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85-397: Édouard Lartet and Henry Christy originally termed the period L'âge du renne (the Age of the Reindeer ). They conducted the first systematic excavations of the type site, publishing in 1875. The Magdalenian is associated with reindeer hunters, although Magdalenian sites contain extensive evidence for the hunting of red deer, horses, and other large mammals present in Europe toward

170-520: A cold reversal caused a replacement of much of the arboreal vegetation with Magellanic moorland and Alpine species. On Isla Grande de Chiloé , Magellanic moorland and closed-canopy Nothofagus forests were both present during the LGM, but the former disappeared by the late LGM. Little is known about the extent of glaciers during Last Glacial Maximum north of the Chilean Lake District . To

255-586: A director of the London Joint-Stock Bank . He was still a board member of the bank at the end of his life, despite other activities. Henry contributed to the success of the family firm, known as W. M. Christy & Sons Ltd. once his father took it over. Samples of textiles he brought home from the Ottoman Empire provided the idea for looped cotton towelling , taken up by his brother Richard, and amenable to mechanical manufacture with

340-536: A form of funerary endocannibalism , where upon the death of a member of the community, they were ritually dismembered and consumed by other members of the group, with their skulls being used to create skull cups. At other Magdalenian sites primary burial with no evidence of cannibalism is observed, with a handful of sites showing alternating evidence of cannibalism and primary burial at different occupation layers. At sites with primary burial, genetic analysis of these individuals indicate that they are more closely related to

425-730: A formal measurement of uncalibrated radiocarbon years , counted from 1950). In New Zealand and neighbouring regions of the Pacific, temperatures may have been further depressed during part of the LGM by the world's most recent supervolcanic eruption , the Oruanui eruption , approximately 25,500 years BP. However, it is estimated that during the LGM, low-to-mid latitude land surfaces at low elevation cooled on average by 5.8 °C relative to their present-day temperatures, based on an analysis of noble gases dissolved in groundwater rather than examinations of species abundances that have been used in

510-488: A local glacial maximum in the region. In northeastern Italy , in the region around Lake Fimon , Artemisia -dominated semideserts, steppes, and meadow-steppes replaced open boreal forests at the start of the LGM, specifically during Heinrich Stadial 3. The overall climate of the region became both drier and colder. In the Sar Mountains , the glacial equilibrium-line altitude was about 450 metres lower than in

595-422: A low retreating forehead and prominent brow ridges . The culture spans from approximately 17,000 to 12,000 BP , toward the end of the most recent ice age . Magdalenian tool culture is characterised by regular blade industries struck from carinated cores. The Magdalenian is divided into six phases generally agreed to have chronological significance (Magdalenian I through VI, I being the earliest and VI being

680-403: A mammoth engraved on a fragment of its own ivory; a dagger of reindeer antler, with a handle in the form of a reindeer; a cave-bear cut on a flat piece of schist ; a seal on a bear's tooth; a fish drawn on a reindeer antler; and a complete picture, also on reindeer antler, showing horses, an aurochs , trees, and a snake biting a man's leg. The man is naked, which, together with the snake, suggests

765-410: A mixture of grassland and tundra prevailed, and even here, the northern limit of tree growth was at least 20° farther south than today. In the period before the LGM, many areas that became completely barren desert were wetter than they are today, notably in southern Australia, where Aboriginal occupation is believed to coincide with a wet period between 40,000 and 60,000 years Before Present (BP,

850-679: A pronounced trend toward increased microlithisation. The bone harpoons and points have the most distinctive chronological markers within the typological sequence. As well as flint tools, Magdalenians are known for their elaborate worked bone, antler and ivory that served both functional and aesthetic purposes, including perforated batons . The sea shells and fossils found in Magdalenian sites may be sourced to relatively precise areas and have been used to support hypotheses of Magdalenian hunter-gatherer seasonal ranges, and perhaps trade routes. In northern Spain and south-west France this tool culture

935-723: A relatively dark skin tone compared to modern Europeans. A 2023 study proposed that relative to earlier Western European Cro-Magnon related groups like Goyet Q116-1-related Aurignacian and the Western Gravettian associated Fournol cluster, the Goyet-Q2-related Magdalenians appear to have carried significant (~30% ancestry) from the Villabruna cluster (thought to be of southeastern European origin, and sharing affinities to West Asian peoples not found in earlier European hunter-gatherers) associated with

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1020-461: A slow change in vegetation towards a sparsely distributed vegetation dominated by Nothofagus species. Within this parkland vegetation Magellanic moorland alternated with Nothofagus forest, and as warming progressed even warm-climate trees began to grow in the area. It is estimated that the tree line was depressed about 1,000 m relative to present day elevations during the coldest period, but it rose gradually until 19,300 years ago. At that time

1105-458: A small party of geologists to examine some caves which had recently been discovered in Belgium, near Dinant . While at work he caught a severe cold. A subsequent journey with M. and Mme. Lartet to La Palisse brought on inflammation of the lungs, of which he died on 4 May 1865. By his will, Christy bequeathed his collections of modern objects to the nation; his archaeological collection went to

1190-484: A technique devised by an employee, Samuel Holt . Christy also innovated with woven silk rather than beaver for the manufacture of top hats . Christy was a philanthropist, active in the Great Famine and other causes. With other Quakers Christy took the approach of buying seeds for other vegetable crops, to reduce the potato monoculture . With committee members Robert Forster and Samuel Fox , he also lobbied

1275-647: A warm climate in spite of the presence of the reindeer. In the Tuc d'Audoubert cave, an 18-inch clay statue of two bison sculpted in relief was discovered in the deepest room, now known as the Room of the Bisons. Examples of Magdalenian portable art include batons, figurines , and intricately engraved projectile points, as well as items of personal adornment including sea shells, perforated carnivore teeth (presumably necklaces), and fossils. Cave sites such as Lascaux contain

1360-557: A wide variety of art, including figurines and cave paintings. Evidence has been found suggesting that Magdalenian peoples regularly engaged in (probably ritualistic) cannibalism along with producing skull cups . Genetic studies indicate that the Magdalenian peoples were largely descended from earlier Western European Cro-Magnon groups like the Gravettians that were present in Western Europe over 30,000 years ago prior to

1445-637: Is referred to in Britain as the Dimlington Stadial , dated to between 31,000 and 16,000 years ago. The average global temperature about 21,000 years ago was about 6 °C (11 °F) colder than today. According to the United States Geological Survey (USGS), permanent summer ice covered about 8% of Earth's surface and 25% of the land area during the last glacial maximum. The USGS also states that sea level

1530-675: The Baltic Shield , and in Russia in particular, the LGM ice margin of the Fennoscandian Ice Sheet was highly lobate. The main LGM lobes of Russia followed the Dvina , Vologda and Rybinsk basins respectively. Lobes originated as result of ice following shallow topographic depressions filled with a soft sediment substrate. The northern Ural region was covered in periglacial steppes. Permafrost covered Europe south of

1615-780: The Barents Sea , the Kara Sea , and Novaya Zemlya , ending at the Taymyr Peninsula in what is now northwestern Siberia. Warming commenced in northern latitudes around 20,000 years ago, but it was limited and considerable warming did not take place until around 14,600 year ago. In northwestern Russia , the Fennoscandian ice sheet reached its LGM extent approximately 17,000 years ago, about five thousand years later than in Denmark, Germany and Western Poland. Outside

1700-614: The Cantabrian Mountains of the northwestern corner of the Iberian Peninsula , which in the present day have no permanent glaciers, the LGM led to a local glacial recession as a result of increased aridity caused by the growth of other ice sheets farther to the east and north, which drastically limited annual snowfall over the mountains of northwestern Spain. The Cantabrian alpine glaciers had previously expanded between approximately 60,000 and 40,000 years ago during

1785-677: The Epigravettian . The three samples of Y-DNA included two samples of haplogroup I and one sample of HIJK . All samples of mtDNA belonged to U , including five samples of U8b and one sample of U5b . Around 14-12,000 years ago, the Western Hunter-Gatherer cluster (which predominantly descended from the Villabruna cluster, with possible ancestry related to the Goyet-Q2 cluster), expanded northwards across

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1870-772: The Gulf of Oman . Bathymetric data suggests there were two palaeo-basins in the Persian Gulf. The central basin may have approached an area of 20,000 km , comparable at its fullest extent to lakes such as Lake Malawi in Africa. Between 12,000 and 9,000 years ago much of the Gulf's floor was not covered by water, only being flooded by the sea after 8,000 years ago. It is estimated that annual average temperatures in Southern Africa were 6 °C lower than at present during

1955-617: The Hex River Mountains , in the Western Cape , block streams and terraces found near the summit of Matroosberg evidences past periglacial activity which likely occurred during the LGM. Palaeoclimatological proxies indicate the region around Boomplaas Cave was wetter, with increased winter precipitation. The region of the Zambezi River catchment was colder relative to present and the local drop in mean temperature

2040-676: The Last Glacial Coldest Period , was the most recent time during the Last Glacial Period where ice sheets were at their greatest extent 26,000 and 20,000 years ago. Ice sheets covered much of Northern North America , Northern Europe , and Asia and profoundly affected Earth 's climate by causing a major expansion of deserts, along with a large drop in sea levels. Based on changes in position of ice sheet margins dated via terrestrial cosmogenic nuclides and radiocarbon dating , growth of ice sheets in

2125-576: The Last Glacial Maximum , who had retreated to southwestern Europe during the LGM. Madgalenian peoples were largely replaced and in some areas absorbed by Epigravettian -related groups of Villabruna/Western Hunter Gatherer ancestry at the end of the Pleistocene. The Magdalenian is represented by numerous sites, whose contents show progress in arts and culture. It was characterized by a cold and dry climate, humans in association with

2210-645: The Strait of Magellan suggest the peak in glacial surface area was constrained to between 25,200 and 23,100 years ago. There are no agreed dates for the beginning and end of the LGM, and researchers select dates depending on their criteria and the data set consulted. Jennifer French, an archeologist specialising in the European Palaeolithic, dates its onset at 27,500 years ago, with ice sheets at their maximum by around 26,000 years ago and deglaciation commencing between 20,000 and 19,000 years ago. The LGM

2295-491: The "reindeer period", as the time of the cavemen in southern France then came to be styled. Christy's funding contributed to the discovery of Cro-Magnon man in 1868 in a cave near Les Eyzies . An account of the explorations appeared in a half-finished book left by Christy, entitled Reliquiae Aquitanicae, being contributions to the Archaeology and Paleontology of Périgord and the adjacent provinces of Southern France ; this

2380-631: The Alps, largely replacing the Goyet-Q2 cluster associated Magdalenian groups in Western Europe. In France and Spain, significant GoyetQ2-related ancestry persisted into the Mesolithic and Neolithic , with some Neolithic individuals in France and Spain largely of Early European Farmer descent showing significant GoyetQ2 ancestry. Fertile Crescent : Europe : Africa : Siberia : Henry Christy Henry Christy (26 July 1810 – 4 May 1865)

2465-606: The Andes occupying lacustrine and marine basins where they spread out forming large piedmont glacier lobes . Glaciers extended about 7 km west of the modern Llanquihue Lake , but not more than 2 to 3 km south of it. Nahuel Huapi Lake in Argentina was also glaciated by the same time. Over most of the Chiloé Archipelago , glacier advance peaked 26,000 years ago, forming a long north–south moraine system along

2550-601: The British Museum. After the Great Exhibition of 1851 , Christy began the study of tribal peoples. In 1852, and again in 1853, he travelled in Denmark , Sweden, and Norway . The public collections of antiquities at Stockholm and Copenhagen were a revelation to him, and from this time he collected objects from contemporary and prehistoric periods. The year 1856 was devoted to America. Travelling over Canada,

2635-672: The French palæontologist Edouard Lartet in the examination of the caves along the valley of the Vézère , a tributary of the Dordogne , in the south of France. Remains are embedded in the stalagmites of these caves. Thousands of specimens were obtained, some of them being added to Christy's collection. The sites they investigated included Le Moustier , the Abri de la Madeleine , both important type sites . In April 1865, Christy left England with

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2720-632: The Great Barrier Reef was enhanced due to low atmospheric CO 2 levels. The deep waters of the Indian Ocean were significantly less oxygenated during the LGM compared to the Middle Holocene. The deep South Indian Ocean in particular was an enormous carbon sink, partially explaining the very low p CO 2 of the LGM. The intermediate waters of the southeastern Arabian Sea were poorly ventilated relative to today because of

2805-603: The Holocene. In Greece , steppe vegetation predominated. Megafaunal abundance in Europe peaked around 27,000 and 21,000 BP; this bountifulness was attributable to the cold stadial climate. In Greenland, the difference between LGM temperatures and present temperatures was twice as great during winter as during summer. Greenhouse gas and insolation forcings dominated temperature changes in northern Greenland, whereas Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) variability

2890-678: The LGM except in transient intervals around 23,200 and 22,300 BP. In the western South Atlantic , where Antarctic Intermediate Water forms, sinking particle flux was heightened as a result of increased dust flux during the LGM and sustained export productivity. The increased sinking particle flux removed neodymium from shallow waters, producing an isotopic ratio change. On the Island of Hawaii , geologists have long recognized deposits formed by glaciers on Mauna Kea during recent ice ages. The latest work indicates that deposits of three glacial episodes since 150,000 to 200,000 years ago are preserved on

2975-544: The LGM, 21,000 years ago, the sea level was about 125 meters (about 410 feet) lower than it is today. Across most of the globe, the hydrological cycle slowed down, explaining increased aridity in many regions of the world. In Africa and the Middle East, many smaller mountain glaciers formed, and the Sahara and other sandy deserts were greatly expanded in extent. The Atlantic deep sea sediment core V22-196, extracted off

3060-702: The Last Glacial Maximum. This temperature drop alone would however not have been enough to generate widespread glaciation or permafrost in the Drakensberg Mountains or the Lesotho Highlands . Seasonal freezing of the ground in the Lesotho Highlands might have reached depths of 2 meters or more below the surface. A few small glaciers did however develop during the LGM, in particular in south-facing slopes. In

3145-688: The Laurentide Ice Sheet reached 3.2 km in height around Keewatin Dome and about 1.7-2.1 km along the Plains divide. In addition to the large Cordilleran Ice Sheet in Canada and Montana , alpine glaciers advanced and (in some locations) ice caps covered much of the Rocky and Sierra Nevada Mountains further south. Latitudinal gradients were so sharp that permafrost did not reach far south of

3230-705: The North Atlantic was reduced, as measured by the increased proportion of radiogenic isotopes in neodymium isotope ratios. There is controversy whether upwelling off the Moroccan coast was stronger during the LGM compared to today. Though coccolith size increases in Calcidiscus leptoporus suggest stronger trade winds during the LGM caused there to be increased coastal upwelling of the northwestern coast of Africa, planktonic foraminiferal δ C records show upwelling and primary productivity were not enhanced during

3315-465: The North Atlantic were better ventilated during the LGM by Glacial North Atlantic Intermediate Water (GNAIW) relative to its present-day ventilation by upper North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW). GNAIW was nutrient poor compared to present day upper NADW. Below GNAIW, southern source bottom water that was very rich in nutrients filled the deep North Atlantic. Due to the presence of immense ice sheets in Europe and North America, continental weathering flux into

3400-606: The United States, and British Columbia , Christy met Edward Burnett Tylor in Cuba , and they went on together to Mexico, where Christy made many purchases. Their Mexican travels were described by Tylor in his Anahuac (London, 1861). In 1858, the antiquity of man was proved by the discoveries of Boucher de Perthes on flint implements in France; Christy joined the Geological Society that year. He went with

3485-416: The atmosphere . The massive sheets of ice locked away water, lowering the sea level, exposing continental shelves , joining land masses together, and creating extensive coastal plains . The ice sheets also changed the atmospheric circulation, causing the northern Pacific and Atlantic oceans to cool and produce more clouds, which amplified the global cooling as the clouds reflected even more sunlight. During

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3570-919: The best known being Lake Bonneville in Utah . This also occurred in Afghanistan and Iran , where a major lake formed in the Dasht-e Kavir . In Australia , shifting sand dunes covered half the continent, while the Chaco and Pampas in South America became similarly dry. Present-day subtropical regions also lost most of their forest cover, notably in eastern Australia, the Atlantic Forest of Brazil , and southern China , where open woodland became dominant due to much drier conditions. In northern China – unglaciated despite its cold climate –

3655-506: The best known examples of Magdalenian cave art . The site of Altamira in Spain, with its extensive and varied forms of Magdalenian mobiliary art has been suggested to be an agglomeration site where groups of Magdalenian hunter-gatherers congregated. Some skulls were cleaned of soft tissues, then had the facial regions removed, with the remaining brain case retouched, possibly to make the broken edges more regular. This manipulation suggests

3740-562: The coast of Senegal, shows a major southward expansion of the Sahara. The Persian Gulf averages about 35 metres in depth and the seabed between Abu Dhabi and Qatar is even shallower, being mostly less than 15 metres deep. For thousands of years the Ur-Shatt (a confluence of the Tigris - Euphrates Rivers ) provided fresh water to the Gulf, as it flowed through the Strait of Hormuz into

3825-596: The collection at the British Museum. Christy had a partial catalogue of his collections made in 1862, by Carl Ludvig Steinhauer . In 1864 he wrote an account of the work which was being carried out at his expense in the Vézère Valley; these notices appeared in the Comptes rendus (29 February 1864) and Transactions of the Ethnological Society of London (21 June 1864). They referred mainly to

3910-420: The continents: the Indonesian islands as far east as Borneo and Bali were connected to the Asian continent in a landmass called Sundaland . Palawan was also part of Sundaland, while the rest of the Philippine Islands formed one large island separated from the continent only by the Sibutu Passage and the Mindoro Strait . The environment along the coast of South China was not very different from that of

3995-466: The east and west extremities of the Sundaland shelf. Only in Central America and the Chocó region of Colombia did tropical rainforests remain substantially intact – probably due to the extraordinarily heavy rainfall of these regions. Most of the world's deserts expanded. Exceptions were in what is the present-day Western United States , where changes in the jet stream brought heavy rain to areas that are now desert and large pluvial lakes formed,

4080-491: The eastern coast of Chiloé Island (41.5–43° S). By that time the glaciation at the latitude of Chiloé was of ice sheet type contrasting to the valley glaciation found further north in Chile. Despite glacier advances much of the area west of Llanquihue Lake was still ice-free during the Last Glacial Maximum. During the coldest period of the Last Glacial Maximum vegetation at this location was dominated by Alpine herbs in wide open surfaces. The global warming that followed caused

4165-474: The end of the last glacial period . The culture was geographically widespread, and later Magdalenian sites stretched from Portugal in the west to Poland in the east, and as far north as France , the Channel Islands , England , and Wales . Besides La Madeleine, the chief stations of the Magdalenian are Les Eyzies , Laugerie-Basse , and Gorges d'Enfer in the Dordogne ; Grotte du Placard in Charente and others in south-west France. Magdalenian peoples produced

4250-404: The government for practical help in improving Irish fisheries. He was one of the founders of the Aborigines' Protection Society . In 1857 he visited, with Lord Althorp and John W. Probyn, the Elgin settlement of free blacks in Ontario , writing afterwards to its founder William King , and giving money. He was also a committee member of the British and Foreign School Society . Christy

4335-581: The ice sheet down to as far south as present-day Szeged in Southern Hungary. Ice covered the whole of Iceland . In addition, ice covered Ireland along with roughly the northern half of the British Isles with the southern boundary of the ice sheet running approximately from the south of Wales to the north east of England, and then across the now submerged land of Doggerland to Denmark . Central Europe had isolated pockets of relative warmth corresponding to hydrothermally active areas, which served as refugia for taxa not adapted to extremely cold climates. In

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4420-421: The ice sheets except at high elevations. Glaciers forced the early human populations who had originally migrated from northeast Siberia into refugia , reshaping their genetic variation by mutation and drift . This phenomenon established the older haplogroups found among Native Americans , and later migrations are responsible for northern North American haplogroups. In southeastern North America, between

4505-413: The latest). The earliest phases are recognised by the varying proportion of blades and specific varieties of scrapers, the middle phases marked by the emergence of a microlithic component (particularly the distinctive denticulated microliths ), and the later phases by the presence of uniserial (phase   5) and biserial 'harpoons' (phase   6) made of bone, antler and ivory. Debate continues about

4590-416: The nation, but with the finds from excavations in France to be shared with the French Musée d'Archéologie Nationale , which was to get the most important pieces. He also left £5000 which established the Christy fund that allowed the British Museum to purchase many more artefacts; with a sum of money to be applied to public exhibition. As there was then no spare room at the British Museum, the trustees secured

4675-441: The nature of the earliest Magdalenian assemblages, and it remains questionable whether the Badegoulian culture is the earliest phase of Magdalenian culture. Similarly, finds from the forest of Beauregard near Paris have been suggested as belonging to the earliest Magdalenian. The earliest Magdalenian sites are in France. The Epigravettian is a similar culture appearing at the same time. Its known range extends from southeast France to

4760-412: The north, in the dry Andes of Central and the Last Glacial Maximum is associated with increased humidity and the verified advance of at least some mountain glaciers. Montane glaciers in the northern Andes reached their peak extent approximately 27,000 years ago. In northwestern Argentina, pollen deposits record the altitudinal descent of the treeline during the LGM. Amazonia was much drier than in

4845-428: The past. During the Last Glacial Maximum, much of the world was cold, dry, and inhospitable, with frequent storms and a dust-laden atmosphere. The dustiness of the atmosphere is a prominent feature in ice cores; dust levels were as much as 20 to 25 times greater than they are in the present. This was probably due to a number of factors: reduced vegetation, stronger global winds, and less precipitation to clear dust from

4930-401: The people of the Epigravettian culture/ Villabruna cluster than to the Magdalenians that practiced cannibalism (who belong to the GoyetQ2 cluster). The genes of seven Magdalenians, the El Miron Cluster in Iberia, have shown close relationship to a population who had lived in Northern Europe some 20,000 years previously. The analyses suggested that 70-80% of the ancestry of these individuals

5015-654: The persistence of rainforests in eastern Australia at this time. Rivers maintained their sinuous form in southeastern Australia and there was increased aeolian deposition of sediment in compared to today. The Flinders Ranges likewise experienced humid conditions. In southwestern Western Australia, forests disappeared during the LGM. Between Sahul and Sundaland – a peninsula of South East Asia that comprised present-day Malaysia and western and northern Indonesia – there remained an archipelago of islands known as Wallacea . The water gaps between these islands, Sahul and Sundaland were considerably narrower and fewer in number than in

5100-744: The present day, featuring moist subtropical evergreen forests, despite sea levels in the South China Sea being about 100 metres lower than the present day. The Australian mainland, New Guinea , Tasmania and many smaller islands comprised a single land mass. This continent is now referred to sometimes as Sahul . In the Bonaparte Gulf of northwestern Australia, sea levels were about 125 metres lower than present. Interior Australia saw widespread aridity, evidenced by extensive dune activity and falling lake levels. Eastern Australia experienced two nadirs in temperature. Lacustrine sediments from North Stradbroke Island in coastal Queensland indicated humid conditions. Data from Little Llangothlin Lagoon likewise indicate

5185-507: The present day. The two main islands of New Zealand, along with associated smaller islands, were joined as one landmass. Virtually all of the Southern Alps were under permanent ice cover, with alpine glaciers extending from them into much of the surrounding high country . Northern Europe was largely covered by ice, with the southern boundary of the ice sheets passing through Germany and Poland. This ice extended northward to cover Svalbard and Franz Josef Land and northeastward to occupy

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5270-498: The present, with flora diminished to almost the same degree as in glaciated areas of Europe and North America. Even in less affected regions, rainforest cover was greatly diminished, especially in West Africa where a few refugia were surrounded by tropical grasslands . The Amazon rainforest was split into two large blocks by extensive savanna , and the tropical rainforests of Southeast Asia probably were similarly affected, with deciduous forests expanding in their place except on

5355-485: The present. δ D values from plant waxes from the LGM are significantly more enriched than those in the present and those dating back to MIS 3, evidencing this increased aridity. Eastern Brazil was also affected; the site of Guanambi in Bahia was much drier than today. AMOC was weaker and more shallow during the LGM. Sea surface temperatures in the western subtropical gyre of the North Atlantic were around 5 °C colder compared to today. Intermediate depth waters of

5440-502: The reindeer, and the extinction of the mammoth . The use of bone and ivory as implements, begun in the preceding Solutrean , increased, making the period essentially a bone period. Bone instruments are quite varied: spear-points, harpoon -heads, borers, hooks and needles. The fauna of the Magdalenian seems to have included cave lions reindeer, arctic foxes , arctic hares , and other cold weather specialists. Magdalenian humans appear to have been of short stature, dolichocephalic , with

5525-491: The shaping of skulls to produce skull cups . Finds of defleshed (as evidenced by cut marks) and cracked bones with human chewing marks at Gough's Cave , England suggests that the Magdalenian peoples there engaged in cannibalism . Cannibalism has been suggested at a dozen other Magadelian sites across the culture's geographic range, representing 25% of all Magdalenian sites, far more than any other European Paleolithic culture. It has been suggested that Magdalenian peoples practiced

5610-407: The shutting down of the Oyashio Current and the presence of large east–west mountain ranges were secondary factors that prevented the development of continental glaciation in Asia . All over the world, climates at the Last Glacial Maximum were cooler and almost everywhere drier. In extreme cases, such as South Australia and the Sahel , rainfall could have been diminished by up to 90% compared to

5695-400: The southern Appalachian Mountains and the Atlantic Ocean, there was an enclave of unusually warm climate. In the Southern Hemisphere, the Patagonian Ice Sheet covered the whole southern third of Chile and adjacent areas of Argentina. On the western side of the Andes the ice sheet reached sea level as far north as in the 41 degrees south at Chacao Channel . The western coast of Patagonia

5780-437: The southern hemisphere commenced 33,000 years ago and maximum coverage has been estimated to have occurred sometime between 26,500 years ago and 20,000 years ago. After this, deglaciation caused an abrupt rise in sea level. Decline of the West Antarctica ice sheet occurred between 14,000 and 15,000 years ago, consistent with evidence for another abrupt rise in the sea level about 14,500 years ago. Glacier fluctuations around

5865-433: The suite of rooms at 103 Victoria Street, London SW (in which Christy himself had lived) and here the collection was exhibited, under the care of A. W. Franks , until 1884. The young Charles Hercules Read , later Franks's successor as Keeper at the British Museum, was based there doing the cataloguing, in his first work for the museum. In that year the removal of the natural history department to South Kensington made room for

5950-440: The volcano. Glacial moraines on the volcano formed about 70,000 years ago and from about 40,000 to 13,000 years ago. If glacial deposits were formed on Mauna Loa , they have long since been buried by younger lava flows. Low sea surface temperature (SST) and sea surface salinity (SSS) in the East China Sea during the LGM suggests the Kuroshio Current was reduced in strength relative to the present. Abyssal Pacific overturning

6035-436: The western shores of the Volga River , Russia, with many sites in Italy. The later phases of Magdalenian culture are contemporaneous with the human re-settlement of north-western Europe after the Last Glacial Maximum during the Late Glacial Maximum . As hunter gatherers, Magdalenians did not re-settle permanently in northwest Europe, instead following herds and seasons. By the end of the Magdalenian, lithic technology shows

6120-629: Was a pocket of relative warmth. Following a preceding period of relative retreat from 52,000 to 40,000 years ago, the Laurentide Ice Sheet grew rapidly at the onset of the LGM until it covered essentially all of Canada east of the Rocky Mountains and extended roughly to the Missouri and Ohio Rivers , and eastward to Manhattan , reaching a total maximum volume of around 26.5 to 37 million cubic kilometres. At its peak,

6205-750: Was about 125 meters (410 ft) lower than in present times (2012). When comparing to the present, the average global temperature was 15 °C (59 °F) for the 2013–2017 period. As of 2012 about 3.1% of Earth's surface and 10.7% of the land area is covered in year-round ice. Carbon sequestration in the highly stratified and productive Southern Ocean was essential in producing the LGM. The formation of an ice sheet or ice cap requires both prolonged cold and precipitation ( snow ). Hence, despite having temperatures similar to those of glaciated areas in North America and Europe , East Asia remained unglaciated except at higher elevations. This difference

6290-549: Was also a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London , and sponsored the application for membership there of Augustus Lane Fox (later Pitt Rivers), the other major British collector of the time in the ethnographic field. In 1850 Christy began to visit foreign countries. Among the fruits of his first expedition to the East were an extensive collection of Eastern fabrics, and a large series of figures from Cyprus, which are now in

6375-711: Was also involved in numerous learned societies. He belonged to both the Ethnological Society of London and the Anthropological Society of London , representing different strands arising from early ethnology . He became a Fellow of the Linnean Society in 1856, and joined the Geological Society in 1858. He took part in both the archaeological societies of the period, and the Royal Geographical Society . He

6460-657: Was an English banker and collector, who left his substantial collections to the British Museum . Christy was born at Kingston upon Thames , the second son of William Miller Christy of Woodbines, a Quaker banker who started out in hat manufacture with interests in Stockport , before becoming a financier. Trained to business by his father, Henry Christy became a partner in the house of Christy & Co. in Gracechurch Street , and succeeded his father as

6545-565: Was because the ice sheets in Europe produced extensive anticyclones above them. These anticyclones generated air masses that were so dry on reaching Siberia and Manchuria that precipitation sufficient for the formation of glaciers could never occur (except in Kamchatka where these westerly winds lifted moisture from the Sea of Japan ). The relative warmth of the Pacific Ocean due to

6630-509: Was completed by Christy's executors, first by Lartet and, after his death in 1870, by Thomas Rupert Jones . Attribution [REDACTED]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain :  Harrison, William Jerome (1887). " Christy, Henry ". In Stephen, Leslie (ed.). Dictionary of National Biography . Vol. 10. London: Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 295–296. Last Glacial Maximum The Last Glacial Maximum ( LGM ), also referred to as

6715-654: Was from the population represented by Goyet Q116-1, associated with the Aurignacian culture of about 35,000 BP, from the Goyet Caves in modern Belgium. It has also been found that Magdalenians are also closely related to western Gravettians who inhabited France and Spain prior to the Last Glacial Maximum. The 15,000 year old GoyetQ2 individual from Goyet Caves is often used as a proxy for Magdalenian ancestry. Analysis of genomes of GoyetQ2-related Magdalenians suggest that like earlier Cro-Magnon groups, they probably had

6800-486: Was largely glaciated, but some authors have pointed out the possible existence of ice-free refugia for some plant species. On the eastern side of the Andes, glacier lobes occupied the depressions of Seno Skyring , Seno Otway , Inútil Bay , and Beagle Channel . On the Straits of Magellan, ice reached as far as Segunda Angostura . During the LGM, valley glaciers in the southern Andes (38–43° S) merged and descended from

6885-793: Was seasonally uniform. On the island of Mauritius in the Mascarenhas Archipelago , open wet forest vegetation dominated, contrasting with the dominantly closed-stratified-tall-forest state of Holocene Mauritian forests. There were ice sheets in modern Tibet (although scientists continue to debate the extent to which the Tibetan Plateau was covered with ice) as well as in Baltistan and Ladakh . In Southeast Asia , many smaller mountain glaciers formed, and permafrost covered Asia as far south as Beijing . Because of lowered sea levels, many of today's islands were joined to

6970-570: Was similar in spatial extent. The outflow of North Pacific Intermediate Water through the Tasman Sea was stronger during the LGM. In the Great Barrier Reef along the coast of Queensland , reef development shifted seaward due to the precipitous drop in sea levels, reaching a maximum distance from the present coastline as sea levels approached their lowest levels around 20,700-20,500 years ago. Microbial carbonate deposition in

7055-559: Was superseded by the Azilian culture. In northern Europe it was followed by variants of the Tjongerian techno-complex. It has been suggested that key Late-glacial sites in south-western Britain may be attributed to Magdalenian culture, including Kent's Cavern . Bones, reindeer antlers and animal teeth display pictures carved or etched on them of seals, fish, reindeer, mammoths and other creatures. The best of Magdalenian artworks are

7140-505: Was the dominant influence on southern Greenland's climate. Illorsuit Island was exclusively covered by cold-based glaciers. Eastern Beringia was extremely cold and dry. July air temperatures in northern Alaska and Yukon were about 2-3 °C lower compared to today. Equilibrium line altitudes in Alaska suggest summer temperatures were 2-5 °C compared to preindustrial. Sediment core analysis from Lone Spruce Pond in southwestern Alaska show it

7225-526: Was weaker during the LGM than in the present day, although it was temporarily stronger during some intervals of ice sheet retreat. The El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) was strong during the LGM. Evidence suggests that the Peruvian Oxygen Minimum Zone in the eastern Pacific was weaker than it is in the present day, likely as a result of increased oxygen concentrations in seawater permitted by cooler ocean water temperatures, though it

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