185-575: The Anunnaki (Sumerian: 𒀭𒀀𒉣𒈾 , also transcribed as Anunaki , Annunaki , Anunna , Ananaki and other variations) are a group of deities of the ancient Sumerians , Akkadians , Assyrians and Babylonians . In the earliest Sumerian writings about them, which come from the Post-Akkadian period, the Anunnaki are deities in the pantheon , descendants of An (the god of the heavens) and Ki (the goddess of earth), and their primary function
370-495: A Šurpu commentary, Anu's Elamite counterpart was Jabru . However, according to the god list An = Anum , a god bearing the name Yabnu ( ia-ab-na ) was the "Enlil of Elam." Wilfred G. Lambert concluded that Jabru and Yabnu should be considered two spellings of the same name. While Jabru is described as an Elamite god in Mesopotamian sources, no known Elamite texts mention him. In the god list Anšar = Anum , one of
555-533: A calque of Antu. An equivalence between Anu and Ahura Mazda has been proposed based on the assumption that non-Persian subjects of the Achaemenid Empire might have viewed the latter simply as a sky god. Anu was chiefly associated with the city of Uruk , where he was one of the major deities next to Inanna (Ishtar) and Nanaya, but before the end of the Neo-Babylonian period his cult had
740-619: A "deity" and various cultures have conceptualized their deities differently. Monotheistic religions typically refer to their god in masculine terms, while other religions refer to their deities in a variety of ways—male, female, hermaphroditic , or genderless. Many cultures—including the ancient Mesopotamians , Egyptians , Greeks , Romans , and Germanic peoples —have personified natural phenomena , variously as either deliberate causes or effects. Some Avestan and Vedic deities were viewed as ethical concepts. In Indian religions , deities have been envisioned as manifesting within
925-422: A base of operations in order to mine gold after discovering that the planet was rich in the precious metal. According to Sitchin, the Anunnaki hybridized their species and Homo erectus via in vitro fertilization in order to create humans as a slave species of miners. Sitchin claimed that the Anunnaki were forced to temporarily leave Earth's surface and orbit the planet when Antarctic glaciers melted, causing
1110-422: A creator God or transcendental absolute principle ( monistic theologies), which manifests immanently in nature. Henotheism accepts the existence of more than one deity, but considers all deities as equivalent representations or aspects of the same divine principle, the highest. Monolatry is the belief that many deities exist, but that only one of these deities may be validly worshipped. Monotheism
1295-407: A daughter of the male Urash, and was sometimes specifically called his firstborn daughter. In late sources, Nisaba could be called a daughter of Anu. However, as noted by Wilfred G. Lambert at least one text "seems to imply a desire not to have Anu as Nisaba's father," and instead makes her the daughter of Irḫan , in this context identified with Ea and understood as a cosmic river, "father of
1480-509: A deity's melam has on a human is described as ni , a word for the physical tingling of the flesh . Deities were almost always depicted wearing horned caps, consisting of up to seven superimposed pairs of ox-horns. They were also sometimes depicted wearing clothes with elaborate decorative gold and silver ornaments sewn into them. The ancient Mesopotamians believed that their deities lived in Heaven , after an earlier history of visiting earth in
1665-419: A deity's cult statue would be transported to the location of a battle so that the deity could watch the battle unfold. The major deities of the Mesopotamian pantheon, which included the Anunnaki, were believed to participate in the "assembly of the gods", through which the gods made all of their decisions. This assembly was seen as a divine counterpart to the semi-democratic legislative system that existed during
1850-506: A disturbance. The disturbance causes a flood, which forces the resident gods of Nippur to take shelter in the Eshumesha temple to Ninurta . Enlil is enraged at Marduk's transgression and orders the gods of Eshumesha to take Marduk and the other Anunnaki as prisoners. The Anunnaki are captured, but Marduk appoints his front-runner Mushteshirhablim to lead a revolt against the gods of Eshumesha and sends his messenger Neretagmil to alert Nabu ,
2035-574: A few of them, particularly Dumuzid , Geshtinanna , and Gugalanna were said to have either died or visited the underworld. Both male and female deities were widely venerated. In the Sumerian pantheon, deities had multiple functions, which included presiding over procreation, rains, irrigation, agriculture, destiny, and justice. The gods were fed, clothed, entertained, and worshipped to prevent natural catastrophes as well as to prevent social chaos such as pillaging, rape, or atrocities. Many of
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#17327658983262220-560: A large part of the Bīt Rēš complex was eventually destroyed by a fire. It was rebuilt as a fortress, and while a small temple was built next to it in the Parthian period, most likely Mesopotamian deities were no longer worshipped there. According to a Greek inscription dated to 111 CE, the deity worshipped in Uruk in the early first millennium was apparently otherwise unknown Gareus , whose temple
2405-468: A list patterned on those associated with Enlil. At least in some cases, long lists of divine ancestors were meant to help avoid the implications of divine incest, which were hard to reconcile with strong incest taboos attested from various periods of Mesopotamian history. Duri and Dari likely represented time understood as a primary force in creation, and their names are derived from an Akkadian phrase meaning "ever and ever." The pairing of Alala and Belili
2590-460: A narrower scope than theirs. It is often assumed that the so-called "White Temple," which dates back to the Uruk IV period (3500–3100 BCE) was his original cult center, and it is even sometimes referred to as the "Anu ziggurat " in modern literature. However, there is no evidence that Anu was actually worshipped in this structure. His presence in the oldest texts remains a matter of debate, as it
2775-595: A new ziggurat, the Ešarra (Sumerian: "house of the universe"), the biggest such structure known from Mesopotamia and second biggest overall after the Elamite complex at Chogha Zanbil . Its name was likely borrowed from a similar structure in Nippur dedicated to Enlil. Multiple explanations have been proposed for the elevation of Anu, though they must remain speculative due to lack of direct evidence. It has been argued that it
2960-655: A pantheon of deities, the chief of whom was the god El , who ruled alongside his consort Asherah and their seventy sons . Baal was the god of storm, rain, vegetation and fertility, while his consort Anat was the goddess of war and Astarte , the West Semitic equivalent to Ishtar , was the goddess of love. The people of the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah originally believed in these deities, alongside their own national god Yahweh. El later became syncretized with Yahweh , who took over El's role as
3145-505: A prehistoric Earth. Däniken explains the origins of religions as reactions to contact with an alien race , and offers interpretations of Sumerian texts and the Old Testament as evidence. In his 1976 book The Twelfth Planet , author Zecharia Sitchin claimed that the Anunnaki were actually an advanced humanoid extraterrestrial species from the undiscovered planet Nibiru , who came to Earth around 500,000 years ago and constructed
3330-496: A prehistoric female deity. A number of probable representations of deities have been discovered at 'Ain Ghazal and the works of art uncovered at Çatalhöyük reveal references to what is probably a complex mythology. Diverse African cultures developed theology and concepts of deities over their history. In Nigeria and neighboring West African countries , for example, two prominent deities (locally called Òrìṣà ) are found in
3515-613: A presiding deity, who inspired social rituals, special trading markets and community festivals. A deity with aspects similar to Kulkulkan in the Aztec culture has been called Quetzalcoatl . However, states Timothy Insoll, the Aztec ideas of deity remain poorly understood. What has been assumed is based on what was constructed by Christian missionaries . The deity concept was likely more complex than these historical records. In Aztec culture , there were hundred of deities, but many were henotheistic incarnations of one another (similar to
3700-651: A second deity acting as Nammu's spouse. She appears in a variant of Anu's genealogy in An = Anum , though as remarked by Lambert, she was "pushed out (...) into a kind of appendix." Due to the sparse attestations of Nammu it is assumed today that she "was not generally acknowledged outside Eridu." A single prayer to Papsukkal might allude to a tradition in which Anu was a son of Enmesharra . In another text, Anu and Enlil receive their positions from this deity, not necessarily peacefully. Due to his connection with various ancestral deities, Anu could be occasionally associated with
3885-663: A separate deity, Baalshamin , and Aramaic texts indicate that he was viewed as an equivalent of Hadad, rather than Anu, further east. It is sometimes proposed that in the Hellenistic period Anu was identified with the Greek god Zeus , but most Assyriologists consider this possibility to be uncertain, one exception being Eleanor Robson . Julia Krul points out authors who propose it do not clarify whether they mean if "the Seleucids made such an equation themselves (...), or that
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#17327658983264070-425: A similar trinity in his inscriptions to show he was in control of their major cult centers. After conquering Rim-Sin I's kingdom, Hammurabi of Babylon started to invoke Anu and Enlil, though not Ea, in his own formulas. Similar evidence is not available from the reign of Samsu-iluna , who only invoked Anu and Enlil in a single inscription most likely pertaining to the reconquest of southern cities. Later kings of
4255-496: A son of Enlil instead might stem from his secondary role in Mesopotamian religion. It is also possible that the comparisons between him and Ishkur contributed to the development of this genealogy. It has additionally been argued that a variant writing of Amurru's name, AN. MARTU (AN.AN.MAR.TU ) represents a conjoined deity consisting of Amurru and Anu. However, according to Paul-Alain Beaulieu it most likely should simply be read as
4440-407: A specific and flawed personality. They were not omnipotent and could be injured in some circumstances. Greek deities led to cults, were used politically and inspired votive offerings for favors such as bountiful crops, healthy family, victory in war, or peace for a loved one recently deceased. The Roman pantheon had numerous deities, both Greek and non-Greek. The more famed deities, found in
4625-533: A specific city and was expected to protect that city's interests. The deity was believed to permanently reside within that city's temple. One text mentions as many as fifty Anunnaki associated with the city of Eridu . In Inanna's Descent into the Netherworld , there are only seven Anunnaki, who reside within the Underworld and serve as judges. Inanna stands trial before them for her attempt to take over
4810-495: Is Anu!" Although Anu was a very important deity, his nature was often ambiguous and ill-defined. The number of myths focusing on him is small and he was only rarely actively worshiped. His position has therefore been described as that of a "figurehead" and "otiose deity" by Assyriologist Paul-Alain Beaulieu . Wilfred G. Lambert characterized his position as head of the pantheon as "always somewhat nominal" and noted that " Enlil in practice wielded greater power" according to
4995-475: Is a deity or deities designated by the logogram AN. INANNA. However, it has also been proposed that it represents not Anu and Inanna as a pair, as commonly assumed, but a specific manifestation of Inanna, Urkitum . Presently there is no agreement regarding this problem in scholarship and which deity or deities it refers to remains uncertain. In documents from the reign of the First Sealand dynasty ,
5180-485: Is also attested in an Old Babylonian god list from Mari . Many deities were regarded as Anu's descendants, and he could be called "the father of the great gods." It has been argued that Anu's primary role in the Sumerian pantheon was as an ancestor figure, and that the term Anunna (also Anunnaki, Anunna-anna), which referred to various Mesopotamian deities collectively, means "offspring of Anu" and designates specific gods as particularly prominent. Ishkur (Adad),
5365-404: Is an Old Babylonian incantation which might refer to her as "pure one of An," but this attestation is uncertain. In older literature, an epithet of Ashratum was often translated as "bride of An," but this is now considered to be a mistake. The Sumerian term used in it, é-gi 4 -a , equivalent of Akkadian kallatum , meant both " daughter-in-law " and "bride," but the latter meaning relied on
5550-662: Is attested as Anu's wife in documents from the Seleucid period from this city, and at that point in time became its lead goddess alongside her husband. An inscription on a votive figurine of king Lugal-kisalsi (or Lugal-giparesi), who ruled over Uruk and Ur in the twenty-fourth century BCE, refers to Nammu as the wife of Anu. Julia Krul proposes that this was a traditional pairing in Early Dynastic Uruk, but according to Frans Wiggermann no other direct references to Nammu as Anu's wife are known. A possible exception
5735-587: Is deemed to be a full deity with the Christian cross as his icon. The theological examination of Jesus Christ, of divine grace in incarnation, his non-transferability and completeness has been a historic topic. For example, the Council of Chalcedon in 451 CE declared that in "one person Jesus Christ, fullness of deity and fullness of humanity are united, the union of the natures being such that they can neither be divided nor confused". Jesus Christ, according to
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5920-455: Is derived from Proto-Germanic *guthan , from PIE *ghut- , which means "that which is invoked". Guth in the Irish language means "voice". The term *ghut- is also the source of Old Church Slavonic zovo ("to call"), Sanskrit huta- ("invoked", an epithet of Indra ), from the root *gheu(e)- ("to call, invoke."), An alternate etymology for the term "god" comes from
6105-538: Is evidence that like the latter, she could be considered a goddess associated with the earth. She is already attested in the third millennium BCE, possibly as early as in the Early Dynastic period in a god list from Abu Salabikh , though no references to her are known from Uruk from before the first millennium BCE, and even in the Neo-Babylonian period she only appears in a single letter. However, she
6290-542: Is identified both as an Asakku and as a son of Anu. The Epic of Erra describes the Sebitti as his creations, subsequently given to the eponymous god as weapons. The earliest texts do not discuss Anu's origin, and his preeminence is simply assumed. In later traditions, his father was usually Anshar , whose spouse was Kishar . Another tradition most likely regarded Alala and Belili as his parents. A larger group of his ancestors, arranged into multiple generations,
6475-473: Is impossible to conclusively identify any prehistoric figurines as representations of any kind of deities, let alone goddesses. Nonetheless, it is possible to evaluate ancient representations on a case-by-case basis and rate them on how likely they are to represent deities. The Venus of Willendorf , a female figurine found in Europe and dated to about 25,000 BCE has been interpreted by some as an exemplar of
6660-446: Is instead a sign that a connection existed between him and the Elamite god Napirisha , whose name was written with the same combination of cuneiform signs. It is possible that in the late first millennium BCE attempts at syncretizing Ishtaran and Anu were made during a period of cooperation between the theologians from Uruk, Nippur and Der , but direct evidence is presently lacking. Further deities attested as children of Anu include
6845-551: Is known from mythological and scholarly sources. Wilfred G. Lambert coined the term "Theogony of Anu" to refer to arrangements of these deities collectively. At least five versions are known from incantations, though in three out of five the first pair are Duri and Dari, and the last – Alala and Belili. A slightly different version is known from the god list An = Anum , though there are differences between individual copies as well. Lambert proposes that initially at least two different traditions existed, but they were later combined into
7030-509: Is masculine, and the related feminine equivalent is devi . Etymologically, the cognates of Devi are Latin dea and Greek thea . In Old Persian , daiva- means " demon , evil god", while in Sanskrit it means the opposite, referring to the "heavenly, divine, terrestrial things of high excellence, exalted, shining ones". The closely linked term " god " refers to "supreme being, deity", according to Douglas Harper, and
7215-459: Is mocked by her sister Athena , and is mildly rebuked by her father Zeus . Not only is the narrative parallel significant, but so is the fact that Dione's name is a feminization of Zeus's own, just as Antu is a feminine form of Anu . Dione does not appear throughout the rest of the Iliad , in which Zeus's consort is instead the goddess Hera . Burkert therefore concludes that Dione is clearly
7400-497: Is not attested in any earlier sources. The god list An = Anum refers to Nammu as the "mother who gave birth to Heaven and Earth," ama-tu-an-ki , but as noted by Frans Wiggermann, the terms an and ki were most likely understood collectively in this case. A similar reference is known from an exorcism formula assumed to predate the Middle Babylonian period . There is no indication that this act of creation involved
7585-639: Is not impossible that these statements do not reflect parentage but merely indirect descent, with an implied genealogy in which Anu was the father of Enlil, grandfather of Nanna and great-grandfather of Inanna. Furthermore, the hymn in mention also addresses her as a daughter of the moon god. Ishtaran was at least sometimes described as a son of Anu and Urash, and as a result the Old Babylonian Nippur god list associates him with Uruk . He also could be referred to as Anu Rabu (AN.GAL), "the great Anu," but Wouter Henkelman proposes this epithet
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7770-466: Is poetically compared to production of bronze from tin and copper. Ninshubur , the "archetypal vizier of the gods," was primarily associated with Inanna, but she could also be described as the sukkal (divine vizier, attendant deity) of Anu. The association between her and Anu is attested from the reign of Third Dynasty of Ur onward. Her role as a popular intercessory deity in Sumerian religion
7955-416: Is strictly monotheistic and the first statement of the shahada , or Muslim confession of faith, is that "there is no ʾilāh (deity) but Allah (God)", who is perfectly unified and utterly indivisible. An (god) Anu ( Akkadian : 𒀭𒀀𒉡 ANU , from 𒀭 an "Sky", "Heaven") or Anum , originally An ( Sumerian : 𒀭 An ), was the divine personification of the sky , king of
8140-414: Is the belief that divinity pervades the universe, but that it also transcends the universe. Agnosticism is the position that it is impossible to know for certain whether a deity of any kind exists. Atheism is the non-belief in the existence of any deity. Scholars infer the probable existence of deities in the prehistoric period from inscriptions and prehistoric arts such as cave drawings , but it
8325-429: Is the belief that only one deity exists. A monotheistic deity, known as "God", is usually described as omnipotent , omnipresent , omniscient , omnibenevolent and eternal . However, not all deities have been regarded this way and an entity does not need to be almighty, omnipresent, omniscient, omnibenevolent or eternal to qualify as a deity. Deism is the belief that only one deity exists, who created
8510-479: Is the myth Enki and the World Order , which also specifies that he was the older brother of Enki. However, Enlil's parentage was variable. The tradition in which his ancestors were the so-called Enki-Ninki deities is now considered conventional by Assyriologists, though materials pertaining to it are difficult to interpret. Enki, the ancestor of Enlil, is not to be confused with the god Enki, as indicated by
8695-460: Is the superstitious man who fears the gods, while the truly religious person venerates them as parents. Cicero, in his Academica , praised Varro for this and other insights. According to Varro, there have been three accounts of deities in the Roman society: the mythical account created by poets for theatre and entertainment, the civil account used by people for veneration as well as by the city, and
8880-489: Is typically seen as male . In contrast, all ancient Indo-European cultures and mythologies recognized both masculine and feminine deities. There is no universally accepted consensus on what a deity is, and concepts of deities vary considerably across cultures. Huw Owen states that the term "deity or god or its equivalent in other languages" has a bewildering range of meanings and significance. It has ranged from "infinite transcendent being who created and lords over
9065-417: Is uncertain if the cuneiform sign DINGIR present in them does not necessarily denote a specific god. Paul-Alain Beaulieu concludes that whether he appears in these sources is unprovable. There is also no indication that Eanna , "House of Heaven" (Sumerian: e 2 -anna; Cuneiform: 𒂍𒀭 E 2 .AN ), the main temple of Uruk in historical times, was originally the abode of Anu alone, as sometimes proposed in
9250-504: Is unclear what these sketches and paintings are and why they were made. Some engravings or sketches show animals, hunters or rituals. It was once common for archaeologists to interpret virtually every prehistoric female figurine as a representation of a single, primordial goddess, the ancestor of historically attested goddesses such as Inanna , Ishtar , Astarte , Cybele , and Aphrodite ; this approach has now generally been discredited. Modern archaeologists now generally recognize that it
9435-586: Is unknown, though it is known that it is more recent than the Old Babylonian period, and the oldest reference to the tripartite division of the sky comes from a document from the thirteenth century BCE, a version of the so-called Prayer to the Gods of the Night , whose oldest copies do not mention this concept yet. In Seleucid Uruk, Anu's astral role was extended further, and in a text composed in year 71 of
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#17327658983269620-575: Is well attested as Anu's spouse. Her name was commonly written without a divine determinative, and she was usually not regarded as a personified goddess. Another of Anu's spouses was Urash . According to Frans Wiggermann, she is his most commonly attested wife. She is well attested starting with the Sargonic period and continues to appear as a wife of Anu often until the Old Babylonian period . A different, male, deity named Urash served as
9805-451: Is well attested as one of its divine inhabitants, there is no evidence that the main deity of the temple ever changed, and Inanna was already associated with it in the earliest sources. After it declined, a new theological system developed in the same city under Seleucid rule, resulting in Anu being redefined as an active deity. As a result he was actively worshipped by inhabitants of the city in
9990-544: Is zoomorphic and is most often found in Middle Eastern archaeological remains depicted as a "snake-dragon" or a "human-animal hybrid". In Germanic languages , the terms cognate with ' god ' such as Old English : god and Old Norse : guð were originally neuter but became masculine, as in modern Germanic languages, after Christianisation due their use in referring to the Christian god . In Norse mythology , Æsir (singular áss or ǫ́ss ) are
10175-533: The Bull of Heaven episode, the former tradition might simply indicate the existence of anti-Ishtar sentiment among compilers of this work. Simultaneously Anu does not play any major role and Inanna is the sole owner of Eanna in the myths about Enmerkar and Lugalbanda , other legendary kings of Uruk commonly referenced in Mesopotamian literature. A mythological tradition in which the Eanna originally belonged to Anu, but
10360-558: The Epic of Gilgamesh in which Ishtar comes before Anu after being rejected by Gilgamesh and complains to her mother Antu, but is mildly rebuked by Anu, is directly paralleled by a scene from Book V of the Iliad . In this scene, Aphrodite , who Burkert regards as the later Greek development of Ishtar, is wounded by the Greek hero Diomedes while trying to save her son Aeneas . She flees to Mount Olympus , where she cries to her mother Dione ,
10545-800: The First Council of Nicaea in the fourth century, which declared that all three persons of the Trinity are equal. Christians regard the universe as an element in God's actualization and the Holy Spirit is seen as the divine essence that is "the unity and relation of the Father and the Son". According to George Hunsinger, the doctrine of the Trinity justifies worship in a Church, wherein Jesus Christ
10730-741: The Great Flood , which also destroyed the Anunnaki's bases on Earth. These had to be rebuilt, and the Anunnaki, needing more humans to help in this massive effort, taught mankind agriculture. Ronald H. Fritze writes that, according to Sitchin, "the Annunaki built the pyramids and all the other monumental structures from around the ancient world that ancient astronaut theorists consider so impossible to build without highly advanced technologies." Sitchin expanded on this mythology in later works, including The Stairway to Heaven (1980) and The Wars of Gods and Men (1985). In The End of Days: Armageddon and
10915-488: The Latin deitatem (nominative deitas ) or "divine nature", coined by Augustine of Hippo from deus ("god"). Deus is related through a common Proto-Indo-European (PIE) origin to *deiwos . This root yields the ancient Indian word Deva meaning "to gleam, a shining one", from *div- "to shine", as well as Greek dios " divine " and Zeus ; and Latin deus "god" ( Old Latin deivos ). Deva
11100-598: The New Testament , is the self-disclosure of the one, true God, both in his teaching and in his person; Christ, in Christian faith, is considered the incarnation of God. Ilah , ʾIlāh ( Arabic : إله ; plural: آلهة ʾālihah ), is an Arabic word meaning "god". It appears in the name of the monotheistic god of Islam as Allah ( al-Lāh ). which literally means "the god" in Arabic. Islam
11285-574: The Old Babylonian Period ( c. 1830 BC – c. 1531 BC), a new set of deities known as the Igigi are introduced. The relationship between the Anunnaki and the Igigi is unclear. On some occasions, the categories appear to be used synonymously, but in other writings, such as The Poem of Erra , there is a clear distinction between the two. In the late Akkadian Atra-Hasis epic, the Igigi are
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#173276589832611470-663: The Olympians in his Theogony . The Greek sky-god Ouranos (whose name means "Heaven") is the father of the Titans and is derived from the Hittite version of Anu. In Hesiod's account, Ouranos is castrated by his son Cronus , just as Anu was castrated by his son Kumarbi in the Hittite story. Over a series of published books (starting with Chariots of the Gods? in 1968), pseudoarchaeologist Erich von Däniken claimed that extraterrestrial "ancient astronauts" had visited
11655-465: The Seleucid era (216/215 BCE) he is described as responsible for the entire firmament. Furthermore, two circumpolar stars started to be called the "Great Anu and Antu of Heaven," and received offerings as if they were deities. They typically appear alongside the other seven major celestial bodies which were known to Mesopotamian astronomers in the late first millennium BCE: the sun , the moon , and
11840-532: The Third Dynasty of Ur ( c. 2112 BC – c. 2004 BC). The earliest known usages of the term Anunnaki come from inscriptions written during the reign of Gudea ( c. 2144–2124 BC) and the Third Dynasty of Ur. In the earliest texts, the term is applied to the most powerful and important deities in the Sumerian pantheon: the descendants of the sky-god An.This group of deities probably included
12025-559: The Vanir went to war , according to the Nordic sources. The account in Ynglinga saga describes the Æsir–Vanir War ending in truce and ultimate reconciliation of the two into a single group of gods, after both sides chose peace, exchanged ambassadors (hostages), and intermarried. The Norse mythology describes the cooperation after the war, as well as differences between the Æsir and
12210-584: The Vanir which were considered scandalous by the other side. The goddess Freyja of the Vanir taught magic to the Æsir , while the two sides discover that while Æsir forbid mating between siblings , Vanir accepted such mating. Temples hosting images of Germanic gods (such as Thor , Odin and Freyr ), as well as pagan worship rituals, continued in Scandinavia into the 12th century, according to historical records. It has been proposed that over time, Christian equivalents were substituted for
12395-528: The Yoruba religion , namely the god Ogun and the goddess Osun . Ogun is the primordial masculine deity as well as the archdivinity and guardian of occupations such as tools making and use, metal working, hunting, war, protection and ascertaining equity and justice. Osun is an equally powerful primordial feminine deity and a multidimensional guardian of fertility, water, maternal, health, social relations, love and peace. Ogun and Osun traditions were brought into
12580-442: The avatar concept of Hinduism). Unlike Hinduism and other cultures, Aztec deities were usually not anthropomorphic, and were instead zoomorphic or hybrid icons associated with spirits, natural phenomena or forces. The Aztec deities were often represented through ceramic figurines, revered in home shrines. The Polynesian people developed a theology centered on numerous deities, with clusters of islands having different names for
12765-429: The underworld . One Assyrian explanatory text mentions Antu making funerary offerings for him. However, according to Julia Krul, it is impossible to tell how widespread the recognition of this aspect of his character was, and broad statements about Anu being outright identified with deities of the underworld in the theology of Seleucid Uruk should be generally avoided. While it is often assumed that Hurrian Alalu
12950-468: The weather god Teshub . It is possible that this narrative was later the inspiration for the castration of Ouranos in Hesiod 's Theogony . It has also been proposed that in the Hellenistic period Anu might have been identified with Zeus , though this remains uncertain. Anu was a divine representation of the sky, as indicated by his name, which simply means "sky" in Sumerian . In Akkadian , it
13135-473: The "Great Gods", build Esagila , a "splendid" temple dedicated to Marduk, Ea, and Ellil. In the eighth-century BC Poem of Erra , the Anunnaki are described as the brothers of the god Nergal and are depicted as antagonistic towards humanity. A badly damaged text from the Neo-Assyrian Period (911 – 612 BC) describes Marduk leading his army of Anunnaki into the sacred city of Nippur and causing
13320-490: The "seat" of a deity known from various topographical texts from both Babylonia and Assyria likely also refer to a representation in the form of an emblem placed on a pedestal. It has been pointed out that Anu's symbolic depictions were identical to Enlil's. A similar symbol could also represent Assur in the Neo-Assyrian period . All three of these gods could be depicted in this form in the same reliefs. Ki , "earth,"
13505-465: The "seven gods who decree": An , Enlil , Enki , Ninhursag , Nanna , Utu , and Inanna . Although certain deities are described as members of the Anunnaki, no complete list of the names of all the Anunnaki has survived and they are usually only referred to as a cohesive group in literary texts. Furthermore, Sumerian texts describe the Anunnaki inconsistently and do not agree on how many Anunnaki there were, or what their divine function was. Originally,
13690-476: The Akkadian phrase Il Amurrim , "the god of Amurru ," as indicated by a Hurrian translation known from a bilingual text from Emar , e-ni a-mu-ri-we , which has the same meaning. Texts from the reign of Rim-Sîn I and Samsu-iluna identify the love goddess Nanaya as a daughter of Anu. This notion is also present in an inscription of Esarhaddon . Paul-Alain Beaulieu speculates that Nanaya developed in
13875-711: The Americas on slave ships . They were preserved by the Africans in their plantation communities, and their festivals continue to be observed. In Southern African cultures , a similar masculine-feminine deity combination has appeared in other forms, particularly as the Moon and Sun deities. One Southern African cosmology consists of Hieseba or Xuba (deity, god), Gaune (evil spirits) and Khuene (people). The Hieseba includes Nladiba (male, creator sky god) and Nladisara (females, Nladiba's two wives). The Sun (female) and
14060-404: The Anunnaki appear to have been heavenly deities with immense powers. In the poem Enki and the World Order , the Anunnaki "do homage" to Enki, sing hymns of praise in his honor, and "take up their dwellings" among the people of Sumer. The same composition twice states that the Anunnaki "decree the fates of mankind". Virtually every major deity in the Sumerian pantheon was regarded as the patron of
14245-461: The Anunnaki are referred to as karuileš šiuneš , which means "former ancient gods", or kattereš šiuneš , which means "gods of the earth". Hittite and Hurrian treaties were often sworn by the old gods in order to ensure that the oaths would be kept. In one myth, the gods are threatened by the stone giant Ullikummi , so Ea (the later name for Enki) commands the Former Gods to find the weapon that
14430-403: The Anunnaki. It also incorporates dragons , Dracula , and draconian laws, these three elements apparently linked only by superficial linguistic similarity. He formulated his views on the Anunnaki in the 1990s and has written several books about his theory. Deity A deity or god is a supernatural being considered to be sacred and worthy of worship due to having authority over
14615-466: The British conspiracy theorist who popularised the reptilian conspiracy theory , has claimed that the reptilian overlords of his theory are in fact the Anunnaki. Clearly influenced by Sitchin's writings, Icke adapts them "in favor of his own New Age and conspiratorial agenda". Icke's speculation on the Anunnaki incorporates far-right views on history, positing an Aryan master race descended by blood from
14800-521: The Eanki and the Egalankia, possibly located in Uruk. In the Neo-Babylonian period , Anu only had a small sanctuary in Uruk. He has been described as a comparatively minor deity in the religious practice of this period. While multiple Neo-Babylonian archives from Uruk have been excavated and published, so far research revealed only a small number of people bearing theophoric names invoking Anu before
14985-683: The East Semitic Ishtar, became popular, with temples across Mesopotamia. The Mesopotamian mythology of the first millennium BCE treated Anšar (later Aššur ) and Kišar as primordial deities. Marduk was a significant god among the Babylonians. He rose from an obscure deity of the third millennium BCE to become one of the most important deities in the Mesopotamian pantheon of the first millennium BCE. The Babylonians worshipped Marduk as creator of heaven, earth and humankind, and as their national god . Marduk's iconography
15170-611: The Father , God the Son , and the Holy Spirit . The first person to describe the persons of the Trinity as homooúsios ( ὁμοούσιος ; "of the same substance") was the Church Father Origen. Although most early Christian theologians (including Origen ) were Subordinationists , who believed that the Father was superior to the Son and the Son superior to the Holy Spirit, this belief was condemned as heretical by
15355-616: The Germanic deities to help suppress paganism as part of the Christianisation of the Germanic peoples . Worship of the Germanic gods has been revived in the modern period as part of the new religious movement of Heathenry . The ancient Greeks revered both gods and goddesses. These continued to be revered through the early centuries of the common era, and many of the Greek deities inspired and were adopted as part of much larger pantheon of Roman deities. The Greek religion
15540-660: The Greek pantheon were the Twelve Olympians : Zeus, Hera , Poseidon , Athena , Apollo , Artemis , Aphrodite, Hermes , Demeter , Dionysus , Hephaestus , and Ares . Other important Greek deities included Hestia , Hades and Heracles . These deities later inspired the Dii Consentes galaxy of Roman deities. Besides the Olympians, the Greeks also worshipped various local deities. Among these were
15725-640: The Hurrio-Hittite religion; instead, the Hurrians and Hittites sought to communicate with the old gods through the ritual sacrifice of a piglet in a pit dug in the ground. The old gods were often invoked to perform ritual purifications . The Hittite account of the old gods' banishment to the Underworld is closely related with the Greek poet Hesiod 's narrative of the overthrow of the Titans by
15910-547: The Inca people have corresponded to elements of nature. Of these, the most important ones have been Inti ( sun deity ) responsible for agricultural prosperity and as the father of the first Inca king, and Mama Qucha the goddess of the sea, lakes, rivers and waters. Inti in some mythologies is the son of Viracocha and Mama Qucha . Inca Sun deity festival Oh creator and Sun and Thunder, be forever copious, do not make us old, let all things be at peace, multiply
16095-584: The Mesopotamians. Beaulieu similarly states that functionally the active head god was Enlil and later Marduk in Babylonia and Ashur in Assyria , not Anu. Evidence from Lagash indicates that at least in the Early Dynastic period, during the reign of Eannatum and Entemena , it was Enlil, rather than Anu, who was the head of the pantheon of this city, though later offering lists provide evidence on
16280-485: The Moon (male) deities are viewed as offspring of Nladiba and two Nladisara . The Sun and Moon are viewed as manifestations of the supreme deity, and worship is timed and directed to them. In other African cultures the Sun is seen as male, while the Moon is female, both symbols of the godhead. In Zimbabwe , the supreme deity is androgynous with male-female aspects, envisioned as the giver of rain, treated simultaneously as
16465-455: The Netherworld , depicting them as chthonic Underworld deities. In an abbreviated Akkadian version of Inanna's Descent written in the early second millennium, Ereshkigal , the queen of the Underworld, comments that she "drink[s] water with the Anunnaki". Later in the same poem, Ereshkigal orders her servant Namtar to fetch the Anunnaki from Egalgina, to "decorate the threshold steps with coral", and to "seat them on golden thrones". During
16650-755: The Prophecy of the Return (2007), Sitchin predicted that the Anunnaki would return to earth, possibly as soon as 2012 , corresponding to the end of the Mesoamerican Long Count calendar . Sitchin's writings have been universally rejected by mainstream historians, who have labelled his books as pseudoarchaeology , asserting that Sitchin seems to deliberately misrepresent Sumerian texts by quoting them out of context, truncating quotations, and mistranslating Sumerian words to give them radically different meanings from their accepted definitions. David Icke ,
16835-521: The Proto-Germanic Gaut , which traces it to the PIE root *ghu-to- ("poured"), derived from the root *gheu- ("to pour, pour a libation "). The term *gheu- is also the source of the Greek khein "to pour". Originally the word "god" and its other Germanic cognates were neuter nouns but shifted to being generally masculine under the influence of Christianity in which the god
17020-483: The Sumerian deities were patron guardians of city-states . The most important deities in the Sumerian pantheon were known as the Anunnaki , and included deities known as the "seven gods who decree": An , Enlil , Enki , Ninhursag , Nanna , Utu and Inanna . After the conquest of Sumer by Sargon of Akkad , many Sumerian deities were syncretized with East Semitic ones. The goddess Inanna, syncretized with
17205-439: The Underworld; they deem her guilty of hubris and condemn her to death. Major deities in Sumerian mythology were associated with specific celestial bodies. Inanna was believed to be the planet Venus . Utu was believed to be the sun. Nanna was the moon. An was identified with all the stars of the equatorial sky , Enlil with those of the northern sky , and Enki with those of the southern sky . The path of Enlil's celestial orbit
17390-533: The Ur III rulers mentioning the Eanna, even though he does appear in offering lists. However, royal inscriptions from the Old Babylonian period indicate that Anu was believed to dwell in the Eanna. In the Old Babylonian version of the Epic of Gilgamesh , Eanna is described only as the dwelling of Anu, but the later "Standard Babylonian" version associates it both with Ishtar and Anu. It has been proposed that similar to
17575-517: The Urukean priest-scholars convinced their new kings of the similarity between the two gods (...), or even that they genuinely believed that Anu and Zeus were the same." No direct evidence of any of these possibilities is available. According to Walter Burkert , a researcher of ancient Greek religion, direct literary parallels exist between Anu and the Zeus. According to him, the scene from Tablet VI of
17760-544: The basis of the Enūma Eliš . Anu briefly appears in the Akkadian Epic of Gilgamesh , in which his daughter Ishtar (the Akkadian counterpart of Inanna) persuades him to give her the Bull of Heaven so that she may send it to attack Gilgamesh . The incident results in the death of the Bull of Heaven and a leg being thrown at Ishtar's head. In another myth, Anu summons the mortal hero Adapa before him for breaking
17945-477: The brother of a comparatively lower ranked deity. Enlil could be called a son of Anu, as already attested in an inscription of Lugalzagesi . Xianhua Wang proposes that this development was meant to reconcile a northern tradition, in which the king of the gods was Enlil, with a southern one, where the same role was played by Anu, though even in the south Lagash seemingly belonged to this proposed Enlil tradition. Another source which presents Enlil as Anu's son
18130-538: The case of Anu and Zeus but also remains uncertain. Beaulieu instead proposes that Anu's rise was in part inspired by a network of syncretism associations between him, Anshar , who was also worshiped in Uruk, and the Assyrian head god Ashur , who in Assyria could be identified with the latter. However, Julia Krul points out there is no certainty that Anshar was actually understood as Ashur in Uruk, let alone that he
18315-525: The center of Uruk's religious life and economy, and made the creation of a new system centered on the worship of Anu and his spouse of Antu , rather than Ishtar and Nanaya, possible. The details of its early development are not well understood, as Mesopotamian texts from the later years of Achaemenid rule pertaining to temple administration and other religious affairs are scarce. The city as a whole did not decline, and it served various administrative and military purposes, as attested for example in documents from
18500-430: The changed in favor of Anu accelerated during the reign of Xerxes I . After a rebellion of the northern Babylonian cities against Persian rule in 484 BCE, this king seemingly reorganized the traditional structure of Mesopotamian clergy, and while Uruk did not rebel, it was not exempt from changes. It has been proposed that the older priests, who were often connected to the northern cities and were predominantly involved in
18685-422: The context of a local theological system in which Anu and Inanna were viewed as a couple, and that she was initially regarded as their daughter. However, as noted by Olga Drewnowska-Rymarz, direct references to Nanaya as the daughter of Inanna are not common, and it is possible this epithet was not treated literally, but rather as an indication of closeness between them. Furthermore, Nanaya could also be regarded as
18870-527: The contrary, possibly indicating a change occurred during the reign of either the Sargonic dynasty or Gudea . Xianhua Wang points out that in the Early Dynastic period , the rulers who mention Anu in the inscriptions and refer to him as lugal kur-kur , "king of the lands," seem to be connected with either Ur or Uruk , while elsewhere the same epithet designates Enlil instead. A text known from copies from Shuruppak and Ebla only refers to Anu as
19055-526: The correct translation of the sign AN in this case instead. The so-called Babylonian Temple List most likely composed in the first millennium BCE mentions no temples of Anu, though with the exception of Larsa, Ur and Eridu the southernmost cities are generally poorly represented in it. A single liturgical text indicates that a temple of Anu called Ekinamma possibly existed in Kesh . The hymn BRM IV 8 lists ten names of temples associated with him, including
19240-533: The cult of Anu appears to be flourishing. A new temple, dedicated jointly to him and Antu, the Bīt Rēš (head temple) was constructed at some point and became the new center of the city s religious life. Oldest dated attestation of this structure comes from a text which was apparently originally compiled during "the reign of Seleukos and Antiochos," presumably either Seleucus I Nicator and Antiochus I Soter (292/1 – 281/0 BCE) or of Antiochus I and his son Seleucus (280/79 – 267/6 BCE). The Bīt Rēš complex also included
19425-415: The cult of Ishtar, were replaced by a number of powerful local families dedicated to Anu. Julia Krul suggests that their members likely planned to expand the scope of Anu's cult in the Neo-Babylonian period already, but were unable to do so due to the interests of the kings, who favored Marduk as the head of the pantheon. Xerxes' retaliation against the clergy of Uruk resulted in the collapse of Eanna as
19610-582: The dawn, for instance, is cognate to Indic Ushas , Roman Aurora and Latvian Auseklis . Zeus , the Greek king of gods, is cognate to Latin Iūpiter , Old German Ziu , and Indic Dyaus , with whom he shares similar mythologies. Other deities, such as Aphrodite , originated from the Near East . Greek deities varied locally, but many shared panhellenic themes, celebrated similar festivals, rites, and ritual grammar. The most important deities in
19795-399: The deity is a principle or reality such as the idea of "soul". The Upanishads of Hinduism, for example, characterize Atman (soul, self) as deva (deity), thereby asserting that the deva and eternal supreme principle ( Brahman ) is part of every living creature, that this soul is spiritual and divine, and that to realize self-knowledge is to know the supreme. Theism is the belief in
19980-456: The different spelling of their names in cuneiform . In yet another tradition, Enlil's father was Lugaldukuga , but the texts placing him in this role are relatively late. It is first attested in the god list An = Anum , most likely composed in the Kassite period . Amurru (Martu) was universally regarded as a son of Anu. Dietz-Otto Edzard argued that the fact he was not regarded as
20165-493: The divine "king of Uruk." In later inscriptions from the period of the Old Babylonian Empire , Enlil could be mentioned both alongside Anu or on his own as the head of the pantheon. A trinity consisting of both of them and Ea is also attested. Only in Uruk in the final centuries of the first millennium BCE a change occurred, and Anu was reinvented by theologians as an active god. In Mesopotamian astronomy ,
20350-513: The divine representation of the planet Mercury (in Seleucid Uruk), and possibly the male Urash . Whether Anu was the father of Shara in the tradition of his cult center, Umma , cannot be determined with a certainty, as the most direct reference, the phrase aia DINGIR ù-TU-zu in a hymn, has two possible translations: "your father An who engendered you," or "your divine father who engendered you." Additionally, some references to Anu as
20535-487: The dyad of Enlil and Ea (Enki) replaced the triad containing Anu. The only god list known from the Sealand archives does not mention Anu at all, and simply begins with Enlil. He is nonetheless attested in a few offering lists. Furthermore, it is possible the name of the king Akurduana might be theophoric and should be translated as "raging flood of Anu," though this remains uncertain and the ordinary word "heaven" might be
20720-739: The existence of any cult of them has yet been unearthed. This is likely because each member of the Anunnaki had his or her own individual cult, separate from the others. Similarly, no representations of the Anunnaki as a complete group have yet been discovered, although a few depictions of two or three individual members together have been identified. Deities in ancient Mesopotamia were almost exclusively anthropomorphic . They were thought to possess extraordinary powers and were often envisioned as being of tremendous physical size. The deities typically wore melam , an ambiguous substance which "covered them in terrifying splendor". Melam could also be worn by heroes, kings, giants, and even demons. The effect that seeing
20905-408: The existence of one or more deities. Polytheism is the belief in and worship of multiple deities, which are usually assembled into a pantheon of gods and goddesses , with accompanying rituals . In most polytheistic religions, the different gods and goddesses are representations of forces of nature or ancestral principles , and can be viewed either as autonomous or as aspects or emanations of
21090-481: The father of a specific deity might be metaphorical or indirect, as in the case of Nanna (typically a son of Enlil and Ninlil ) or Nungal . Anu could also be regarded as the father of various demons. Lamashtu was viewed his daughter. A group of seven, eight or nine Asakku demons called "the sons of Anu" is also known. In a text referred to as the Nippur Compendium by modern researchers, Latarak
21275-565: The final centuries of the history of ancient Mesopotamia. Multiple traditions regarding the identity of Anu's spouse existed, though three of them— Ki , Urash , and Antu —were at various points in time equated with each other, and all three represented earth, similar to how he represented heaven. In a fourth tradition, more sparsely attested, his wife was the goddess Nammu instead. In addition to listing his spouses and children, god lists also often enumerated his various ancestors, such as Anshar or Alala . A variant of one such family tree formed
21460-539: The flood comes, Ishtar (the East Semitic equivalent to Inanna) and the Anunnaki mourn over the destruction of humanity. In the Babylonian Enûma Eliš , Marduk assigns the Anunnaki their positions. A late Babylonian version of the epic mentions 600 Anunnaki of the underworld, but only 300 Anunnaki of heaven, indicating the existence of a complex underworld cosmology . In gratitude, the Anunnaki,
21645-464: The formation of an Egyptian state under the Pharaohs and their treatment as sacred kings who had exclusive rights to interact with the gods, in the later part of the 3rd millennium BCE. Through the early centuries of the common era, as Egyptians interacted and traded with neighboring cultures, foreign deities were adopted and venerated. The ancient Canaanites were polytheists who believed in
21830-796: The goat-legged god Pan (the guardian of shepherds and their flocks), Nymphs ( nature spirits associated with particular landforms), Naiads (who dwelled in springs), Dryads (who were spirits of the trees), Nereids (who inhabited the sea), river gods, satyrs (a class of lustful male nature spirits), and others. The dark powers of the underworld were represented by the Erinyes (or Furies), said to pursue those guilty of crimes against blood-relatives. The Greek deities, like those in many other Indo-European traditions, were anthropomorphic. Walter Burkert describes them as "persons, not abstractions, ideas or concepts". They had fantastic abilities and powers; each had some unique expertise and, in some aspects,
22015-483: The god Zababa , whose rise was likely rooted simply in the presence of the word sukkal in his name. In the context of the so-called "antiquarian theology" relying largely on god lists, which developed in Uruk under Achaemenid and Seleucid rule, he was fully identified with Ninshubur and thus became Anu's sukkal and one of the eighteen major deities of the city. He was not worshiped in this city earlier. According to
22200-870: The god of darkness and light and is called Mwari Shona . In the Lake Victoria region, the term for a deity is Lubaale , or alternatively Jok . Ancient Egyptian culture revered numerous deities. Egyptian records and inscriptions list the names of many whose nature is unknown and make vague references to other unnamed deities. Egyptologist James P. Allen estimates that more than 1,400 deities are named in Egyptian texts, whereas Christian Leitz offers an estimate of "thousands upon thousands" of Egyptian deities. Their terms for deities were nṯr (god), and feminine nṯrt (goddess); however, these terms may also have applied to any being – spirits and deceased human beings, but not demons – who in some way were outside
22385-445: The god of literacy. When the Eshumesha gods hear Nabu speak, they come out of their temple to search for him. Marduk defeats the Eshumesha gods and takes 360 of them as prisoners of war, including Enlil himself. Enlil protests that the Eshumesha gods are innocent, so Marduk puts them on trial before the Anunnaki. The text ends with a warning from Damkianna (another name for Ninhursag) to the gods and to humanity, pleading them not to repeat
22570-501: The goddess Meretseger represented parts of the earth, and the god Sia represented the abstract powers of perception. Deities such as Ra and Osiris were associated with the judgement of the dead and their care during the afterlife. Major gods often had multiple roles and were involved in multiple phenomena. The first written evidence of deities are from early 3rd millennium BCE, likely emerging from prehistoric beliefs. However, deities became systematized and sophisticated after
22755-478: The gods , and ancestor of many of the deities in ancient Mesopotamian religion . He was regarded as a source of both divine and human kingship, and opens the enumerations of deities in many Mesopotamian texts. At the same time, his role was largely passive, and he was not commonly worshipped. It is sometimes proposed that the Eanna temple located in Uruk originally belonged to him, rather than Inanna , but while he
22940-550: The gods of the universe." While Inanna (Ishtar) could be regarded as the daughter of Anu and Antu, the view that she was a daughter of Nanna and Ningal is agreed to be the most commonly attested tradition regarding her parentage. While the "Standard Babylonian" version of the Epic of Gilgamesh , an astronomical text and the Hymn to the Queen of Nippur refer to her directly as Anu's daughter, according to Paul-Alain Beaulieu it
23125-1047: The head of the pantheon, with Asherah as his divine consort and the "sons of El" as his offspring. During the later years of the Kingdom of Judah , a monolatristic faction rose to power insisting that only Yahweh was fit to be worshipped by the people of Judah. Monolatry became enforced during the reforms of King Josiah in 621 BCE. Finally, during the national crisis of the Babylonian captivity , some Judahites began to teach that deities aside from Yahweh were not just unfit to be worshipped, but did not exist. The "sons of El" were demoted from deities to angels . Ancient Mesopotamian culture in southern Iraq had numerous dingir (deities, gods and goddesses). Mesopotamian deities were almost exclusively anthropomorphic. They were thought to possess extraordinary powers and were often envisioned as being of tremendous physical size. They were generally immortal, but
23310-515: The imposition of Christianity during Spanish colonialism , the Inca people retained their original beliefs in deities through syncretism , where they overlay the Christian God and teachings over their original beliefs and practices. The male deity Inti became accepted as the Christian God, but the Andean rituals centered around Inca deities have been retained and continued thereafter into
23495-494: The known pairs or associated with the underworld, and Enurulla and Ninurulla, the "lord" and "lady" of the "primeval city," whose inclusion in Anu's family tree most likely reflected "the importance of the city in ancient Mesopotamian thought." The genealogy of gods presented in the Enūma Eliš is a derivative of the lists of Anu's ancestors from earlier sources. The pairs listed in this composition are Apsu and Tiamat , Lahmu and Lahamu, and Anshar and Kishar. The first of them
23680-402: The medicine goddesses Ninisina and Ninkarrak (also directly identified as daughters of his wife Urash), Bau (who could be called his firstborn daughter), the weaver goddess Uttu (in a single source), the messenger god Papsukkal , Geshtinanna (in a hymn of Shulgi , which also mentions Urash as her mother), the fire god Gibil (and through association with him also Nuska ), Šiḫṭu,
23865-643: The modern era by the Inca people. In Maya culture , Kukulkan has been the supreme creator deity , also revered as the god of reincarnation , water, fertility and wind. The Maya people built step pyramid temples to honor Kukulkan , aligning them to the Sun 's position on the spring equinox . Other deities found at Maya archaeological sites include Xib Chac —the benevolent male rain deity, and Ixchel —the benevolent female earth, weaving and pregnancy goddess. The Maya calendar had 18 months, each with 20 days (and five unlucky days of Uayeb ); each month had
24050-423: The myth Enki and Ninmah , but a hymn from the reign of Ishme-Dagan confirms that a tradition in which his mother was Urash instead also existed. In texts dedicated to Ishkur, he and Enki could be referred to as twins, but no analogous epithet can be found in compositions which focus on the latter god, according to Daniel Schwmer because due to his higher rank in the pantheon he would not benefit from being called
24235-664: The mythological texts, and that a god's statue was a physical embodiment of the god himself. As such, cult statues were given constant care and attention and a set of priests was assigned to tend to them. These priests would clothe the statues and place feasts before them so they could "eat". A deity's temple was believed to be that deity's literal place of residence. The gods had boats, full-sized barges which were normally stored inside their temples and were used to transport their cult statues along waterways during various religious festivals . The gods also had chariots , which were used for transporting their cult statues by land. Sometimes
24420-452: The mythologies and the 2nd millennium CE European arts, have been the anthropomorphic deities syncretized with the Greek deities. These include the six gods and six goddesses: Venus, Apollo, Mars, Diana, Minerva, Ceres, Vulcan, Juno, Mercury, Vesta, Neptune, Jupiter (Jove, Zeus); as well Bacchus, Pluto and Hercules. The non-Greek major deities include Janus, Fortuna, Vesta, Quirinus and Tellus (mother goddess, probably most ancient). Some of
24605-568: The names of Anu is Hamurnu, derived from the Hurrian word referring to heaven. However, while Hurrians did worship earth and heaven , they did not regard them as personified deities. Furthermore, Anu appears under his own name in Hurrian mythology. While Robert Monti argues that the Canaanites seem to have ascribed Anu's attributes to El , no equivalents of Anu were actually present in
24790-650: The natural account created by the philosophers. The best state is, adds Varro, where the civil theology combines the poetic mythical account with the philosopher's. The Roman deities continued to be revered in Europe through the era of Constantine, and past 313 CE when he issued the Edict of Toleration. The Inca culture has believed in Viracocha (also called Pachacutec ) as the creator deity . Viracocha has been an abstract deity to Inca culture, one who existed before he created space and time. All other deities of
24975-508: The nature of existence, guardians in daily lives as well as during wars, natural phenomena, good and evil spirits, priestly rituals, as well as linked to the journey of the souls of the dead. Christianity is a monotheistic religion in which most mainstream congregations and denominations accept the concept of the Holy Trinity . Modern orthodox Christians believe that the Trinity is composed of three equal, cosubstantial persons: God
25160-578: The non-Greek deities had likely origins in more ancient European culture such as the ancient Germanic religion, while others may have been borrowed, for political reasons, from neighboring trade centers such as those in the Minoan or ancient Egyptian civilization. The Roman deities, in a manner similar to the ancient Greeks, inspired community festivals, rituals and sacrifices led by flamines (priests, pontifs), but priestesses (Vestal Virgins) were also held in high esteem for maintaining sacred fire used in
25345-505: The original uncreated creator, with power of life, with nothing outside or beyond him. Other deities in the Polynesian pantheon include Tangaloa (god who created men), La'a Maomao (god of winds), Tu-Matauenga or Ku (god of war), Tu-Metua (mother goddess), Kane (god of procreation) and Rangi (sky god father). The Polynesian deities have been part of a sophisticated theology, addressing questions of creation,
25530-406: The pantheon. He could be described as the king of the gods, and was believed to be the source of all legitimate power, who bestowed the right to rule upon gods and kings alike. The highest god in the pantheon was said to possess the anûtu or anuti ( a-nu-ti ), which means "heavenly power" or more literally Anuship. In the Babylonian Enûma Eliš , the gods praise Marduk, shouting "Your word
25715-489: The pantheons of various ancient Syrian states. Both the head of the hinterland pantheon, Dagan , and the head of the coastal pantheon, El, were regarded as analogous to Enlil, rather than Anu. Monti additionally describes a god he refers to as "Shamem" as the most direct equivalent to Anu in the Canaanite pantheon and as a personification of the sky, but this name was a title of the weather god Baal which developed into
25900-434: The past. It was already associated with Inanna in the fourth millennium BCE, and her role as the tutelary goddess of Uruk most likely dates at least to this period as well. Julia Krul proposes that even if Anu was already worshiped in the Uruk period, he likely had to share the Eanna temple with Inanna. The oldest texts do not mention the Eanna yet, and it is not certain if a sanctuary most likely called "Ean" attested in them
26085-434: The people, and let there be food, and let all things be fruitful. —Inti Raymi prayers Inca people have revered many male and female deities. Among the feminine deities have been Mama Kuka (goddess of joy), Mama Ch'aska (goddess of dawn), Mama Allpa (goddess of harvest and earth, sometimes called Mama Pacha or Pachamama ), Mama Killa ( moon goddess ) and Mama Sara (goddess of grain). During and after
26270-429: The planets Nebēru ( Jupiter ), Dilbat ( Venus ), Šiḫṭu ( Mercury ), Kayamānu ( Saturn ), and Ṣalbatānu ( Mars ). Anu almost never appears in Mesopotamian artwork and has no known recognizable anthropomorphic iconography. References to him holding typical symbols of divine kingship, such as a scepter and a ring-shaped object, are known from textual sources. A text from the Kassite period explains that Anu's symbol
26455-580: The principal group of gods, while the term ásynjur (singular ásynja ) refers specifically to the female Æsir . These terms, states John Lindow, may be ultimately rooted in the Indo-European root for "breath" (as in "life giving force"), and are cognate with Old English : os (a heathen god) and Gothic : anses . Another group of deities found in Norse mythology are termed as Vanir , and are associated with fertility. The Æsir and
26640-470: The reign of Ur-Nammu . Their location is uncertain, but Andrew R. George tentatively proposes Ur . In the following Isin-Larsa period , kings of Isin made no reference to Anu in their year formulas. Rim-Sîn I of Larsa revived the tradition and invoked the traditional triad in them, possibly to show that he planned to control all of southern Babylonia. It has been also suggested that one of his predecessors, Gungunum , invoked Anu, Enlil and Nanna as
26825-490: The reign of Darius II. It has even been described as the biggest and most prosperous city in Mesopotamia in the final centuries of the first millennium BCE. It is assumed that Anu's ascent to the top of the official pantheon was complete by the year 420 BCE. In theophoric names, he already predominates in economic documents from the reigns of Artaxerxes I and Darius II . In sources from the following Seleucid period,
27010-528: The reign of Nabonidus, with a total of five being mentioned in known documents according to the highest estimate. The most historically notable example is Anu-aḫu-iddin, who was the governor of Uruk during the reign of Nabopolassar . The number of such names started to rise during the reign of Nabonidus . Documents from the reign of Darius I show further growth, though names invoking chiefly northern Babylonian deities, as well as Nanaya, Ishtar and Shamash (from Larsa) remain numerous. It has been proposed that
27195-460: The same cycle, Song of Ḫedammu . The order of deities in international treaties also supports the notion that Alalu and Kumarbi belong to the same line, but Anu does not. Hittitologist Gary Beckman notes that the two lines were seemingly only united with the birth of the new generation of gods ( Teshub , Tashmishu and others), a result of Kumarbi's castration of Anu, which resulted in a "burden," Anu's seed, being placed inside him. The process
27380-407: The same divine principle. Nontheistic religions deny any supreme eternal creator deity , but may accept a pantheon of deities which live, die and may be reborn like any other being. Although most monotheistic religions traditionally envision their god as omnipotent , omnipresent , omniscient , omnibenevolent , and eternal , none of these qualities are essential to the definition of
27565-465: The same dynasty only infrequently mentioned the pair, most likely as a part of ceremonial formulas meant to tie their reigns to a longer tradition. In Assyria , Anu appears for the first time in an inscription of Shamshi-Adad I , who described him as one of the gods who bestowed kingship upon him. A temple of Adad which he built in Assur later came to be dedicated to both the weather god and Anu. It
27750-399: The same figure. The oldest of the Anunnaki was Enlil , the god of air and chief god of the Sumerian pantheon. The Sumerians believed that, until Enlil was born, heaven and earth were inseparable. Then, Enlil split heaven and earth in two and carried away the earth while his father An carried away the sky. The Anunnaki are chiefly mentioned in literary texts and very little evidence to support
27935-545: The same idea. There are great deities found across the Pacific Ocean. Some deities are found widely, and there are many local deities whose worship is limited to one or a few islands or sometimes to isolated villages on the same island. The Māori people , of what is now New Zealand, called the supreme being as Io , who is also referred elsewhere as Iho-Iho , Io-Mataaho , Io Nui , Te Io Ora , Io Matua Te Kora among other names. The Io deity has been revered as
28120-404: The same sign could also be read as dingir or ilu , the generic term "god" in, respectively, Sumerian and Akkadian. As the number 60 was associated with him, the corresponding numeral could represent his name, and in esoteric texts by extension also the other readings of the sign DINGIR. Anu was regarded as the supreme god, and the major god lists, such as An = Anum , place him on top of
28305-493: The sixth generation of the gods who are forced to perform labor for the Anunnaki. After forty days, the Igigi rebel and the god Enki , one of the Anunnaki, creates humans to replace them. From the Middle Babylonian Period ( c. 1592 – 1155 BC) onward, the name Anunnaki was applied generally to the deities of the underworld; whereas the name Igigi was applied to the heavenly deities. During this period,
28490-464: The sky was divided into three zones, with the stars closest to the pole belonging to Enlil and those close to the equator to Ea . The stars located between these two zones were the domain of Anu. All three were referred to as the "Ways" of the respective deities. Astronomer John G. Rogers assumes that the boundaries of each Way were at 17°N and 17°S. The division is best attested in the astronomical treatise MUL.APIN . The date of its composition
28675-483: The social practice of fathers picking the brides of their sons. As an epithet of goddesses, it denotes their status as a daughter-in-law of a specific deity. For example, Aya was often called kallatum due to her position as the daughter-in-law of Sin and wife of his son Shamash . A goddess named Ninursala is described as Anu's dam-bànda , possibly to be translated as "concubine," in the god list An = Anum . According to Antoine Cavigneaux and Manfred Krebernik, she
28860-639: The sphere of everyday life. Egyptian deities typically had an associated cult, role and mythologies. Around 200 deities are prominent in the Pyramid texts and ancient temples of Egypt, many zoomorphic . Among these, were Min (fertility god), Neith (creator goddess), Anubis , Atum , Bes , Horus , Isis , Ra , Meretseger , Nut , Osiris , Shu , Sia and Thoth . Most Egyptian deities represented natural phenomenon, physical objects or social aspects of life, as hidden immanent forces within these phenomena. The deity Shu , for example represented air;
29045-407: The temple of every living being's body, as sensory organs and mind. Deities are envisioned as a form of existence ( Saṃsāra ) after rebirth , for human beings who gain merit through an ethical life, where they become guardian deities and live blissfully in heaven , but are also subject to death when their merit is lost. The English language word deity derives from Old French deité ,
29230-436: The theologians and antiquarians working on the elevation of Anu were god lists, such as An = Anum, which provided the evidence needed to justify both this change and other examples of restructuring the city pantheon. Most likely the growing interest in astronomy and astrology among the clergy also played a role. While it is assumed that religious activity in Uruk continued through the late Seleucid and early Parthian periods,
29415-463: The tutelary god of Dilbat . Wiggermann proposes that while Ki, as generally agreed, represented earth as a cosmogonic element, Urash was a divine representation of arable land . He suggests translating her name as " tilth ," though its etymology and meaning continue to be a matter of debate. A single Neo-Assyrian god list known from three copies appears to combine Ki and Urash into a single deity, ki-uraš . An early incorrect reading of this entry
29600-409: The underworld deities Damkina , Nergal , and Madānu are listed as the most powerful among the Anunnaki, alongside Marduk , the national god of ancient Babylon. In the standard Akkadian Epic of Gilgamesh ( c. 1200 BC) Utnapishtim , the immortal survivor of the Great Flood , describes the Anunnaki as seven judges of the Underworld, who set the land aflame as the storm approaches. Later, when
29785-591: The universe" (God), to a "finite entity or experience, with special significance or which evokes a special feeling" (god), to "a concept in religious or philosophical context that relates to nature or magnified beings or a supra-mundane realm", to "numerous other usages". A deity is typically conceptualized as a supernatural or divine concept, manifesting in ideas and knowledge, in a form that combines excellence in some or all aspects, wrestling with weakness and questions in other aspects, heroic in outlook and actions, yet tied up with emotions and desires. In other cases,
29970-434: The universe, but does not usually intervene in the resulting world. Deism was particularly popular among western intellectuals during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Pantheism is the belief that the universe itself is God or that everything composes an all-encompassing, immanent deity. Pandeism is an intermediate position between these, proposing that the creator became a pantheistic universe. Panentheism
30155-746: The universe, nature or human life. The Oxford Dictionary of English defines deity as a god or goddess , or anything revered as divine . C. Scott Littleton defines a deity as "a being with powers greater than those of ordinary humans, but who interacts with humans, positively or negatively, in ways that carry humans to new levels of consciousness , beyond the grounded preoccupations of ordinary life". Religions can be categorized by how many deities they worship. Monotheistic religions accept only one deity (predominantly referred to as " God "), whereas polytheistic religions accept multiple deities. Henotheistic religions accept one supreme deity without denying other deities, considering them as aspects of
30340-543: The votive rituals for deities. Deities were also maintained in home shrines ( lararium ), such as Hestia honored in homes as the goddess of fire hearth. This Roman religion held reverence for sacred fire, and this is also found in Hebrew culture (Leviticus 6), Vedic culture's Homa, ancient Greeks and other cultures. Ancient Roman scholars such as Varro and Cicero wrote treatises on the nature of gods of their times. Varro stated, in his Antiquitates Rerum Divinarum , that it
30525-458: The war between the Anunnaki and the gods of Eshumesha. In the mythologies of the Hurrians and Hittites (which flourished in the mid to late second millennium BC), the oldest generation of gods was believed to have been banished by the younger gods to the Underworld, where they were ruled by the goddess Lelwani . Hittite scribes identified these deities with the Anunnaki. In ancient Hurrian ,
30710-436: The weather god, was consistently regarded as a son of Anu. While some literary texts may refer to Enlil as his father instead, this view was less common and is no longer attested in any sources later than the Old Babylonian period . The only source to directly name his mother places Urash in this role. Another god frequently regarded as Anu's son was Enki . Nammu was the mother of Enki in the local tradition of Eridu and in
30895-409: The wing of the south wind . Anu orders for Adapa to be given the food and water of immortality, which Adapa refuses, having been warned beforehand by Enki that Anu will offer him the food and water of death. In the Hurrian myths about Kumarbi, known chiefly from their Hittite translations, Anu is a former ruler of the gods, who was overthrown by Kumarbi , who bit off his genitals and gave birth to
31080-466: Was ki-ib , which early Assyriologist Daniel David Luckenbill assumed to be a reference to the Egyptian god Geb , an identification now regarded as impossible. The goddess Antu is also attested as a wife of Anu. Her name is etymologically an Akkadian feminine form of Anu. The god list An = Anum equates her with Ki, while a lexical text from the Old Babylonian period – with Urash. There
31265-430: Was a continuous, symmetrical circle around the north celestial pole , but those of An and Enki were believed to intersect at various points. Reverence begets favour, sacrifice prolongs life, and prayer atones for guilt. He who fears the gods is not slighted by [...] He who fears the Anunnaki extends [his days]. Akkadian texts of the second millennium BC follow similar portrayals of the Anunnaki from Inanna's Descent into
31450-485: Was a horned crown on a pedestal. It is attested on some kudurru (boundary stones), where it is typically present in the upper half of the decoration, below the symbols of Ishtar , Shamash and Sin , who were depicted on the very top of such monuments due to representing celestial bodies. Anu was also depicted in the form of a horned crown in Neo-Assyrian reliefs. According to Andrew R. George , references to
31635-670: Was a logographic spelling of Ilabrat's, for example in Mari in personal names. It has been proposed that the variance in Ninshubur's gender is related to syncretism with him. The goddess Amasagnudi could be regarded as Anu's sukkal too, as attested in a single Old Babylonian lexical text. Kakka is also attested in this role in a few cases, though in the Enūma Eliš he is the sukkal of Anshar instead. In later periods, other sukkals of Anu were eclipsed by Papsukkal, originally associated with
31820-447: Was a temple of Anu and if it corresponded to any later structure. Through the Early Dynastic , Sargonic and Ur III periods, Inanna was the main deity of the city, and Eanna was regarded as her temple first and foremost. The Bassetki inscription of Naram-Sin in particular supports the view that Inanna was the goddess of Uruk and that she was perceived as more significant than Anu. No references to Anu are known from inscriptions of
32005-416: Was accompanied by a ziggurat, Emelamanna ("house of the radiance of heaven"). Daniel Schwemer suggests that the pairing of those two gods was based on the common view that they were father and son. No direct references to the worship of Anu are known from the part of the Old Babylonian period during which the cults of Uruk were temporarily relocated to Kish in the north of Babylonia. A possible exception
32190-460: Was built during the reign of Vologases I of Parthia in a foreign style resembling Roman buildings . The final cuneiform text from the site is an astronomical tablet dated to 79 or 80 CE, possibly the last cuneiform text written in antiquity. It is assumed that the last remnants of the local religion and culture of Uruk disappeared by the time of the Sasanian conquest of Mesopotamia, even though
32375-413: Was derived from her position as a servant of major deities, which resulted in the belief that she was capable of mediating with her masters, both with Inanna and with Anu, on behalf of human petitioners. Another deity who could be placed in the same role was Ilabrat . In texts from the second millennium BCE, Ninshubur and Ilabrat coexisted and in at least some cases Ninshubur's name, treated as masculine,
32560-451: Was later usurped by Inanna is known from multiple literary compositions, but it might have only been a founding myth explaining how the first temples were established. Starting in the Ur III period, Anu came to be seen as a member of a triad of foremost deities invoked in royal inscriptions, which also included Enlil and Enki . A seat, known as Barakiskilla ("dais, pure place") and a garden dedicated to him are mentioned in documents from
32745-566: Was modeled on the position of Ahura Mazda in religion of the Achaemenids, but Paul-Alain Beaulieu points out that since first signs of it are already visible under Nabonidus , it is implausible that it was patterned on Persian religion . At the same time, he considers it possible that Achaemenid administration encouraged the worship of Anu, viewing it as a way to limit the influence of Babylon and its elites on inhabitants of other Mesopotamian cities. Similar connection has been proposed in
32930-443: Was most likely based entirely on both of their names being iterative , and elsewhere they occur in unrelated roles independently from each other. Further attested pairs of deities regarded as ancestors of Anu include Egur and Gara, whose character is unknown, Lahmu and Lahamu , derived from the name of a type of aquatic mythical creature, two deities whose names were written logographically as ALAM possibly representing another of
33115-414: Was polytheistic, but had no centralized church, nor any sacred texts. The deities were largely associated with myths and they represented natural phenomena or aspects of human behavior. Several Greek deities probably trace back to more ancient Indo-European traditions, since the gods and goddesses found in distant cultures are mythologically comparable and are cognates . Eos , the Greek goddess of
33300-414: Was regarded as a form of Anu by local clergy. Beaulieu himself admits that most of the evidence which might support his theory might instead simply indicate that both the elevation of Assur and Anu relied on similar preexisting models, such as the theology centered on Enlil. Since during the Neo-Babylonian period Uruk was forced to accept the theology of Babylon, it is also possible that the elevation of Anu
33485-459: Was seen as a manifestation of local identity. At the same time, it is not impossible that the new centralized Anu cult was patterned on the Babylonian theology and even a number of festivals and rituals of Anu might have been patterned after those of Marduk. Instances of rewriting compositions dedicated to Marduk or Enlil to suit the new Anu cult are known too. A resource commonly employed by
33670-402: Was spelled as Anu, and was written either logographically ( AN) or syllabically ( a-nu(m) ). In Sumerian texts, unlike the names of other deities, his was never prefaced by the dingir sign, referred to as the "divine determinative" in modern literature, since it would result in unnecessary repetition, as the same sign was also read as an . In addition to referring to sky and heaven and to Anu,
33855-575: Was the father of Anu, similar to his Mesopotamian counterpart Alala, and that Kumarbi was in turn viewed as Anu's son, it has also been argued that two separate lineages of gods appear in the prologue of the Kumarbi myth, and therefore that Alalu and Anu should not be regarded as father and son in Hurrian sources. Kumarbi is directly referred to as Alalu's "seed" in the Song of Kummarbi . He also addresses himself as "Alalu's son" in another myth belonging to
34040-439: Was to decree the fates of humanity . The name Anunnaki is derived from An , the Sumerian god of the sky. The name is variously written "a-nuna", "a-nuna-ke 4 -ne", or "a-nun-na", meaning "princely offspring" or "offspring of An". The Anunnaki were believed to be the offspring of An and the earth goddess Ki . Samuel Noah Kramer identifies Ki with the Sumerian mother goddess Ninhursag , stating that they were originally
34225-495: Was used to separate the heavens from the earth. They find it and use it to cut off Ullikummi's feet. Although the names of the Anunnaki in Hurrian and Hittite texts frequently vary, they are always eight in number. In one Hittite ritual, the names of the old gods are listed as: "Aduntarri the diviner, Zulki the dream interpretess, Irpitia Lord of the Earth, Narā, Namšarā, Minki, Amunki, and Āpi." The old gods had no identifiable cult in
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