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61-539: The first excavation took place in 1870, yielding remnants of cave bears , reindeer , mammoths and horses as well as tools belonging to the Aurignacian culture of the Upper Paleolithic . Further excavations during 1958 to 1960, 1977, and 2002 yielded a number of spectacular finds, including several specimens of prehistoric sculpture such as an ivory bird and a human-lion hybrid figure similar to

122-513: A bone flute in the cave, and found two fragments of ivory flutes in nearby caves. The flutes date back at least 35,000 years and are some of the earliest musical instruments ever found. In 2012, it was announced that an earlier discovery of bone flute fragments in Geißenklösterle Cave now date back to about 42,000 years, instead of 37,000 years, as earlier perceived. In 2020 a 20-centimetre long, 40,000 year old mammoth tusk with

183-472: A bear humerus , a scraper, a core, and some flakes, which were interpreted as grave offerings. An unusual discovery in a deep chamber of Basura Cave in Savona , Italy, is thought to be related to cave bear worship, because there is a vaguely zoomorphic stalagmite surrounded by clay pellets. It is thought to have been used by Neanderthals for a ceremony; bear bones scattered on the floor further suggests it

244-407: A biserial (multiple barbs on both edges) bone harpoon, a necklace, and a Turritella sea snail shell necklace. Horizon 4 included a fossilized canid skull, which has been direct AMS dated to be 31,000 years old. Additional artifacts can be found in numerous private collections, as during the 1950s several amateur archaeologists were permitted access to the caves. Discovered during the 1860s,

305-443: A buffer zone of a least 100 m (330 ft) width. In the argument why these sites deserve recognition as a part of the universal human heritage, the area is described as the source of the currently oldest (non-stationary) works of human art in the form of carved animal and humanoid figurines as well as the oldest musical instruments. Their creators lived, were inspired and worked in and around these caves. The caves also served as

366-441: A cave called Bears' Cave , 140 cave bear skeletons were discovered in 1983. Cave bear bones are found in several caves in the country of Georgia . In 2021, Akaki Tsereteli State University 's students and a lecturer discovered two complete cave bear skulls, with molars, canines, humerus, three vertebrae and other bones, in a previously unexplored cave. Both the cave bear and the brown bear are thought to be descended from

427-606: A dog-like cranium identified as being that of a Paleolithic dog was AMS dated to 31,680 years old. Mitochondrial DNA indicates that the canid was not a direct ancestor of modern dogs, but rather of an extinct side branch or an aborted domestication attempt. Carbon Dated fossils: Source: Neanderthal habitation of the caves dates back to the Middle Paleolithic . Occasional Neanderthal occupation begins 120,000 years ago and ends after 40,000 years ago. Between 45,500 and 40,500 years ago Neanderthals lived in

488-416: A high winter mortality rate for cave bears that failed to find available caves. Therefore, as human populations slowly increased, the cave bear faced a shrinking pool of suitable caves, and slowly faded away to extinction, as both Neanderthals and anatomically modern humans sought out caves as living quarters, depriving the cave bear of vital habitat. This hypothesis is being researched as of 2010 . According to

549-483: A human rib, the largest collection of Neanderthal fossils of Northern Europe, hand axes, harpoons, necklaces, ivory chopsticks, engraved ivory platelets, carved reindeer horn and skinned and filleted human remains, that suggest cannibalism among Neanderthals. Horizons 1 and 2 (artifacts of the Magdalenian levels) include hand axes and a harpoon, a necklace of 26 wolves perforated teeth, bone fragments and needles,

610-468: A largely vegetarian diet. In a fourth of the skulls found in the Conturines , the third premolar is still present, while more derived specimens elsewhere lack it. The last remaining premolar became conjugated with the true molars , enlarging the crown and granting it more cusps and cutting borders. This phenomenon, called molarization , improved the mastication capacities of the molars, facilitating

671-514: A line of four holes drilled into it was interpreted as being a device for making rope . Grooves around each hole would have held plant fibres in place. The instrument was found near the base of the Aurignacian deposits at Hohle Fels by a team led by Nicholas Conard of the institute of archaeological sciences at the University of Tübingen . Veerle Rots, of the University of Liège in Belgium

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732-470: A major part of cave bears' diets on the basis of dental microwear analysis. Seed fruits are documented to have been consumed by cave bears. The morphological features of the cave bear chewing apparatus, including loss of premolars, have long been suggested to indicate their diets displayed a higher degree of herbivory than the Eurasian brown bear . Indeed, a solely vegetarian diet has been inferred on

793-412: A misconception that the female skeletons were merely "dwarfs". Cave bears grew larger during glaciations and smaller during interglacials, probably to adjust heat loss rate. Cave bears of the last Ice Age lacked the usual two or three premolars present in other bears; to compensate, the last molar is very elongated, with supplementary cusps. The humerus of the cave bear was similar in size to that of

854-432: A relatively restricted geographical range. This was suggested as an explanation as to why it died out so much earlier than the rest. Some experts have disputed this claim, as the cave bear had survived multiple climate changes prior to extinction. Additionally, mitochondrial DNA research indicated that the genetic decline of the cave bear began long before it became extinct, demonstrating habitat loss due to climate change

915-493: A right femur from a Neanderthal directly dated to around 43,000-42,080 BP. DNA analysis reveals that Goyet Q56-1 was female. Compared to other Neanderthals for which nuclear DNA has been extracted, Goyet Q56-1 is genetically closest to Spy94a from Spy Cave and groups closest with other Late European Neanderthals. Homo sapiens occupation began around 35,000 years ago. Goyet accounts for fossils of European populations from different junctures, including fossils that are among

976-490: A steep forehead; its stout body had long thighs, massive shins and in-turning feet, making it similar in skeletal structure to the brown bear. Cave bears were comparable in size to, or larger than, the largest modern-day bears, measuring up to 2 m (6.6 ft) in length. The average weight for males was 350 to 600 kg (770 to 1,320 lb), while females weighed 225 to 250 kg (495 to 550 lb). Of cave bear skeletons in museums, 90% are classified as male due to

1037-477: Is "far from convincing". Insoll also states that comparisons with the religious practices involving bears that are known from historic times are invalid. A similar phenomenon was encountered in Regourdou, southern France. A rectangular pit contained the remains of at least twenty bears, covered by a massive stone slab. The remains of a Neanderthal lay nearby in another stone pit, with various objects, including

1098-444: Is a significant locality of regional Neanderthal and European early modern human occupation, as thousands of fossils and artifacts were discovered that are all attributed to a long and contiguous stratigraphic sequence from 120,000 years ago, the Middle Paleolithic to less than 5,000 years ago, the late Neolithic . A robust sequence of sediments was identified during extensive excavations by geologist Edouard Dupont, who undertook

1159-515: Is also evidence that cave bears suffered from tuberculosis. Male cave bear skeletons have been found with broken bacula , probably due to fighting during the breeding season. Cave bear longevity is unknown, though it has been estimated that they seldom exceeded twenty years of age. Paleontologists doubt adult cave bears had any natural predators, save for pack-hunting wolves and cave hyenas , which would probably have attacked sick or infirm individuals. Cave hyenas are thought to be responsible for

1220-660: Is divided into zones: In 1999, an extensive network of galleries was discovered, consisting of a central and peripheral networks, named after particular areas: Régal des Fees, Atlantide, Salle de Cristal etc. Edouard Dupont identified five sediment horizons or site concentrations in the cave, three near the cave entrance and two in deeper chambers. Marcel Otte resumed excavations during the 1970s. Further excavations took place from 1998 to 2004. Contemporary researchers assert that Dupont's 19th century excavation methods "did not meet today’s standards". His sediment sequences are considered to be of little reliability and his discoveries in

1281-563: Is still under investigation. In 1998, the bones of a twelve-year-old child was found in a crevice. The cavern was subsequently named the Salle de l'Enfant . The remains are 5,000 years old and are interpreted as representing a grave. Other cultural type elements such as perforated tubes that were perhaps used as flutes, indicate that the caves continued to be inhabited during the late Neolithic. An even younger object discovered in Goyet, attributed to

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1342-471: The Aurignacian culture. Shortly thereafter, the population associated with this culture was ousted by a genetically distinct Gravettian rural population (from 34,000 BP), but around 25,000 BP descendants reappear in Spain in the context of Magdalenian culture. After 19,000 years ago the population begins to spread all over Europe. The extent to which Neanderthals and Homo sapiens have lived together at Goyet

1403-821: The British Isles in the west, Belgium, Italy , parts of Germany , Poland , the Balkans , Romania , Georgia , and parts of Russia , including the Caucasus ; and northern Iran . No traces of cave bears have been found in the northern British Isles, Scandinavia or the Baltic countries , which were all covered in extensive glaciers at the time. The largest numbers of cave bear remains have been found in Austria , Switzerland , northern Italy, northern Spain, southern France, and Romania, roughly corresponding with

1464-756: The Gravettian ; and GoyetQ-2 (15,230-14,780 BP) from the Magdalenian . GoyetQ376-19 , Goyet53-1 and Goyet56-16 were found to cluster genetically with several other Gravettian individuals from Europe in the Věstonice Cluster , while GoyetQ-2 was found to cluster genetically with several other Magdalenian individuals from Europe in the El Mirón Cluster . All later Europeans after GoyetQ116-1 show some genetic affinity for this individual. GoyetQ116-1 also exhibits more genetic affinity for

1525-507: The Iron Age (around 500 BCE), is a knife made from a human rib. In 2016, researchers successfully extracted DNA from several ancient human fossils at Goyet (with direct dates): GoyetQ116-1 (35,160-34,430 BP) and GoyetQ376-3 (33,940-33,140 BP) from the Aurignacian ; GoyetQ376-19 (27,720-27,310 BP), GoyetQ53-1 (28,230-27,720 BP), GoyetQ55-2 (27,730-27,310 BP), GoyetQ56-16 (26,600-26,040 BP) and Goyet2878-21 (27,060-26,270 BP) from

1586-568: The Löwenmensch figurine but only 2.5 cm tall. In 2005, one of the oldest phallic representations was discovered. In 2008, a team from the University of Tübingen , led by archaeologist Nicholas Conard , discovered an artifact known as the Venus of Hohle Fels , dated to about 35,000 to 40,000 years ago. This is the earliest known Venus figurine and the earliest undisputed example of expressly human figurative art . The team also unearthed

1647-722: The Pleistocene and became extinct about 24,000 years ago during the Last Glacial Maximum . Both the word cave and the scientific name spelaeus are used because fossils of this species were mostly found in caves . This reflects the views of experts that cave bears may have spent more time in caves than the brown bear , which uses caves only for hibernation . It is thought to have been largely herbivorous. Cave bear skeletons were first described in 1774 by Johann Friedrich Esper, in his book Newly Discovered Zoolites of Unknown Four Footed Animals . While scientists at

1708-520: The Plio-Pleistocene Etruscan bear ( Ursus etruscus ) that lived about 5.3  Mya to 100,000 years ago. The last common ancestor of cave bears and brown bears lived between 1.2–1.4 Mya. The immediate precursor of the cave bear was probably Ursus deningeri (Deninger's bear), a species restricted to Pleistocene Europe about 1.8 Mya to 100,000 years ago. The transition between Deninger's bear and

1769-631: The Troisième Caverne , where 99 bones were discovered, that belong to at least five individuals. This represents the largest collection of Neanderthal fossils in Northern Europe. The condition of the fossils strongly suggests cannibalism . The bodies are skinned and filleted, the bones show cut marks and were cracked to extract the marrow. Reindeer remains from the site have the same types of butcher marks. In 2018, researchers succeeded in extracting nuclear DNA from Goyet Q56-1 ,

1830-863: The Upper Paleolithic . Chris Stringer , Research Leader in Human Origins at the Natural History Museum , London, said, "These devices were called batons and were originally thought to have been carried by chiefs as badges of rank. However, they had holes with spirals round them and we now realise they must have been used to make or manipulate ropes." The ropes could then have been used to construct fishing nets, snares and traps, bows and arrows, clothing and containers for carrying food. Heavy objects, such as sleds, could now be hauled on ropes while spear points could be lashed to poles. The remains of at least five distinct individuals were found at Hohle Fels. In 2016, researchers successfully extracted

1891-408: The polar bear , as were the femora of females. The femora of male cave bears, however, bore more similarities in size to those of Kodiak bears . Cave bear teeth were very large and show greater wear than most modern bear species, suggesting a diet of tough materials. However, tubers and other gritty food, which cause distinctive tooth wear in modern brown bears, do not appear to have constituted

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1952-433: The polymerase chain reaction ), the scientists recovered 21 cave bear genes from remains that did not yield significant amounts of DNA with traditional techniques. This study confirmed and built on results from a previous study using mitochondrial DNA extracted from cave bear remains ranging from 20,000 to 130,000 years old. Both show that the cave bear was more closely related to the brown bear and polar bear than it

2013-620: The DNA from three samples taken from the Magdalenian period found at Hohle Fels. The tests were performed on two femur fragments, HohleFels10 and HohleFels49 , and a cranial fragment, HohleFels79 . The two femur fragments possibly came from one individual. HohleFels10 and HohleFels49 were indirectly dated to around 16,000–14,260 BP BP , while HohleFels79 was directly dated to around 15,070–14,270 BP. All three samples were found to belong to mtDNA Haplogroup U8a . The Hohle Fels samples were found to be genetically closest to other ancient samples from

2074-690: The Magdalenian, showing closest genetic affinity to each other and for other samples taken from the Swabian Jura, such as Brillenhöhle , while also showing genetic affinity for another Magdalenian sample, taken from the Red Lady of El Mirón , as well as a sample from the Aurignacian, GoyetQ116-1 , taken from Goyet Caves . In January 2016, the federal government of Germany applied for the status of World Heritage Site for two valleys with six caves named Höhlen der ältesten Eiszeitkunst ("Caves with

2135-659: The Pyrenees, Alps, and Carpathians. The huge number of bones found in southern, central and eastern Europe has led some scientists to think Europe may have once had herds of cave bears. Others, however, point out that, though some caves have thousands of bones, they were accumulated over a period of 100,000 years or more, thus requiring only two deaths in a cave per year to account for the large numbers. The cave bear inhabited low mountainous areas, especially in regions rich in limestone caves. They seem to have avoided open plains, preferring forested or forest-edged terrains. Between

2196-611: The advent of the glaciers. Populations living south of the Alps possibly survived significantly longer. Goyet Caves The Goyet Caves ( French : Grottes de Goyet ) are a series of connected caves located in Belgium in a limestone cliff about 15 m (50 ft) above the river Samson near the village of Mozet in the Gesves municipality of the Namur province. The site

2257-495: The archives of the Royal Belgielsan Institute of Natural Sciences have been reviewed and re-classified in recent years. The site accounts for a remarkable variety of prehistoric objects: thousands of bones of prehistoric humans and large mammals, a whistle, stone artifacts with stylized engravings, an approximately 5,000-year-old child's grave, the fossilized cranium of a Paleolithic dog, a knife made from

2318-443: The basis of tooth morphology. Results obtained on the stable isotopes of cave bear bones also point to a largely vegetarian diet in having low levels of nitrogen-15 and carbon-13 , which are accumulated at a faster rate by carnivores as opposed to herbivores. However, some evidence points toward the occasional inclusion of animal protein in cave bear diets. For example, toothmarks on cave bear remains in areas where cave bears are

2379-498: The cave bear is given as the last interglacial, although the boundary between these forms is arbitrary, and intermediate or transitional taxa have been proposed, e.g. Ursus spelaeus deningeroides , while other authorities consider both taxa to be chronological variants of the same species. Cave bears found anywhere will vary in age, thus facilitating investigations into evolutionary trends. The three anterior premolars were gradually reduced, then disappeared, possibly in response to

2440-436: The cave bear population drastically declined starting around 40,000 years ago at the onset of the Aurignacian , coinciding with the arrival of anatomically modern humans. It was concluded that human hunting and/or competition played a major role in their decline and ultimate disappearance, and that climate change was not likely to have been the dominant factor. In a study of Spanish cave bear mtDNA, each cave used by cave bears

2501-511: The cave bear's survival. However, the two species may have competed for living space in caves. The Chauvet Cave contains around 300 "bear hollows" created by cave bear hibernation. Unlike brown bears, cave bears are seldom represented in cave paintings, leading some experts to believe the cave bear may have been avoided by human hunters or their habitat preferences may not have overlapped. Paleontologist Björn Kurtén hypothesized cave bear populations were fragmented and under stress even before

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2562-503: The current prevailing opinion concludes that cave bears were largely herbivorous, and more so than any modern species of the genus Ursus , increasing evidence points to omnivorous diets, based both on regional variability of isotopic composition of bone remains indicative of dietary plasticity, and on a recent re-evaluation of craniodental morphology that places the cave bear squarely among omnivorous modern bear species with respect to its skull and tooth shapes. Death during hibernation

2623-613: The days and weeks leading up to hibernation. Additionally, cave bear remains from Peștera cu Oase in the southwestern tip of the Romanian part of the Carpathian Mountains had elevated levels of nitrogen-15 in their bones, indicative of omnivorous diets, although the values are within the range of those found for the strictly herbivorous mammoth . One isotopic study concluded that cave bears displayed omnivorous habits similar to those of modern brown bears. Although

2684-468: The disarticulation and destruction of some cave bear skeletons. Such large carcasses were an optimal food resource for the hyenas, especially at the end of the winter, when food was scarce. The presence of fully articulated adult cave lion skeletons, deep in cave bear dens, indicates the lions may have occasionally entered dens to prey on hibernating cave bears, with some dying in the attempt. The cave bear's range stretched across Europe; from Spain and

2745-400: The earliest branch of modern Europeans (ca. 35,000 BP). Their damaged but readable DNA has been used in studies of the origin and migration of European ice age populations. Based on mitochondrial DNA of five local fossils it was concluded that the first modern Europeans arrived directly from Africa without a detour via Asia. The 35,000 year old humerus of a man from Goyet has been associated with

2806-608: The first probings as early as 1867. The site was added to the Belgian National Heritage register in 1976. Located just south of the Goyet Castle the caves are essentially 250 m (820.21 ft) long underground galleries, rich in speleothems and carved out of the limestone during millions of years by the waters of the Samson river inside the 90 ha (222.39 acres) limestone massif. The massif

2867-690: The oldest Ice Age art"). The site would encompass areas in the Lonetal (valley of the Lone ) and the Achtal (valley of the Ach) both in the southern Swabian Jura. The former includes the caves Hohlenstein-Stadel , Vogelherd and Bocksteinhöhle , the latter Geissenklösterle , Hohle Fels and Sirgenstein Cave . Each valley would contain a core area of around 3 to 4 km (1.9 to 2.5 mi) length, surrounded by

2928-442: The only recorded potential carnivores suggests occasional cannibalistic scavenging, possibly on individuals that died during hibernation, and dental microwear analysis indicates the cave bear may have fed on a greater quantity of bone than its contemporary, the smaller Eurasian brown bear. The dental microwear patterns of cave bear molars from the northeastern Iberian Peninsula show that cave bears may have consumed more meat in

2989-409: The processing of tough vegetation. This allowed the cave bear to gain more energy for hibernation, while eating less than its ancestors. In 2005, scientists recovered and sequenced the nuclear DNA of a cave bear that lived between 42,000 and 44,000 years ago. The procedure used genomic DNA extracted from one of the animal's teeth . Sequencing the DNA directly (rather than first replicating it with

3050-535: The repositories of the figurines which may have been used in a religious context. In addition, they were the venue where performers used the excavated musical instruments and where the social groups lived from which the artists sprang. The committee awarded the status of WHS in July 2017. Cave bear The cave bear ( Ursus spelaeus ) is a prehistoric species of bear that lived in Europe and Asia during

3111-748: The research study, published in the journal Molecular Biology and Evolution , radiocarbon dating of the fossil remains shows that the cave bear ceased to be abundant in Central Europe around 35,000 years ago. In addition to environmental change, human hunting has also been implicated in the ultimate extinction of the cave bear. In 2019, the results of a large scale study of 81 bone specimens (resulting in 59 new sequences) and 64 previously published complete mitochondrial genomes of cave bear mitochondrial DNA remains found in Switzerland, Poland, France, Spain, Germany, Italy and Serbia, indicated that

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3172-897: The scarcity of phosphate dung, earth from the caves where cave bear bones occurred was used as a source of phosphates. When the "dragon caves" in Austria ’s Styria region were exploited for this purpose, only the skulls and leg bones were kept. Many caves in Central Europe have skeletons of cave bears inside, such as the Heinrichshöhle in Hemer and the Dechenhöhle in Iserlohn , Germany . A complete skeleton, five complete skulls, and 18 other bones were found inside Kletno Bear Cave , in 1966 in Poland . In Romania , in

3233-410: The time considered that the skeletons could belong to apes , canids , felids , or even dragons or unicorns , Esper postulated that they actually belonged to polar bears . Twenty years later, Johann Christian Rosenmüller , an anatomist at Leipzig University , gave the species its binomial name. The bones were so numerous that most researchers had little regard for them. During World War I , with

3294-480: The years 1917 and 1923, the Drachenloch cave in Switzerland was excavated by Emil Bächler. The excavation uncovered more than 30,000 cave bear skeletons. It also uncovered a stone chest or cist , consisting of a low wall built from limestone slabs near a cave wall with a number of bear skulls inside it. A cave bear skull was also found with a femur bone from another bear stuck inside it. Scholars speculated that it

3355-400: Was a common end for cave bears, mainly befalling specimens that failed ecologically during the summer season through inexperience, sickness or old age. Some cave bear bones show signs of numerous ailments, including spinal fusion , bone tumours , cavities , tooth resorption , necrosis (particularly in younger specimens), osteomyelitis , periostitis , rickets and kidney stones . There

3416-582: Was able to make four twisted strands of twine, using a bronze replica of the Hohle Fels cave device, an example of reconstruction archaeology . A similar 15,000 years old device, made of reindeer antler, was found in Gough's Cave in Cheddar Gorge, Somerset and at many other sites. The existence of these tools at different locations indicates rope-making had already become an important human activity by

3477-409: Was found to contain almost exclusively a unique lineage of closely related haplotypes, indicating a homing behaviour for birthing and hibernation. The conclusion of this study is cave bears could not easily colonize new sites when in competition with humans for these resources. Overhunting by humans has been dismissed by some as human populations at the time were too small to pose a serious threat to

3538-515: Was likely to have had some sort of ritual purpose. Reassessment of fossils in 2019 indicate that the cave bear probably died out 24,000 years ago. A complex set of factors, rather than a single factor, are suggested to have led to the extinction. Compared with other megafaunal species that also became extinct during the Last Glacial Maximum, the cave bear was believed to have had a more specialized diet of high-quality plants and

3599-424: Was not responsible. Finally, high δ N levels were found in cave bear bones from Romania , indicating wider dietary possibilities than previously believed. Some evidence indicates that the cave bear used only caves for hibernation and was not inclined to use other locations, such as thickets , for this purpose, in contrast to the more versatile brown bear . This specialized hibernation behavior would have caused

3660-466: Was proof of prehistoric human religious rites involving the cave bear, or that the Drachenloch cave bears were hunted as part of a hunting ritual, or that the skulls were kept as trophies. In Archaeology, Religion, Ritual (2004), archaeologist Timothy Insoll strongly questions whether the Drachenloch finds in the stone cist were the result of human interaction. Insoll states that the evidence for religious practices involving cave bears in this time period

3721-483: Was to the American black bear , but had split from the brown bear lineage before the distinct eastern and western brown bear lineages diversified, and before the split of brown bears and polar bears. The divergence date estimate of cave bears and brown bears is about 1.2–1.4 Mya. However, a recent study showed that both species had some hybridization between them. The cave bear had a very broad, domed skull with

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