Kiangan , officially the Municipality of Kiangan is a 4th class municipality in the province of Ifugao , Philippines . According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 17,691 people.
101-679: Kiangan is the oldest town in the province. It derives its name from Kiyyangan , an ancient village near the bank of the Ibulao River across the Lagawe valley. The name Kiyyangan is enshrined in Ifugao mythology and is believed to be the dwelling of Wigan and Bugan, the mythological ancestors of the Ifugao. It was the former capital of Ifugao until the topology was deemed unfit and moved to neighboring Lagawe . The Nagacadan Rice Terraces are part of
202-503: A pantheon of deities which live, die and may be reborn like any other being. Although most monotheistic religions traditionally envision their god as omnipotent , omnipresent , omniscient , omnibenevolent , and eternal , none of these qualities are essential to the definition of a "deity" and various cultures have conceptualized their deities differently. Monotheistic religions typically refer to their god in masculine terms, while other religions refer to their deities in
303-483: A close connection to them and to guarantee their peace on earth and in afterlife. The Ifugao also had evil spirits, where the most notorious were the Pinading that steal souls of the living, which the Ifugao could avoid if more offerings were made or divorce dowries were paid, and other higher or small, more limited spirits were sourced to the Ifugao's fevers, stomach pains, diseases, etc. Dreams were an essential part in
404-422: A creator God or transcendental absolute principle ( monistic theologies), which manifests immanently in nature. Henotheism accepts the existence of more than one deity, but considers all deities as equivalent representations or aspects of the same divine principle, the highest. Monolatry is the belief that many deities exist, but that only one of these deities may be validly worshipped. Monotheism
505-574: A few of them, particularly Dumuzid , Geshtinanna , and Gugalanna were said to have either died or visited the underworld. Both male and female deities were widely venerated. In the Sumerian pantheon, deities had multiple functions, which included presiding over procreation, rains, irrigation, agriculture, destiny, and justice. The gods were fed, clothed, entertained, and worshipped to prevent natural catastrophes as well as to prevent social chaos such as pillaging, rape, or atrocities. Many of
606-501: A more valuable food source to support a growing village, which further provides evidence for the shift to rice. Before and after Spanish colonization, the Ifugao people surprisingly flourished in an unexpected rise in economic intensification and position in regional and global trade. Due to local and Indigenous history being erased and overshadowed by colonization and the cosmopolitan history of urban Manila , several researchers and archaeologists have attempted to seek out answers to how
707-655: A pantheon of deities, the chief of whom was the god El , who ruled alongside his consort Asherah and their seventy sons . Baal was the god of storm, rain, vegetation and fertility, while his consort Anat was the goddess of war and Astarte , the West Semitic equivalent to Ishtar , was the goddess of love. The people of the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah originally believed in these deities, alongside their own national god Yahweh. El later became syncretized with Yahweh , who took over El's role as
808-496: A prehistoric female deity. A number of probable representations of deities have been discovered at 'Ain Ghazal and the works of art uncovered at Çatalhöyük reveal references to what is probably a complex mythology. Diverse African cultures developed theology and concepts of deities over their history. In Nigeria and neighboring West African countries , for example, two prominent deities (locally called Òrìṣà ) are found in
909-613: A presiding deity, who inspired social rituals, special trading markets and community festivals. A deity with aspects similar to Kulkulkan in the Aztec culture has been called Quetzalcoatl . However, states Timothy Insoll, the Aztec ideas of deity remain poorly understood. What has been assumed is based on what was constructed by Christian missionaries . The deity concept was likely more complex than these historical records. In Aztec culture , there were hundred of deities, but many were henotheistic incarnations of one another (similar to
1010-658: A religious sense, but they did believe in a large variety of Deities , small specialized spirits, the presence of dead ancestors, as well as the universe being separated into five regions where all Deities and spirits resided: the Skyworld ( Kabunian ), the Underworld ( Dalom ), the Upstream Region ( Daya ), the Downstream Region ( Lagud ), and Earth ( Pugao ). Some of their most important deities include
1111-407: A specific and flawed personality. They were not omnipotent and could be injured in some circumstances. Greek deities led to cults, were used politically and inspired votive offerings for favors such as bountiful crops, healthy family, victory in war, or peace for a loved one recently deceased. The Roman pantheon had numerous deities, both Greek and non-Greek. The more famed deities, found in
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#17327661117431212-514: A strong influence of Christianity, mortuary rituals, and a system that defined social status according to the accumulation of various beads and ceramics. The Old Kiyyangan Village (OKV) dates back to as early as 810 Before Present (B.P) to 750 B.P. according to new research. This site is associated with the Ifugao culture and where the Ifugao Indigenous group presided for a few hundred years. The Ifugao Filipino Indigenous society are
1313-413: A variety of ways—male, female, hermaphroditic , or genderless. Many cultures—including the ancient Mesopotamians , Egyptians , Greeks , Romans , and Germanic peoples —have personified natural phenomena , variously as either deliberate causes or effects. Some Avestan and Vedic deities were viewed as ethical concepts. In Indian religions , deities have been envisioned as manifesting within
1414-476: Is a supernatural being considered to be sacred and worthy of worship due to having authority over the universe, nature or human life. The Oxford Dictionary of English defines deity as a god or goddess , or anything revered as divine . C. Scott Littleton defines a deity as "a being with powers greater than those of ordinary humans, but who interacts with humans, positively or negatively, in ways that carry humans to new levels of consciousness , beyond
1515-587: Is deemed to be a full deity with the Christian cross as his icon. The theological examination of Jesus Christ, of divine grace in incarnation, his non-transferability and completeness has been a historic topic. For example, the Council of Chalcedon in 451 CE declared that in "one person Jesus Christ, fullness of deity and fullness of humanity are united, the union of the natures being such that they can neither be divided nor confused". Jesus Christ, according to
1616-455: Is derived from Proto-Germanic *guthan , from PIE *ghut- , which means "that which is invoked". Guth in the Irish language means "voice". The term *ghut- is also the source of Old Church Slavonic zovo ("to call"), Sanskrit huta- ("invoked", an epithet of Indra ), from the root *gheu(e)- ("to call, invoke."), An alternate etymology for the term "god" comes from
1717-423: Is enough evidence to support social stratification. Research conducted by Stephen Acabado indicates that the Ifugao's complex agricultural and irrigation system contributed to their social structure that led to them having more centralized power rather than a chiefdom or kingdom. He explains how the physical intensity of rice cultivation in the terraces led to needing a more cooperative working and lifestyle for
1818-473: Is impossible to conclusively identify any prehistoric figurines as representations of any kind of deities, let alone goddesses. Nonetheless, it is possible to evaluate ancient representations on a case-by-case basis and rate them on how likely they are to represent deities. The Venus of Willendorf , a female figurine found in Europe and dated to about 25,000 BCE has been interpreted by some as an exemplar of
1919-509: Is masculine, and the related feminine equivalent is devi . Etymologically, the cognates of Devi are Latin dea and Greek thea . In Old Persian , daiva- means " demon , evil god", while in Sanskrit it means the opposite, referring to the "heavenly, divine, terrestrial things of high excellence, exalted, shining ones". The closely linked term " god " refers to "supreme being, deity", according to Douglas Harper, and
2020-559: Is significant in regards to the history of the Philippines in the opposition to Spanish colonialism to continue the practices of the Ifugao culture and maintain the use of rice terraces for generations to be built upon in strengthening the community. As the site where research is conducted heavily in the Philippines, the OKV and the culture that exists today is ever changing due to the decolonization practices being done by local researchers and
2121-411: Is still very little information known about the site and Ifugao people during this time due to little funding in research projects, the extracted items being difficult to date, and disruptive colonial narratives of their origins. For research on the Ifugao and their religion, there have been a mix of accounts showing the Ifugao did not form a clear concept or system of moral teachings of the universe in
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#17327661117432222-711: Is the Kiangan Central School old home economics building, which marks the spot where the highest Commander of the Japanese Imperial Army, General Tomoyuki Yamashita (also known as the Tiger of Malaya ), surrendered to the Filipino & American Forces on 2 September 1945. Old Kiyyangan Village Old Kiyyangan Village ( OKV ) is an archeological site in the Lazo highlands in
2323-414: Is the belief that divinity pervades the universe, but that it also transcends the universe. Agnosticism is the position that it is impossible to know for certain whether a deity of any kind exists. Atheism is the non-belief in the existence of any deity. Scholars infer the probable existence of deities in the prehistoric period from inscriptions and prehistoric arts such as cave drawings , but it
2424-429: Is the belief that only one deity exists. A monotheistic deity, known as "God", is usually described as omnipotent , omnipresent , omniscient , omnibenevolent and eternal . However, not all deities have been regarded this way and an entity does not need to be almighty, omnipresent, omniscient, omnibenevolent or eternal to qualify as a deity. Deism is the belief that only one deity exists, who created
2525-460: Is the superstitious man who fears the gods, while the truly religious person venerates them as parents. Cicero, in his Academica , praised Varro for this and other insights. According to Varro, there have been three accounts of deities in the Roman society: the mythical account created by poets for theatre and entertainment, the civil account used by people for veneration as well as by the city, and
2626-489: Is typically seen as male . In contrast, all ancient Indo-European cultures and mythologies recognized both masculine and feminine deities. There is no universally accepted consensus on what a deity is, and concepts of deities vary considerably across cultures. Huw Owen states that the term "deity or god or its equivalent in other languages" has a bewildering range of meanings and significance. It has ranged from "infinite transcendent being who created and lords over
2727-504: Is unclear what these sketches and paintings are and why they were made. Some engravings or sketches show animals, hunters or rituals. It was once common for archaeologists to interpret virtually every prehistoric female figurine as a representation of a single, primordial goddess, the ancestor of historically attested goddesses such as Inanna , Ishtar , Astarte , Cybele , and Aphrodite ; this approach has now generally been discredited. Modern archaeologists now generally recognize that it
2828-544: Is zoomorphic and is most often found in Middle Eastern archaeological remains depicted as a "snake-dragon" or a "human-animal hybrid". In Germanic languages , the terms cognate with ' god ' such as Old English : god and Old Norse : guð were originally neuter but became masculine, as in modern Germanic languages, after Christianisation due their use in referring to the Christian god . In Norse mythology , Æsir (singular áss or ǫ́ss ) are
2929-800: The First Council of Nicaea in the fourth century, which declared that all three persons of the Trinity are equal. Christians regard the universe as an element in God's actualization and the Holy Spirit is seen as the divine essence that is "the unity and relation of the Father and the Son". According to George Hunsinger, the doctrine of the Trinity justifies worship in a Church, wherein Jesus Christ
3030-488: The Latin deitatem (nominative deitas ) or "divine nature", coined by Augustine of Hippo from deus ("god"). Deus is related through a common Proto-Indo-European (PIE) origin to *deiwos . This root yields the ancient Indian word Deva meaning "to gleam, a shining one", from *div- "to shine", as well as Greek dios " divine " and Zeus ; and Latin deus "god" ( Old Latin deivos ). Deva
3131-598: The New Testament , is the self-disclosure of the one, true God, both in his teaching and in his person; Christ, in Christian faith, is considered the incarnation of God. Ilah , ʾIlāh ( Arabic : إله ; plural: آلهة ʾālihah ), is an Arabic word meaning "god". It appears in the name of the monotheistic god of Islam as Allah ( al-Lāh ). which literally means "the god" in Arabic. Islam
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3232-727: The Rice Terraces of the Philippine Cordilleras World Heritage Site. Kiangan is politically subdivided into 14 barangays . Each barangay consists of puroks and some have sitios . In the 2020 census, the population of Kiangan, Ifugao, was 17,691 people, with a density of 88 inhabitants per square kilometre or 230 inhabitants per square mile. Locally spoken languages include Tuwali , Ayangan, Ilocano , Tagalog , and English . Poverty incidence of Kiangan Source: Philippine Statistics Authority Agriculture and tourism are
3333-559: The Vanir went to war , according to the Nordic sources. The account in Ynglinga saga describes the Æsir–Vanir War ending in truce and ultimate reconciliation of the two into a single group of gods, after both sides chose peace, exchanged ambassadors (hostages), and intermarried. The Norse mythology describes the cooperation after the war, as well as differences between the Æsir and
3434-584: The Vanir which were considered scandalous by the other side. The goddess Freyja of the Vanir taught magic to the Æsir , while the two sides discover that while Æsir forbid mating between siblings , Vanir accepted such mating. Temples hosting images of Germanic gods (such as Thor , Odin and Freyr ), as well as pagan worship rituals, continued in Scandinavia into the 12th century, according to historical records. It has been proposed that over time, Christian equivalents were substituted for
3535-528: The Yoruba religion , namely the god Ogun and the goddess Osun . Ogun is the primordial masculine deity as well as the archdivinity and guardian of occupations such as tools making and use, metal working, hunting, war, protection and ascertaining equity and justice. Osun is an equally powerful primordial feminine deity and a multidimensional guardian of fertility, water, maternal, health, social relations, love and peace. Ogun and Osun traditions were brought into
3636-442: The avatar concept of Hinduism). Unlike Hinduism and other cultures, Aztec deities were usually not anthropomorphic, and were instead zoomorphic or hybrid icons associated with spirits, natural phenomena or forces. The Aztec deities were often represented through ceramic figurines, revered in home shrines. The Polynesian people developed a theology centered on numerous deities, with clusters of islands having different names for
3737-587: The 1200s and 1800s where rarer, more valuable stoneware and ceramics were found to increase over time, indicating that despite Spanish colonizers increasing economic intensification in surrounding regions of the Philippines, the Ifugao did not succumb and fall behind to foreign wealth and power, but re-situated themselves in the Lazo highlands from Spain's direct control and continued preserving and developing their own culture and increasing their own economic intensification through establishing separate trade networks. There is, however, little information found on exactly who
3838-711: The Americas on slave ships . They were preserved by the Africans in their plantation communities, and their festivals continue to be observed. In Southern African cultures , a similar masculine-feminine deity combination has appeared in other forms, particularly as the Moon and Sun deities. One Southern African cosmology consists of Hieseba or Xuba (deity, god), Gaune (evil spirits) and Khuene (people). The Hieseba includes Nladiba (male, creator sky god) and Nladisara (females, Nladiba's two wives). The Sun (female) and
3939-744: The East Semitic Ishtar, became popular, with temples across Mesopotamia. The Mesopotamian mythology of the first millennium BCE treated Anšar (later Aššur ) and Kišar as primordial deities. Marduk was a significant god among the Babylonians. He rose from an obscure deity of the third millennium BCE to become one of the most important deities in the Mesopotamian pantheon of the first millennium BCE. The Babylonians worshipped Marduk as creator of heaven, earth and humankind, and as their national god . Marduk's iconography
4040-611: The Father , God the Son , and the Holy Spirit . The first person to describe the persons of the Trinity as homooúsios ( ὁμοούσιος ; "of the same substance") was the Church Father Origen. Although most early Christian theologians (including Origen ) were Subordinationists , who believed that the Father was superior to the Son and the Son superior to the Holy Spirit, this belief was condemned as heretical by
4141-668: The Germanic deities to help suppress paganism as part of the Christianisation of the Germanic peoples . Worship of the Germanic gods has been revived in the modern period as part of the new religious movement of Heathenry . The ancient Greeks revered both gods and goddesses. These continued to be revered through the early centuries of the common era, and many of the Greek deities inspired and were adopted as part of much larger pantheon of Roman deities. The Greek religion
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4242-660: The Greek pantheon were the Twelve Olympians : Zeus, Hera , Poseidon , Athena , Apollo , Artemis , Aphrodite, Hermes , Demeter , Dionysus , Hephaestus , and Ares . Other important Greek deities included Hestia , Hades and Heracles . These deities later inspired the Dii Consentes galaxy of Roman deities. Besides the Olympians, the Greeks also worshipped various local deities. Among these were
4343-485: The Ifugao Archaeological Project. With educating and engaging with the people who inhabit this area today, researchers are working to enhance the identity that Ifugao people perceive themselves as through learning about the stories of their history through the excavations across the valley that reveal what daily life looked like for the previous inhabitants. Deity A deity or god
4444-587: The Ifugao became economically, socially, and culturally successful after Spanish colonization , and to analyze and present this to the public in a way that puts Indigenous voices at the forefront of their findings and conclusions. One study conducted analyzed various trenches across OKV observing the existence of trade ware due to this being an important tool indicating wealth, trade access and influence, and cultural practices where stoneware and ceramics were specifically studied for being non local materials and indicators of trade activity. The trade goods were dated between
4545-602: The Ifugao certain skills (God of weaving, God of farming, etc.), and gods of reproduction for specifically rice cultivation due to rice being an integral social, religious, and political part of Ifugao culture. The Ifugao's relationship with their Deities was mainly fear-based worship and worked on a process of sacrificial rituals where the Ifugao would make specific offerings their Deities may want in order to keep their lives free of evil; they would perform similar actions with dead ancestors, but were less fearful of their ancestors and performed rituals and sacrifices in veneration to keep
4646-577: The Ifugao created them more recently and in response to the Spanish Empire. Health status and diets of the villagers were affected by the Spanish colonization as discovered through the change in substance practices by paleoethnobotanical data. As taro originated in the rice terraces of the OKV, rice eventually became the main source of food as the population intensified with communication between highland and lowland communities working together upon
4747-584: The Ifugao people has been the center of a largely contested debate that consequently defines the Ifugao culture, deciding whether the rice terraces are actually over two thousand years old as first accounts argue from Western sources, or were made more recently as argued by local sources. A study as mentioned before conducted research on if rice cultivation existed during the Ifugao's occupation of OKV, when it began, how it began, what methods were used, and what symbol may rice have represented in their culture. The study analyzed presence of pollen, phytolith, and starch in
4848-421: The Ifugao traded with, but some excavated trade ware and prestige goods suggest they were trading inter- and intra-regionally. But nonetheless, due to the Ifugao's success in economic intensification and building an extensive trade network, this positioned them as one of the foundational pieces in establishing the Philippines as a major trading hub on the global scale for Southeast Asia. The Old Kiyyangan Village
4949-432: The Ifugao's relationship to Deities and the process of deification where the Ifugao believed Deities could only speak to them in dreams through fear-filled images or predictions of what is to come, so the Ifugao often lived in fear and were scared of powerful, external spirits. The dependence on dreams and divine communication was important during Spanish colonization because this led the Ifugao to distrust and not believe that
5050-415: The Ifugao, arguing that their agricultural system actually became the basis of how they socialized and structured themselves. A study initially searching for the when, why, and how rice was cultivated at OKV, also found that rice tremendously affected social stratification in Ifugao society where rice landholdings and the type of rice grown were indicators of a wealthy or poor family; dry land rice cultivation
5151-605: The Ifugao, yet pollen evidence found at OKV indicated a wet rice cultivation, the soil and weather patterns were better suited for wet rice, and ethnolinguistic analyses found that the Ifugao had their own terms for rice as well that were only developed within the Cordillera region. However, more evidence at OKV also suggested dry land rice practices, leading an assumption that the Ifugao learned dry land rice methods over time from neighboring societies. Research conducted by Acabado that worked on dating these terraces also support that
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#17327661117435252-547: The Inca people have corresponded to elements of nature. Of these, the most important ones have been Inti ( sun deity ) responsible for agricultural prosperity and as the father of the first Inca king, and Mama Qucha the goddess of the sea, lakes, rivers and waters. Inti in some mythologies is the son of Viracocha and Mama Qucha . Inca Sun deity festival Oh creator and Sun and Thunder, be forever copious, do not make us old, let all things be at peace, multiply
5353-552: The Local Government Code. The mayor, vice mayor, and the councilors are elected directly by the people through an election which is being held every three years. The Nagacadan Rice Terraces is a UNESCO Heritage Site and one of the many rice terraces in the province of Ifugao . The rice terraces cluster manifest a distinct feature - the fields are in ascending rows of terraces bisected by a river. Located in Kiangan
5454-485: The Moon (male) deities are viewed as offspring of Nladiba and two Nladisara . The Sun and Moon are viewed as manifestations of the supreme deity, and worship is timed and directed to them. In other African cultures the Sun is seen as male, while the Moon is female, both symbols of the godhead. In Zimbabwe , the supreme deity is androgynous with male-female aspects, envisioned as the giver of rain, treated simultaneously as
5555-571: The OKV, relating to the social status of men, women, and children. Most stone beads excavated were agate or carnelian and not local to the Philippines, thus were highly culturally valued for being "foreign," and were found in drastically smaller quantities than glass beads, indicating that glass beads were more common and for poorer families. An IAP study concluded that because trenches harbored stone beads and others did not, that stone beads were significantly rarer than other bead types, and that stone beads were major indicators of wealth and status, that this
5656-527: The Old Kiyyangan Village site and on the Ifugao people themselves, they were believed to have strong relationships with the dead, believed in several Deities with the Sun God as one of the main ones they worshipped, were a socially stratified and centralized society based on agricultural practices, and are known for being successfully resilient after Spanish colonization not only for maintaining
5757-521: The Proto-Germanic Gaut , which traces it to the PIE root *ghu-to- ("poured"), derived from the root *gheu- ("to pour, pour a libation "). The term *gheu- is also the source of the Greek khein "to pour". Originally the word "god" and its other Germanic cognates were neuter nouns but shifted to being generally masculine under the influence of Christianity in which the god
5858-615: The Spanish were Godly creatures because the Ifugao did not see the colonizers in their dreams, therefore could not have any connection to the Ifugao's Deities. Burial orientation is one of the significant factors in the way that funerary practices were upheld for multiple generations at this site. The research conducted at the OKV concluded that the orientation of burials was found to have religious affiliations relating to influences of Christianity by Spanish colonizers. The burials that existed before Spanish colonizers arrived tended to contrast with what burials looked like after. The orientation of
5959-483: The Sumerian deities were patron guardians of city-states . The most important deities in the Sumerian pantheon were known as the Anunnaki , and included deities known as the "seven gods who decree": An , Enlil , Enki , Ninhursag , Nanna , Utu and Inanna . After the conquest of Sumer by Sargon of Akkad , many Sumerian deities were syncretized with East Semitic ones. The goddess Inanna, syncretized with
6060-524: The Thunderer who lived in the Skyworld with his family and controlled weather patterns, and the Sun and Moon Gods who controlled untimely deaths such as men who died suddenly, and maternal and infant mortality rates; smaller deities include forest, ghost, or omen spirits that appear in the form of animals. The Deities were also split into categories such as nature gods who controlled weather and other natural events, culture gods who were believed to have taught
6161-551: The ability to preserve and develop their culture, but for establishing and developing a strong intra- and inter-regional trade of luxury items, trade ware, ceramics, and raw materials. The Ifugao are also the center of a highly contested debate defining the Ifugao that consequently defines the Ifugao and ancient Filipino culture as a whole, which is whether they created their rice terraces over two thousand years ago as first accounts suggest, or if they were created more recently. Though despite available comprehensive data and research, there
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#17327661117436262-401: The burials facing east to west or north to south are significantly in sync with the orientation of homes. Additional findings across six different burials suggest that the inhabitants at this site relied on the celestial alignment with the sun in their mortuary practices as well. The varying directions in which some burials face may also be because of the way that the sun would set and rise across
6363-582: The dawn, for instance, is cognate to Indic Ushas , Roman Aurora and Latvian Auseklis . Zeus , the Greek king of gods, is cognate to Latin Iūpiter , Old German Ziu , and Indic Dyaus , with whom he shares similar mythologies. Other deities, such as Aphrodite , originated from the Near East . Greek deities varied locally, but many shared panhellenic themes, celebrated similar festivals, rites, and ritual grammar. The most important deities in
6464-402: The dead are a major custom and daily practice to the Ifugao culture. A study conducted by the Ifugao Archaeological Project (IAP) researched sixteen trenches of neonate burials where children were typically buried directly underneath homes. The IAP found several ornaments and grave goods set within the strata as well as on top of the strata, indicating that families in these homes interacted with
6565-457: The dead as an everyday ritual for veneration. The study concluded children were buried under homes not just because they were less valued than adults, but were buried there in order for their spirits to be integrated into the family, culture, and community. This was in part due to homes symbolizing a connection between the living and the dead as understood through the land in the Ifugao culture. Another reason for children being buried underneath homes
6666-399: The deity is a principle or reality such as the idea of "soul". The Upanishads of Hinduism, for example, characterize Atman (soul, self) as deva (deity), thereby asserting that the deva and eternal supreme principle ( Brahman ) is part of every living creature, that this soul is spiritual and divine, and that to realize self-knowledge is to know the supreme. Theism is the belief in
6767-410: The excavations at this site imply that the more stone beads that were found in the burials, the more wealthy that person was among other villagers. The absence of these stone beads may be because of how valuable and unattainable they were by many inhabitants. The prevalence of glass beads that were excavated at this site among various burials suggests that these were more common among the average member of
6868-408: The existence of one or more deities. Polytheism is the belief in and worship of multiple deities, which are usually assembled into a pantheon of gods and goddesses , with accompanying rituals . In most polytheistic religions, the different gods and goddesses are representations of forces of nature or ancestral principles , and can be viewed either as autonomous or as aspects or emanations of
6969-464: The formation of an Egyptian state under the Pharaohs and their treatment as sacred kings who had exclusive rights to interact with the gods, in the later part of the 3rd millennium BCE. Through the early centuries of the common era, as Egyptians interacted and traded with neighboring cultures, foreign deities were adopted and venerated. The ancient Canaanites were polytheists who believed in
7070-796: The goat-legged god Pan (the guardian of shepherds and their flocks), Nymphs ( nature spirits associated with particular landforms), Naiads (who dwelled in springs), Dryads (who were spirits of the trees), Nereids (who inhabited the sea), river gods, satyrs (a class of lustful male nature spirits), and others. The dark powers of the underworld were represented by the Erinyes (or Furies), said to pursue those guilty of crimes against blood-relatives. The Greek deities, like those in many other Indo-European traditions, were anthropomorphic. Walter Burkert describes them as "persons, not abstractions, ideas or concepts". They had fantastic abilities and powers; each had some unique expertise and, in some aspects,
7171-870: The god of darkness and light and is called Mwari Shona . In the Lake Victoria region, the term for a deity is Lubaale , or alternatively Jok . Ancient Egyptian culture revered numerous deities. Egyptian records and inscriptions list the names of many whose nature is unknown and make vague references to other unnamed deities. Egyptologist James P. Allen estimates that more than 1,400 deities are named in Egyptian texts, whereas Christian Leitz offers an estimate of "thousands upon thousands" of Egyptian deities. Their terms for deities were nṯr (god), and feminine nṯrt (goddess); however, these terms may also have applied to any being – spirits and deceased human beings, but not demons – who in some way were outside
7272-501: The goddess Meretseger represented parts of the earth, and the god Sia represented the abstract powers of perception. Deities such as Ra and Osiris were associated with the judgement of the dead and their care during the afterlife. Major gods often had multiple roles and were involved in multiple phenomena. The first written evidence of deities are from early 3rd millennium BCE, likely emerging from prehistoric beliefs. However, deities became systematized and sophisticated after
7373-484: The grounded preoccupations of ordinary life". Religions can be categorized by how many deities they worship. Monotheistic religions accept only one deity (predominantly referred to as " God "), whereas polytheistic religions accept multiple deities. Henotheistic religions accept one supreme deity without denying other deities, considering them as aspects of the same divine principle. Nontheistic religions deny any supreme eternal creator deity , but may accept
7474-1047: The head of the pantheon, with Asherah as his divine consort and the "sons of El" as his offspring. During the later years of the Kingdom of Judah , a monolatristic faction rose to power insisting that only Yahweh was fit to be worshipped by the people of Judah. Monolatry became enforced during the reforms of King Josiah in 621 BCE. Finally, during the national crisis of the Babylonian captivity , some Judahites began to teach that deities aside from Yahweh were not just unfit to be worshipped, but did not exist. The "sons of El" were demoted from deities to angels . Ancient Mesopotamian culture in southern Iraq had numerous dingir (deities, gods and goddesses). Mesopotamian deities were almost exclusively anthropomorphic. They were thought to possess extraordinary powers and were often envisioned as being of tremendous physical size. They were generally immortal, but
7575-515: The imposition of Christianity during Spanish colonialism , the Inca people retained their original beliefs in deities through syncretism , where they overlay the Christian God and teachings over their original beliefs and practices. The male deity Inti became accepted as the Christian God, but the Andean rituals centered around Inca deities have been retained and continued thereafter into
7676-410: The individual's personal possessions like ceramics, glass or stone beads upon the grave. After the burial process begins the period of mourning which can vary having a role in the social status of such members. The grave is placed under a newly constructed protection which may consist of roofs or fences filled with offerings from the community such as food. Remembrance and respectful relationships with
7777-418: The invasion of Spaniards. This switch to rice was compared to the previous food sources of taro along with sweet potato to evaluate the nutritional quality of food in terms of serving new members of the village appropriately to the newly adopted agricultural practices. It was apparent that low class communities opted for swidden farming and higher class communities practiced wet-terraced farming. Rice proved to be
7878-419: The main and only known community to occupy the Old Kiyyangan Village site from about 700 B.P. to 170 B.P. until the Spanish burned their land in 1832 AD during Spanish colonization . The Ifugao people are thought to have been one of the first Indigenous groups and rice cultivators of the Philippines, thus making them and their history an integral part to Filipino culture. As evident in various studies conducted at
7979-415: The main sources of local economic activities which supports commerce and trade among townsfolk. Its terraced rice fields do not only provide produce for the farmers but attract tourists as well. Kiangan, belonging to the lone congressional district of the province of Ifugao , is governed by a mayor designated as its local chief executive and by a municipal council as its legislative body in accordance with
8080-643: The modern era by the Inca people. In Maya culture , Kukulkan has been the supreme creator deity , also revered as the god of reincarnation , water, fertility and wind. The Maya people built step pyramid temples to honor Kukulkan , aligning them to the Sun 's position on the spring equinox . Other deities found at Maya archaeological sites include Xib Chac —the benevolent male rain deity, and Ixchel —the benevolent female earth, weaving and pregnancy goddess. The Maya calendar had 18 months, each with 20 days (and five unlucky days of Uayeb ); each month had
8181-452: The mythologies and the 2nd millennium CE European arts, have been the anthropomorphic deities syncretized with the Greek deities. These include the six gods and six goddesses: Venus, Apollo, Mars, Diana, Minerva, Ceres, Vulcan, Juno, Mercury, Vesta, Neptune, Jupiter (Jove, Zeus); as well Bacchus, Pluto and Hercules. The non-Greek major deities include Janus, Fortuna, Vesta, Quirinus and Tellus (mother goddess, probably most ancient). Some of
8282-650: The natural account created by the philosophers. The best state is, adds Varro, where the civil theology combines the poetic mythical account with the philosopher's. The Roman deities continued to be revered in Europe through the era of Constantine, and past 313 CE when he issued the Edict of Toleration. The Inca culture has believed in Viracocha (also called Pachacutec ) as the creator deity . Viracocha has been an abstract deity to Inca culture, one who existed before he created space and time. All other deities of
8383-508: The nature of existence, guardians in daily lives as well as during wars, natural phenomena, good and evil spirits, priestly rituals, as well as linked to the journey of the souls of the dead. Christianity is a monotheistic religion in which most mainstream congregations and denominations accept the concept of the Holy Trinity . Modern orthodox Christians believe that the Trinity is composed of three equal, cosubstantial persons: God
8484-578: The non-Greek deities had likely origins in more ancient European culture such as the ancient Germanic religion, while others may have been borrowed, for political reasons, from neighboring trade centers such as those in the Minoan or ancient Egyptian civilization. The Roman deities, in a manner similar to the ancient Greeks, inspired community festivals, rituals and sacrifices led by flamines (priests, pontifs), but priestesses (Vestal Virgins) were also held in high esteem for maintaining sacred fire used in
8585-505: The original uncreated creator, with power of life, with nothing outside or beyond him. Other deities in the Polynesian pantheon include Tangaloa (god who created men), La'a Maomao (god of winds), Tu-Matauenga or Ku (god of war), Tu-Metua (mother goddess), Kane (god of procreation) and Rangi (sky god father). The Polynesian deities have been part of a sophisticated theology, addressing questions of creation,
8686-434: The people, and let there be food, and let all things be fruitful. —Inti Raymi prayers Inca people have revered many male and female deities. Among the feminine deities have been Mama Kuka (goddess of joy), Mama Ch'aska (goddess of dawn), Mama Allpa (goddess of harvest and earth, sometimes called Mama Pacha or Pachamama ), Mama Killa ( moon goddess ) and Mama Sara (goddess of grain). During and after
8787-580: The principal group of gods, while the term ásynjur (singular ásynja ) refers specifically to the female Æsir . These terms, states John Lindow, may be ultimately rooted in the Indo-European root for "breath" (as in "life giving force"), and are cognate with Old English : os (a heathen god) and Gothic : anses . Another group of deities found in Norse mythology are termed as Vanir , and are associated with fertility. The Æsir and
8888-630: The province of Ifugao in the Cordillera Administrative Region of the Philippines . The importance of this site is the presence of the Ifugao people and culture as the first inhabitants in the valley, who also represent one of the major indigenous Filipino societies for rice cultivation. This site is surrounded by rice terraces used for agricultural practices and remain heavily debated as to when and how recent these terraces formed. Artifacts found at this site suggest
8989-545: The same idea. There are great deities found across the Pacific Ocean. Some deities are found widely, and there are many local deities whose worship is limited to one or a few islands or sometimes to isolated villages on the same island. The Māori people , of what is now New Zealand, called the supreme being as Io , who is also referred elsewhere as Iho-Iho , Io-Mataaho , Io Nui , Te Io Ora , Io Matua Te Kora among other names. The Io deity has been revered as
9090-639: The sphere of everyday life. Egyptian deities typically had an associated cult, role and mythologies. Around 200 deities are prominent in the Pyramid texts and ancient temples of Egypt, many zoomorphic . Among these, were Min (fertility god), Neith (creator goddess), Anubis , Atum , Bes , Horus , Isis , Ra , Meretseger , Nut , Osiris , Shu , Sia and Thoth . Most Egyptian deities represented natural phenomenon, physical objects or social aspects of life, as hidden immanent forces within these phenomena. The deity Shu , for example represented air;
9191-561: The study's conclusion that Ifugao buried infants on an east-west axis to face the setting sun to guide them to the Underworld . Though this burial ritual changed to a west-east axis after Spanish colonization because Christian teachings believed the dead should face the rising sun in order to be reborn in a new life. These traditions start with washing the members who become deceased for purity, followed by dressing and wrapping their bodies in cloth materials or textiles, and including any of
9292-407: The temple of every living being's body, as sensory organs and mind. Deities are envisioned as a form of existence ( Saṃsāra ) after rebirth , for human beings who gain merit through an ethical life, where they become guardian deities and live blissfully in heaven , but are also subject to death when their merit is lost. The English language word deity derives from Old French deité ,
9393-533: The terraces, concluding that rice was present during the Ifugao's occupation of the site and was cultivated around 810-750 cal. B.P. (supporting the argument that the terraces were made more recently than two thousand years ago). During research, there was also debate on how rice cultivation came to the Cordillera Province because evidence of dry land rice was found at the Andarayan site somewhat near
9494-591: The universe" (God), to a "finite entity or experience, with special significance or which evokes a special feeling" (god), to "a concept in religious or philosophical context that relates to nature or magnified beings or a supra-mundane realm", to "numerous other usages". A deity is typically conceptualized as a supernatural or divine concept, manifesting in ideas and knowledge, in a form that combines excellence in some or all aspects, wrestling with weakness and questions in other aspects, heroic in outlook and actions, yet tied up with emotions and desires. In other cases,
9595-434: The universe, but does not usually intervene in the resulting world. Deism was particularly popular among western intellectuals during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Pantheism is the belief that the universe itself is God or that everything composes an all-encompassing, immanent deity. Pandeism is an intermediate position between these, proposing that the creator became a pantheistic universe. Panentheism
9696-585: The village throughout the seasons. In addition to the orientation of burials discovered, there are also multiple types of burials that are usually found in the Philippines including jar and coffin burials, unenclosed pits, stone graves, and the option of cremation which was introduced later on. Infant burials followed along with these same patterns of house orientation pointing to a strong terrestrial or cosmological meaning. This evidence as well as an oral historical account of an Ifugao soldier buried facing his enemy's home so in his death he can haunt his murderer, support
9797-543: The votive rituals for deities. Deities were also maintained in home shrines ( lararium ), such as Hestia honored in homes as the goddess of fire hearth. This Roman religion held reverence for sacred fire, and this is also found in Hebrew culture (Leviticus 6), Vedic culture's Homa, ancient Greeks and other cultures. Ancient Roman scholars such as Varro and Cicero wrote treatises on the nature of gods of their times. Varro stated, in his Antiquitates Rerum Divinarum , that it
9898-458: Was for families to cope with the increased infant mortality rates during this period. The study proved how important the treatment of ancestors through respectful interactions everyday was vital to the Ifugao people. There is evidence to suggest that the Ifugao people did have a social hierarchy based on kinship ties and agriculture , in contrast to other Filipino polities during this period that were more commonly hierarchical chiefdoms. Evidence
9999-406: Was found at this site to establish social status was determined by the beads that were found in many of the infant burials. The goods that were discovered in these burials consisted of either utilitarian or luxury goods. The concept of a kinship-based society is supported by the documented trade between lowland communities leading to the way society maintained organized in the OKV. Stone beads found in
10100-405: Was found to be used by poorer families, and families with large rice landholdings used wet rice cultivation and had a greater ability to provide large feasts. More research by Acabado also found the massive rice terraces to have been built within a two-to-three hundred year period, suggesting the Ifugao had already established a complex socio-political structure. The time of rice cultivation for
10201-414: Was polytheistic, but had no centralized church, nor any sacred texts. The deities were largely associated with myths and they represented natural phenomena or aspects of human behavior. Several Greek deities probably trace back to more ancient Indo-European traditions, since the gods and goddesses found in distant cultures are mythologically comparable and are cognates . Eos , the Greek goddess of
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