cycling. The Sundaland heath forests are distinct from
SECTION 10
#1732790082602492-413: Is used for a noun which is generally near to the speaker, nya 'that, those' is used for a noun which is generally far from the speaker, and nyin , which is the furthest from the speaker. These words can also act as demonstrative pronouns where they can stands on theirs own, replacing rather than modifying a noun. Example: In Iban, demonstrative pronouns are words that show which person or thing
533-688: The Austronesian language family . The Malayic languages originate from western Borneo, thus Iban is closely related to Malay , especially the Sarawakian dialect . Other isolects in the Ibanic group of languages are Sebuyau, Mualang, Kantu, and Seberuang. These groups of languages can be identified by the word-final position in certain lexical forms of /-ai/. These lexical forms are similar to other Malayic languages with lexical forms of /-an/, /-ang/, or, less frequently, /-ar/. The Iban language
574-655: The Indonesian province of West Kalimantan and in the Malaysian state of Sarawak . It belongs to the Malayic subgroup , a Malayo-Polynesian branch of the Austronesian language family . Iban has reached a stage of becoming a koiné language in Sarawak due to contact with groups speaking other related Ibanic languages within the state. It is ranked as Level 5 (i.e. "safe") in term of endangerment on Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (EGIDS). In 2024,
615-585: The 1800s, they moved into the Rajang basin (middle region of Sarawak) from Batang Lupar river, Katibas river, and Saribas river (Saribas is a tributary of the Rajang River ). By 1870s, they had reached Mukah and Oya rivers. In the early 1900s, they reached Balingian, Tatau, and Kemena rivers (near Bintulu). They also reached the Baram area and Limbang rivers around the same time in northern Sarawak and would become
656-572: The British in 1958 to collect and document oral Iban literature. BLB published more than 60 Iban language books during its lifetime until 1973 when it was replaced by a Malaysian federal government agency Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka (DBP) in 1977. After that, the publication of books in Bornean languages came to a halt. The publication of the Nendak magazine, which was started by BLB in 1967 also came to
697-524: The Catholic church publish prayer books that adopt certain aspects of Iban adat (culture). Thus, Christian texts bear greater significance as cultural repositories of the Iban language when to compared to other genres after the demise of BLB. State-sponsored media such as Berita Rakyat was founded in 1974 and ended in the 1990s. The magazine was started by Rajang Security Command (RASCOM) in Sibu to defeat
738-524: The Iban language is offered as a minor subject for Iban students majoring in Malay studies. The introduction of Iban language subjects in schools results in the standardisation of Iban language spelling, dialect, and pronunciation from regional variations. In 2003, Malaysian federal authorities banned the Iban-language Bible or Bup Kudus as its use of the word "Allah" for God overlaps with
779-751: The Iban language section in October 2020. Iban language support was added to Malaysian domain of Google Translate in 2024. The Iban language is allowed in the Sarawak State Legislative Assembly with the special permission from the Speaker and simultaneous interpretations will be provided during the assembly sitting and when written into the Hansard. Rentap 's battle cry while fighting against James Brooke in 1860s “Agi Idup, Agi Ngelaban!” (“I will fight as long I will live!”)
820-715: The Iban language was included in Google Translate and became a historic moment as the first Borneo language to be registered into Google Translate and as the first Malaysian language to be registered into it other than Malay . Iban comes from the Ibanic language group spoken in Sarawak, West Kalimantan, and Brunei within Borneo island. part of the Malayic subshoot of the Malayo-Polynesian branch in
861-491: The Iban language was used in government official letters, courts, announcements, and notices. Radio Sarawak, started by the British, offered Iban language programmes. The Iban language, known under the name of "Asian language", was offered as an examination subject in the Sarawak Junior Certificate. The "Asian language" was renamed to "Iban language" in 1963. Borneo Literature Bureau (BLB) was founded by
SECTION 20
#1732790082602902-776: The Iban language. Trades in the Sarawak bazaars are also frequently conducted in the Iban language. Iban has the following consonant inventory: Iban has a six-vowel system, with five cardinal vowels plus schwa : Vowel sounds are nasalized when preceded by a nasal consonant. Lexical roots can be expanded by many affixes in Iban, as exemplified here with the verb gagai . There are four types of affixes in Iban, namely prefixes , suffixes , circumfixes and infixes . Other examples: Iban has separate words for inclusive and exclusive we , and distinguishes singular , dual , and plural . Sample Pronouns are primarily put after subjects. Sample phases: There are three demonstrative determiners in Iban. Tu 'this, these'
943-430: The Iban section in 2017. A monthly Iban magazine named Pegari was also published by a small company named PEGARI Iban Production from 2012 to 2018. Borneo Media Solutions, a subsidiary of PEGARI Iban Production, also published several books in Iban language. RTM opened their first Borneo-oriented channel TVi in 2011 which later became TV Okey in 2018 which includes a 30-minute Iban news slot. TV Sarawak started
984-497: The Iban subjects since 1968. The number of primary schools offering the Iban language subject increased to 1,264 in 2015, while the number of secondary schools reduced to 52 in 2015. Most schools have a significant Iban population in the Kapit, Sibu, Sri Aman, and Sarikei Divisions. The Iban language subject is also offered in undergraduate programmes in two teachers' institutions in Sarawak. In Sultan Idris Education University , Perak ,
1025-525: The Iban word "Sa'ati" (United) as their party slogan. Another Chinese-predominant Sarawak Democratic Action Party has been using the Iban language to garner support from the Iban population. Other words include "Segulai sejalai" (going together) that was selected as the slogan for Malaysian national unity, and "Ngap Sayot" (literally means "eat vegetables") used by Sarawak FA football team battle cry to signify taking down opponents just like eating vegetables. Iban churches in Sarawak conduct services in
1066-410: The communists' activities in the Rajang basin. The magazine stopped publication after the cessation of the communist insurgency in Sarawak in 1990. The state government's information department published another magazine named Pembrita and aimed to provide developmental news to the rural Iban populace, such as exemplary longhouses, lucrative cash crops, and animal husbandry. The magazine also called on
1107-421: The contributing dialects, socio-political contexts in which the new dialect develops, and individual networks of adults involved in the accommodation process. Additionally, both Trudgill and Mesthrie also comment on the process of reallocation in which features that have been retained from contributing dialects take on new meanings or functions within the new dialect. Trudgill posits a multigenerational model of
1148-474: The demonstrative pronouns are the adverbs such as kitu ('going here'), kia ('going there') and kin ('going there (farthest)') equivalent adverbs corresponding to the demonstrative pronoun this are tu , nya and nyin . Examples: Examples: Iban also has a set of adverbs referring to manner. They are a combination of baka (ke) ('like/as') and the abbreviated determiner forms tu , nya and nyin . Examples: Iban also has
1189-488: The development of a koine. During the first (immigrant) generation , the speakers of the contributing dialects mix, and there is some levelling. The first native-born generation of speakers continues the leveling process. However, in the instances that Trudgill was able to document (such as first-generation speakers of Tyssedal and Odda dialects of Norwegian), the speech of that generation still reflected considerable variability in use of marked forms, both between speakers and in
1230-606: The form of Greek used as a lingua franca during the Hellenistic and Roman periods. It arose as a mixed vernacular among ordinary people in the Peiraieus , the seaport of Athens , which was inhabited by Greeks from different parts of the Mediterranean . Koineization brings new dialect varieties about as a result of contact between speakers of mutually intelligible varieties of that language . Koineization
1271-533: The government's authority there. As a result of this policy, several minority ethnic groups such as Bukitans living along the Batang Lupar River were assimilated into the Iban people, thus contributing to the growth of Iban tribe and the expansion of the Iban language in the state. The Iban language was taught in schools in the 1940s during the Brooke era. During the period of Crown Colony of Sarawak ,
Sundaland heath forests - Misplaced Pages Continue
1312-559: The largest ethnic group in Sarawak. Fearing that the Iban tribes outnumbered the pre-existing local tribes with detrimental environmental effects on lands intended for shifting cultivation, the Brooke government restricted the Iban people from further migration to other river systems such as the Baleh river. However, the Brooke government allowed the Ibans to settle in other areas such as Lundu, Balingian, Bintulu, Limbang and Baram to consolidate
1353-1191: The nutrient-poor conditions, some heath forest species have small, hard, thick sclerophyll leaves which are low in nitrogen. Many tree and plant species in the nutrient-deprived heath forests have developed unconventional ways to get their nutrients. Some tree species ( Gymnostoma nobile , for example) utilise rhizobia ( nitrogen fixing bacteria ) in their root nodules. Myrmecophytes , including Myrmecodia spp. and Hydnophytum spp., are tree species that develop symbiotic associations with ants to get their nutrients. Other plants, including pitcher plants ( Nepenthes spp.), sundews ( Drosera spp.), and bladderwort (Utricularia spp.), are carnivorous, trapping and digesting insects. Dipterocarps , including species of Shorea and Hopea , are common canopy trees on less barren soils, along with palms. Native trees include both heath forest endemics, typical lowland forest species, and species shared with peat swamp forests like Shorea albida , Shorea pachyphylla , and Shorea scabrida . Heath forests are also characterized by many plants of Australasian origin, including trees of families Myrtaceae and Casuarinaceae and
1394-405: The other third from other parts of the country. The dialects that evolved in both towns were thus very different from each other. Peter Trudgill sees three processes in operation during what Mesthrie calls the accommodation period: mixing, levelling and simplification. The processes of levelling and simplification are both dependent on a wide range of factors, including the relative prestige of
1435-431: The repertoire of individual speakers. It is the third generation that focuses the variations and stabilizes the dialect. Trudgill admits cases in which the focusing takes place in the first generation of native-born speakers and also instances that might be only in the fourth or even later generations. The dialect in its emerging state, a state marked by the heterogeneity of forms, is called by Trudgill an interdialect and
1476-451: The rural Ibans to modernise their ways of farming. There were no Iban newspapers in the 1990s and early 2000s. The high cost of imported paper materials and low advertising revenues contributed to the difficulties of Iban newspaper publishing. The Tun Jugah Foundation was established in 1985 after the death of Jugah Barieng , paramount chief of the Iban, to record the oral history of the Iban people, producing Iban dictionaries and surveys of
1517-478: The rural-urban migration of the Iban people. Radio Televisyen Malaysia (RTM) expanded their Iban radio broadcasts to 10 hours on Sundays and 9 hours on rest of the week by the 1980s as WaiFM Cats FM is the first commercial radio station to broadcast in Iban opening in 1997. The Iban language was included in the primary school curriculum in 1968 and a few secondary schools in 1988. From 1968-9, teachers' training colleges offered Iban as an elective subject. It
1558-543: The southern hemisphere conifers Agathis , Podocarpus , and Dacrydium . The heath forests generally have less wildlife and species diversity than the surrounding lowland rain forests, with little or no endemic species. 9.695% of the ecoregion is in protected areas. These include: Iban language The Iban language ( jaku Iban ) is spoken by the Iban , one of the Dayak ethnic groups, who live in Brunei ,
1599-524: The surrounding Borneo lowland rain forests in species composition , structure, texture, and color. The heath forests typically have a low, uniform canopy approximately 20 metres high, with thick underbrush and rich growth of moss and epiphytes . Trees often have closely-spaced trunks. In contrast, padang woodland is relatively open, with shrubs and trees up 5 metres tall, and a ground layer of sparse grasses and sedges. Leaf sizes are generally smaller than other lowland rain forest trees. As an adaptation to
1640-573: The use of Allah as the name of God in Islam . While Christianity is the majority faith of the Iban, Islam has official federal status , which the government argues can "confuse" the Muslim populace in the state. The ban was lifted by the then deputy prime minister Abdullah Ahmad Badawi after persistent protests. Newspapers The Borneo Post and Utusan Borneo started Iban language sections in 2010 and 2014 respectively. The Borneo Post stopped
1681-606: Was only in 1988 that Iban was formalised as part of the Malaysian national curriculum. There are no Iban-medium schools in Sarawak. In 2008, Iban was taught as an elective language subject in Malaysian Form 5 secondary schools for the Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (SPM) certificate examination. A survey done in Sarawak in 2008 showed that a total of 367 primary schools and 55 secondary schools have taught