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51-703: Hoherodskopf is a mountain peak in the Vogelsberg of Hesse , Germany . It is a Miocene basaltic extinct volcano . This Hesse location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Vogelsberg The main peaks of the Vogelsberg are the Taufstein , 773.0 metres (2,536.1 ft), and Hoherodskopf , 763 metres (2,503 ft), both now within the High Vogelsberg Nature Park . The Vogelsberg lies in

102-496: A sodium hydroxide solution at a temperature of 150 to 200 °C (300 to 390 °F). At these temperatures, the aluminium is dissolved as sodium aluminate (the Bayer process ). The aluminium compounds in the bauxite may be present as gibbsite (Al(OH) 3 ), boehmite (AlOOH) or diaspore (AlOOH); the different forms of the aluminium component will dictate the extraction conditions. The undissolved waste, bauxite tailings , after

153-599: A basement of bunter sandstone and tertiary sands, in small areas in the east also rocks of the muschelkalk and keuper . Erosion following the Miocene wore away the contiguous basalt nappes, which originally reached as far as the area of the Lower Main , back to isolated deposits in the central complex. Under tropical to subtropical conditions, the volcanic rocks were turned into red clays by lateritic weathering . In many places, red clays collected and bauxite

204-450: A moist slurry forms in the can, then there is a likelihood for the cargo to liquefy; although conversely, even if the sample remains dry it does not conclusively prove that it will remain that way, or that it is safe for loading. Bauxite is the main source of the rare metal gallium . During the processing of bauxite to alumina in the Bayer process , gallium accumulates in the sodium hydroxide liquor. From this it can be extracted by

255-467: A multitude of overlapping basalt terraces, which descend from the Oberwald , the high central plateau, 600 to 773 metres high, in series of stepped rings to the edges of the mountain region. Its present appearance, which is reminiscent of a large flat, shield-shaped volcano with a central dome, is the result of an interplay of uplift processes and ablation acting on all sides. The volcanic activity in

306-461: A petition against the mining of bauxite that was signed by 135 accomplished and well known "Intellectuals". This petition helped unite the scattered anti-bauxite movement into a unified opposition against the state. These acts of governmental defiance were met with repressive state actions. Many domestic online reporters were arrested, and legislative action was taken to repress scientific research. Most of India's bauxite ore reserves, which are among

357-732: A raised bog and, in the southeast a number of waterbodies, the Vogelsberg Lakes ( Vogelsberger Seen ). The basaltic parts of the Lower Vogelsberg (350.1-350.5) range in height between 300 and 500 m, except on the western to southwestern fringes by the Wetterau where they descend below 200 m in places. Its boundary with the Büdingen Forest to the south, with the Landrücken to the southeast and with

408-458: A temperature in excess of 1,000 °C (1,830 °F). This aluminium oxide is dissolved at a temperature of about 960 °C (1,760 °F) in molten cryolite . Next, this molten substance can yield metallic aluminium by passing an electric current through it in the process of electrolysis, which is called the Hall–Héroult process , named after its American and French discoverers. Prior to

459-499: A variety of methods. The most recent is the use of ion-exchange resin . Achievable extraction efficiencies critically depend on the original concentration in the feed bauxite. At a typical feed concentration of 50 ppm, about 15 percent of the contained gallium is extractable. The remainder reports to the red mud and aluminium hydroxide streams. Bauxite is also a potential source for vanadium . The social and environmental impacts of bauxite extraction are well documented. Most of

510-665: A youth march. In 2020, A Rocha Ghana also sued the government over the drilling in the reserve after they failed to provide a statement explaining their actions. In early 2009, the Vietnamese Government proposed a plan to mine remote regions of the central highlands. This proposal was highly controversial and sparked a nationwide debate and the most significant domestic conflict since the Vietnam War . Government scientists, journalists, religious leaders, retired high level state officials, and General Võ Nguyên Giáp ,

561-572: Is a sedimentary rock with a relatively high aluminium content. It is the world's main source of aluminium and gallium . Bauxite consists mostly of the aluminium minerals gibbsite ( Al(OH) 3 ), boehmite (γ-AlO(OH)) and diaspore (α-AlO(OH)), mixed with the two iron oxides goethite (FeO(OH)) and haematite ( Fe 2 O 3 ), the aluminium clay mineral kaolinite ( Al 2 Si 2 O 5 (OH) 4 ) and small amounts of anatase ( TiO 2 ) and ilmenite ( FeTiO 3 or FeO·TiO 2 ). Bauxite appears dull in luster and

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612-453: Is one of the only two upland evergreen forests in Ghana, and makes up a significant portion of the remaining 20% of forested habitat left in Ghana. The Atewa range falls under the jurisdiction of Akyem Abuakwa Traditional Area and is overseen by the king known as Okyenhene. In 2013, an NGO called A Rocha Ghana held a summit with the forestry and water resource commission, the minister of lands,

663-515: Is reddish-brown, white, or tan. In 1821, the French geologist Pierre Berthier discovered bauxite near the village of Les Baux in Provence , southern France . Numerous classification schemes have been proposed for bauxite but, as of 1982 , there was no consensus. Vadász (1951) distinguished lateritic bauxites (silicate bauxites) from karst bauxite ores (carbonate bauxites): In

714-534: The Boké Region of Guinea have caused in 35 conflicts which include movements of revolts and road blockades. These conflicts have resulted in the loss of human life, the destruction of heavy machinery, and damage to government buildings. The Atewa range in Ghana, classified as an ecologically important forest reserve with an area of 17,400 hectares (43,000 acres), has been is a recent site of conflict and controversy surrounding baxuite mining. The forest reserve

765-582: The Boké Region of Guinea, there has been a significant increase in bauxite mining pressure on the local population. This has resulted in potable water issues, air pollution, food contamination, and land expropriation disputes due to improper compensation. Bauxite mining has led to protests, civil unrest, and violent conflicts in Guinea, Ghana, Vietnam, and India. Guinea has a long history of mining related conflicts between communities and mining companies. Between 2015 and 2018, new bauxite mining operations in

816-520: The Ghana Integrated Bauxite and Aluminium Development Authority Act that would create the legal framework required to develop and establish an integrated bauxite industry. In may of that year, the government began drilling deep holes in the reserve. These actions sparked several protests, including a 95-kilometre (59 mi) march from the reserve to the presidential palace, an informational billboard campaign led by A Rocha Ghana, and

867-555: The Hoherodskopf and so may be used in combination. The Volcano and Southern Railway Cycleways are tarmacked and may also be used by inline skaters . There is a large network of signposted cycleways in and around the Vogelsberg Nature Fitness Park around the highest summits and also 70 km of signed mountain bike routes. The Hoherodskopf is the touristic centre of the region. Here you will find

918-481: The Lahn - Main watershed which heads east. Because large areas of the original forest were cleared and the precipitation exceeds 1,000 mm per year, snow melt starts early. This and the less porous basalt loam soil frequently leads to flooding. In this part of the Vogelsberg, the scenery changes in loose succession from woodlands, rich in springs, wetlands, poor grassland and stream valleys; besides there are also

969-580: The Main and the Lahn . Groundwater and spring water from the Vogelsberg, along with water from the dem Spessart hills and Hessian Ried provides drinking water for the Rhine-Main region . As early as 1876 were springs in the eastern Vogelsberg enclosed for that purpose and the construction of water pipes from the Spessart and the Vogelsberg to the city of Frankfurt . A lack of understanding of

1020-479: The Volcano Cycleway ( Vulkanradweg , Vogelsberg Southern Railway Cycleway ( Vogelsberger Südbahnradweg  ...). Moreover, there are regular RMV buses, the so-called Vulkan Express running from Büdingen , Stockheim , Nidda , Hungen , Mücke and Schlitz via Lauterbach at weekends to the heights of the Vogelsberg. These buses are equipped with bicycle trailers. The majority of bus routes run to

1071-463: The free surface effect can cause the cargo to shift rapidly inside the hold and make the ship unstable, potentially sinking the ship. One vessel suspected to have been sunk in this way was the MS Bulk Jupiter in 2015. One method which can demonstrate this effect is the "can test", in which a sample of the material is placed in a cylindrical can and struck against a surface many times. If

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1122-585: The Giesel Forest (350.6), which covers an area of 130 km , the Vogelsberg pushes eastwards at heights of up to over 500 m to the edge of the Fulda Basin. From a natural region perspective, the only bunter sandstone part of the Vogelsberg is clearly separated from the basaltic areas of the Lower Vogelsberg. In addition to the woods that cover almost the entire natural region (including pine forests) there are extensive vegetation-free areas by

1173-649: The Giesel Forest (see below) to the east is less of a relief feature than the geological transition from basalt to bunter sandstone. There is also this geological divide with the Fulda-Haune Tableland , which lies in front of the Knüll to the northeast. Between them is the Großenlüder-Lauterbacher Graben . By contrast, in the north, the vulcanite does not end until it reaches the adjacent North Vogelsberg Foreland , i.e. outside

1224-565: The Nature Conservation Information Centre for the High Vogelsberg Nature Park and a tourist information centre for the town of Schotten , which are open daily all year-round. From this point, three nature trails have been set up, covering in the fields of geology, nature and sensory perception. There is a summer toboggan run, a tree ropes course , numerous hiking trails and several restaurants. Bauxite Bauxite ( / ˈ b ɔː k s aɪ t / )

1275-593: The Oberwald, but also the rest of the area. The Oberwald (351.2) is the heart of the Vogelsberg and is entirely wooded; its outer boundary roughly follows the 600 metre contour line . In outer areas of the Vogelsberg, by contrast, there is a tapestry of green pasture, arable fields and woodlands. Large parts of the Oberwald are protected. For example, the beech wood in the Taufstein Nature Reserve has been left to manage itself since 1906. On

1326-568: The Vogelsberg transitions into parts of the West Hesse Highlands , whilst retaining the name, Vogelsberg, and the basalt rocks that bear its name continue well beyond the actual Vogelsberg. The Vogelsberg is the largest contiguous volcanic region in Central Europe with an area of 2,500 square kilometres. It is not a former shield volcano , but comprises many individual volcanoes, which are superimposed. Thus it consists of

1377-763: The Vogelsberg, as well as that of the North Hessian Volcanic Region to the north which extends as far as Adelebsen in Lower Saxony , is connected with fault block activity that, during the Tertiary , led to the formation of the Lower Hessian Basin . It began in North Hesse about 20 million years ago during the lower Miocene , reached a peak about 13-12 million years ago and came to an end about 7 million years ago, during

1428-550: The actual Vogelsberg. Even the Anterior Vogelsberg which lies outside the latter region still has large areas of basaltic rock. To the west the basalt zone reaches far into the gently rolling lowlands of the Wetterau , this depression lies alongside the middle and lower reaches of the Horloff river. From a natural landscape perspective, the region is an island of forest comprising melic grasses and beech . In

1479-410: The aluminium compounds are extracted contains iron oxides , silica , calcia , titania and some un-reacted alumina . After separation of the residue by filtering, pure gibbsite is precipitated when the liquid is cooled, and then seeded with fine-grained aluminium hydroxide . The gibbsite is usually converted into aluminium oxide , Al 2 O 3 , by heating in rotary kilns or fluid flash calciners to

1530-638: The case of Jamaica , recent analysis of the soils showed elevated levels of cadmium , suggesting that the bauxite originates from Miocene volcanic ash deposits from episodes of significant volcanism in Central America. Australia is the largest producer of bauxite, followed by Guinea and China . Bauxite is usually strip mined because it is almost always found near the surface of the terrain , with little or no overburden . Increased aluminium recycling , which requires less electric power than producing aluminium from ores, may considerably extend

1581-531: The centre of the range (varying by up to 5  K ) and the annual precipitation rises towards the Oberwald to an average of 1,200 mm. The basalt areas of the Vogelsberg continue towards the east and north into its neighbouring natural regions, whilst the Giesel Forest in the east is already on bunter sandstone , like the rest of the natural regions towards the east. The Vogelsberg massif has stone runs of basalt and tuff , raised bogs and areas of ancient woodland. Numerous hiking trails cross, not only

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1632-534: The city of Frankfurt in the Rhine-Main region. Numerous rivers and streams rise in the Vogelsberg, and flow radially from its highest point in all directions of the compass. In clockwise order, the rivers of the main catchments are the Schwalm, Lower Fulda, Kinzig, Nidda and Ohm. Often a well known river is fed by several almost equal tributaries. The main rivers of the Vogelsberg, in clockwise order starting in

1683-573: The county of Vogelsbergkreis , around 60 kilometres northeast of Frankfurt between the towns of Alsfeld , Fulda , Büdingen and Nidda . To the northeast is the Knüll , to the east the Rhön , to the southeast the Spessart and to the southwest the low-lying Wetterau , which transitions to the South Hessian lowlands of the Rhine-Main region . In the opposite direction, to the northwest,

1734-620: The huge spoil tips of the potassium salt mine near Neuhof. The following table lists the natural regions from the centre outwards and then in clockwise order. Not only does a section of the Rhine-Weser watershed run over the Vogelsberg, but also (within the Weser and Fulda systems) the watersheds between the Eder and Schwalm and Lower Fulda as well as (within the Rhine basin ) that between

1785-488: The invention of this process, and prior to the Deville process , aluminium ore was refined by heating ore along with elemental sodium or potassium in a vacuum . The method was complicated and consumed materials that were themselves expensive at that time. This made early elemental aluminium more expensive than gold . As a bulk cargo , bauxite is a Group A cargo that may liquefy if excessively moist. Liquefaction and

1836-462: The military leader of anti-colonial revolution, were among the many people across Vietnamese society who opposed the governments plans. In an attempt to stop the spread of information across the globe, the government banned domestic reporters from reporting on bauxite mining. However, reporters turned to Vietnamese language websites and blogs where the reporting and discussion continued. On April 12, 2009, several well-respected Vietnamese scholars started

1887-401: The minister of the environment, and other important stakeholders. They came to the conclusion that no future government should mine bauxite in the region because the reserve is environmentally and culturally significant. In 2016, the government along with NGO's began the process of upgrading the reserved to a national park. However, that year an election took place, and before it became official,

1938-548: The mountain range from its highest point towards the outside and, on the other hand, on its river catchments which radiate outwards: the catchments of the Eder ( Schwalm ), Lower Fulda ( Schlitz and Lüder ), Main ( Kinzig and Nidda ) and Lahn ( Ohm ). The following natural regions form the Vogelsberg: Soils and rocks are, in all parts of the Vogelsberg – with the exception of the Giesel Forest – similar, but average annual temperatures drop noticeably towards

1989-492: The newly elected National Patriotic Party (NPP) rejected the plan. In 2017, the government of Ghana signed a Memorandum of Understanding with China to develop new bauxite mining infrastructure in Ghana. Although there was no official plan to mine the Atewa Forest Reserve, tensions between local communities, NGO and the government began to rise. In 2019, tensions began to reach a peak when the government presented

2040-518: The north, are: In the Vogelsberg the following lengths are misleading, however: Among the waterbodies of the Vogelsbergs are the following lakes and reservoirs (sorted alphabetically): In recent years the Eurasian lynx has returned. There are rumors about wolves being sighted in the region. Sightings have been confirmed in an area north of the Vogelsberg. Wildcats are also said to exist in

2091-558: The northern slopes of the Taufstein are large stone runs of basalt. The valleys of the Western (351.0) and Eastern (351.1) High Vogelsberg generally lie at heights of over 500 m in the north. In the west, some descend to under 400 m. In the main, the boundaries follow the watersheds of the source region of the most important rivers and especially that of the Rhine-Weser watershed , which runs from southeast to northwest, and

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2142-489: The particular hydrogeological and ecological situation in the Vogelsberg and excessive withdrawal resulted in springs drying up, cracks appearing in buildings and subsidence of the ground. The Upper Hessian Water Companies ( Oberhessischen Versorgungsbetriebe AG , OVAG) are the largest water suppliers in the Vogelsberg: they pump out around 30 million cubic metres of ground water annually from their wells; about 2/3 goes to

2193-468: The region, although they, like lynxes, are notoriously hard to spot. As in most of Hesse, wild boar are present in large numbers. The Vogelsberg is known for its winter sports areas on the Herchenhainer Höhe and Hoherodskopf ( Alpine skiing and 55 km of loipes ). In summer, apart from hiking , cycling is well catered for on the numerous long-distance cycling routes such as

2244-706: The strip mining process, the biodiversity and habitat once present in the area is completely lost and the hydrological and soil characteristics in the region are permanently altered. Other environmental impacts of bauxite mining include soil degradation , air pollution , and water pollution . Red mud is a highly alkaline sludge, with a high pH around 13, that is a byproduct of the Bayer process .  It contains several elements such as sodium aluminoscilicate , calcium titanate , monohydrate aluminium, and trihydrate aluminium that do not break down in nature. When improperly stored, red mud can contaminate soil and water, which can result in local extinction of all life. Red mud

2295-466: The terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Historically, the Indigenous peoples living on these lands have shown resistance to development, and oppose any new bauxite mining projects in the area. This has led to violent conflicts between Indigenous communities and police. On December 16, 2000, police killed three Indigenous protestors and wounded over a dozen more during a protest over a bauxite project in

2346-401: The top ten largest in the world, are located on tribal land. These tribal lands are densely populated and home to over 100 million Indigenous Indian peoples.  The mountain summits located on these lands act as a source of water and greatly contribute to the regions fertility. The Indian bauxite industry is interested in developing this land for aluminum production, which poses great risk to

2397-584: The upper Miocene. The volcanism of the Vogelsberg was mainly active during the Middle Miocene, according to potassium-argon dating 18.5-10 million years ago, reaching its peak 17-15 million years ago. As a result of volcanic activity , mainly basaltic lava and pyroclastic deposits were formed. During the course of this volcanicity, trachyte and phonolite were produced in the early stages, then alkali-olivine basalts were deposited, which alternated with tholeiites . These volcanic products overlaid

2448-436: The world's bauxite deposits can be found within 1 to 20 metres (3 ft 3 in to 65 ft 7 in) of the earths surface. Strip mining is the most common technique used for extracting shallow bauxite. This process involves removing the vegetation, top soil, and overburden to expose the bauxite ore. The overlying soil is typically stockpiled in order to rehabilitate the mine once operations have finished. During

2499-401: The world's bauxite reserves. As of 2010 , approximately 70% to 80% of the world's dry bauxite production is processed first into alumina and then into aluminium by electrolysis . Bauxite rocks are typically classified according to their intended commercial application: metallurgical, abrasive, cement, chemical, and refractory. Bauxite ore is usually heated in a pressure vessel along with

2550-409: Was formed; moreover, the iron contained in basalt was concentrated to form iron ore . These deposits were mined over a long period of time in order to produce raw materials for industry, and the basalt was and still is a highly popular raw material for gravel and natural stone production. The division of the Vogelsberg into individual natural regions is based, on the one hand, on the relief of

2601-575: Was responsible for killing all life in the Marcal River in Hungary after a spill occurred in 2010. When red mud dries, it turns into dust that can cause lung disease, cancer and birth defects. In the tropical regions of Asia, central Africa, South America and northern Australia, there has been an increase of bauxite mines on traditional and indigenous lands. This has resulted in a number of negative social impacts on local and indigenous peoples. In

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