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61-459: Holcim is a Swiss-based global building materials and aggregates flagship division of the Holcim Group . The original company was merged on 10 July 2015 with Lafarge to form LafargeHolcim as the new company and renamed to Holcim Group in 2021. The Holcim brand remained active within the group when the merger was completed. Founded in 1912, the company expanded into France and Europe and

122-469: A beaver 's lodge. These were variously named wikiups , lean-tos, and so forth. An extension on the brush building idea is the wattle and daub process in which clay soils or dung , usually cow , are used to fill in and cover a woven brush structure. This gives the structure more thermal mass and strength. Wattle and daub is one of the oldest building techniques. Many older timber frame buildings incorporate wattle and daub as non load bearing walls between

183-561: A ceramic material. Fired bricks can be solid or have hollow cavities to aid in drying and make them lighter and easier to transport. The individual bricks are placed upon each other in courses using mortar . Successive courses being used to build up walls, arches , and other architectural elements. Fired brick walls are usually substantially thinner than cob/adobe while keeping the same vertical strength. They require more energy to create but are easier to transport and store, and are lighter than stone blocks. Romans extensively used fired brick of

244-476: A garden. This was much more prevalent in pre-industrial times, when laws existed as to the amount of wood one could cut at any one time to ensure there would be a supply of timber for the future, but is still a viable form of agriculture. Bricks are made in a similar way to mud-bricks except without the fibrous binder such as straw and are fired ("burned" in a brick clamp or kiln ) after they have air-dried to permanently harden them. Kiln fired clay bricks are

305-421: A lower lifetime cost. For example, an asphalt shingle roof costs less than a metal roof to install, but the metal roof will last longer so the lifetime cost is less per year. Some materials may require more care than others, maintaining costs specific to some materials may also influence the final decision. Risks when considering lifetime cost of a material is if the building is damaged such as by fire or wind, or if

366-501: A method based on the ‘maturity concept’ i.e. taking in consideration both time and temperature of cement hydration reaction. Recent work on aging of lignocellulosic materials in the cement paste showed hydrolysis of hemicelluloses and lignin that affects the interface between particles or fibers and concrete and causes degradation. Bricks were laid in lime mortar from the time of the Romans until supplanted by Portland cement mortar in

427-957: A shape and type now called Roman bricks . Building with brick gained much popularity in the mid-18th century and 19th centuries. This was due to lower costs with increases in brick manufacturing and fire-safety in increasingly crowded cities. The cinder block supplemented or replaced fired bricks in the late 20th century often being used for the inner parts of masonry walls and by themselves. Structural clay tiles (clay blocks) are clay or terracotta and typically are perforated with holes. Cement bonded composites are made of hydrated cement paste that binds wood, particles, or fibers to make pre-cast building components. Various fiberous materials, including paper , fiberglass , and carbon-fiber have been used as binders. Wood and natural fibers are composed of various soluble organic compounds like carbohydrates , glycosides and phenolics. These compounds are known to retard cement setting. Therefore, before using

488-817: A stakes in The Associated Cement Companies (ACC) and Ambuja Cement Eastern. In 2008, Holcim became the largest shareholder of China's Huaxin Cement with a 40% stake. In 2009, they acquired Cemex Australia. In February 2012, Bernard Fontana became the first CEO of Holcim that was not part of the founding families. On 7 April 2014, Holcim and Lafarge announced they had agreed to terms on a "merger of equals" valued at nearly $ 60 billion. The merger entails 10 Lafarge shares being converted into 9 Holcim shares. Holders of 86% of Lafarge shares accepted this offer in June 2015, according to Holcim, meaning that

549-408: A variety of building applications, including load-bearing, filling, insulating, and plastering materials. These materials vary in structure depending on the formulation used. Plant fibres can be combined with binders and then used in construction to provide thermal, hydric or structural functions. The behaviour of concrete based on plant fibre is mainly governed by the amount of the fibre constituting

610-499: A wood in making cement bonded composites, its compatibility with cement is assessed. Wood-cement compatibility is the ratio of a parameter related to the property of a wood-cement composite to that of a neat cement paste. The compatibility is often expressed as a percentage value. To determine wood-cement compatibility, methods based on different properties are used, such as, hydration characteristics, strength, interfacial bond and morphology. Various methods are used by researchers such as

671-476: Is a generic building material and is used in building just about any type of structure in most climates. Wood can be very flexible under loads, keeping strength while bending, and is incredibly strong when compressed vertically. There are many differing qualities to the different types of wood, even among same tree species. This means specific species are better suited for various uses than others. And growing conditions are important for deciding quality. "Timber"

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732-445: Is a Swiss billionaire businessman, and the former chairman of cement manufacturer Holcim . Thomas Schmidheiny was born in 1945, the son of Max Schmidheiny (1908-1991). The family's construction materials empire (bricks, cement, etc.) was divided in 1984, with Thomas inheriting Holcim, the concrete and cement company, and his brother Stephan , also a billionaire, was given the construction company Eternit . Until 2003, Schmidheiny

793-483: Is combined with straws to create light clay , wattle and daub , and mud plaster . Wet-laid, or damp, walls are made by using the mud or clay mixture directly without forming blocks and drying them first. The amount of and type of each material in the mixture used leads to different styles of buildings. The deciding factor is usually connected with the quality of the soil being used. Larger amounts of clay are usually employed in building with cob , while low-clay soil

854-572: Is hard to warm without consuming considerable energy but, once warm, its thermal mass means that can retain heat for useful periods of time. Dry-stone walls and huts have been built for as long as humans have put one stone on top of another. Eventually, different forms of mortar were used to hold the stones together, cement being the most commonplace now. The granite -strewn uplands of Dartmoor National Park, United Kingdom, for example, provided ample resources for early settlers. Circular huts were constructed from loose granite rocks throughout

915-426: Is lightweight, easily shaped, and an excellent insulator. Foam is usually used as part of a structural insulated panel , wherein the foam is sandwiched between wood or cement or insulating concrete forms. Glassmaking is considered an art form as well as an industrial process or material. Clear windows have been used since the invention of glass to cover small openings in a building. Glass panes provided humans with

976-551: Is manufacturing and distributing cement and aggregates. As of 2014, Holcim's annual production capacity was 215 million tons. It has a BBB credit rating according to Fitch Ratings , affirmed on March 11 2024. Holcim is the cement market leader in Australia, Azerbaijan, India, Slovakia, Switzerland, and Latin America. It is among the top few producers throughout Europe, North America, and Asia. Globally, Holcim and Lafarge are

1037-563: Is the home of choice among nomadic groups all over the world. Two well-known types include the conical teepee and the circular yurt . The tent has been revived as a major construction technique with the development of tensile architecture and synthetic fabrics. Modern buildings can be made of flexible material such as fabric membranes, and supported by a system of steel cables, rigid or internal, or by air pressure. Recently, synthetic polystyrene or polyurethane foam has been used in combination with structural materials, such as concrete. It

1098-411: Is the longest-lasting building material available, and is usually readily available. There are many types of rock, with differing attributes that make them better or worse for particular uses. Rock is a very dense material so it gives a lot of protection; its main drawback as a building material is its weight and the difficulty of working it. Its energy density is both an advantage and disadvantage. Stone

1159-511: Is the term used for construction purposes except the term "lumber" is used in the United States. Raw wood (a log, trunk, bole) becomes timber when the wood has been "converted" (sawn, hewn, split) in the forms of minimally-processed logs stacked on top of each other , timber frame construction, and light-frame construction . The main problems with timber structures are fire risk and moisture-related problems. In modern times softwood

1220-568: Is then air dried and can be laid dry or with a mortar or clay slip . Sand is used with cement , and sometimes lime , to make mortar for masonry work and plaster . Sand is also used as a part of the concrete mix. An important low-cost building material in countries with high sand content soils is the Sandcrete block, which is weaker but cheaper than fired clay bricks. Sand reinforced polyester composite are used as bricks. Rock structures have existed for as long as history can recall. It

1281-465: Is used as a lower-value bulk material, whereas hardwood is usually used for finishings and furniture. Historically timber frame structures were built with oak in western Europe, recently douglas fir has become the most popular wood for most types of structural building. Many families or communities, in rural areas, have a personal woodlot from which the family or community will grow and harvest trees to build with or sell. These lots are tended to like

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1342-457: Is used as structural framework for larger buildings such as skyscrapers , or as an external surface covering. There are many types of metals used for building. Metal figures quite prominently in prefabricated structures such as the Quonset hut , and can be seen used in most cosmopolitan cities. It requires a great deal of human labor to produce metal, especially in the large amounts needed for

1403-409: Is usually associated with sod house or sod roof construction. The other main ingredients include more or less sand / gravel and straw /grasses. Rammed earth is both an old and newer take on creating walls, once made by compacting clay soils between planks by hand; nowadays forms and mechanical pneumatic compressors are used. Soil, and especially clay, provides good thermal mass ; it

1464-580: Is very good at keeping temperatures at a constant level. Homes built with earth tend to be naturally cool in the summer heat and warm in cold weather. Clay holds heat or cold, releasing it over a period of time like stone. Earthen walls change temperature slowly, so artificially raising or lowering the temperature can use more resources than in say a wood built house, but the heat/coolness stays longer. People building with mostly dirt and clay, such as cob, sod, and adobe, created homes that have been built for centuries in western and northern Europe, Asia, as well as

1525-641: The Neolithic and early Bronze Age , and the remains of an estimated 5,000 can still be seen today. Granite continued to be used throughout the Medieval period (see Dartmoor longhouse ) and into modern times. Slate is another stone type, commonly used as roofing material in the United Kingdom and other parts of the world where it is found. Stone buildings can be seen in most major cities, and some civilizations built predominantly with stone, such as

1586-399: The initial and long-term economic, ecological, energy, and social costs of building materials. The initial economic cost of building materials is the purchase price. This is often what governs decision making about what materials to use. Sometimes people take into consideration the energy savings or durability of the materials and see the value of paying a higher initial cost in return for

1647-434: The reuse , recycling, or disposal of construction waste . Two concepts in building which account for the ecological economics of building materials are green building and sustainable development . The initial energy costs include the amount of energy consumed to produce, deliver and install the material. The long term energy cost is the economic, ecological, and social costs of continuing to produce and deliver energy to

1708-563: The Egyptian and Aztec pyramids and the structures of the Inca civilization. Thatch is one of the oldest of building materials known. "Thatch" is another word for "grass"; grass is a good insulator and easily harvested. Many African tribes have lived in homes made completely of grasses and sand year-round. In Europe, thatch roofs on homes were once prevalent but the material fell out of favor as industrialization and improved transport increased

1769-619: The Middle East during the 1920s. They expanded in the Americas during the 1950s and went public in 1958. The company continued to expand in Latin America and added Asian divisions during the 1970s and 1980s. A series of mergers and buyouts made Holcim one of the two largest cement manufacturers worldwide by 2014, roughly tied with rival Lafarge. In April 2014, the two companies agreed to a US$ 60 billion "merger of equals". The company

1830-530: The North American business with a full capital market separation. Holcim was founded by Adolf Gygi in 1912 as "Aargauische Portlandcementfabrik Holderbank-Wildegg". The original headquarters were in Holderbank , ( Lenzburg district , Canton of Aargau ). In 1914, the company merged with "Rheintalischen Cementfabrik Rüthi" owned by Ernst Schmidheiny. Schmidheiny took over leadership duties and began

1891-456: The ability to both let light into rooms while at the same time keeping inclement weather outside. Glass is generally made from mixtures of sand and silicates , in a very hot fire stove called a kiln , and is very brittle. Additives are often included the mixture used to produce glass with shades of colors or various characteristics (such as bulletproof glass or lightbulbs). The use of glass in architectural buildings has become very popular in

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1952-618: The availability of other materials. Today, though, the practice is undergoing a revival. In the Netherlands, for instance, many new buildings have thatched roofs with special ridge tiles on top. Wood has been used as a building material for thousands of years in its natural state. Today, engineered wood is becoming very common in industrialized countries. Wood is a product of trees , and sometimes other fibrous plants, used for construction purposes when cut or pressed into lumber and timber, such as boards, planks and similar materials. It

2013-430: The building blocks can be manufactured off site in a centralized location at a brickworks and transported to multiple building locations. These blocks can also be monetized more easily and sold. Structural mud bricks are almost always made using clay, often clay soil and a binder are the only ingredients used, but other ingredients can include sand, lime, concrete, stone and other binders . The formed or compressed block

2074-411: The building for its use, maintenance, and eventual removal. The initial embodied energy of a structure is the energy consumed to extract, manufacture, deliver, install, the materials. The lifetime embodied energy continues to grow with the use, maintenance, and reuse/recycling/disposal of the building materials themselves and how the materials and design help minimize the life-time energy consumption of

2135-502: The building industries. Corrosion is metal's prime enemy when it comes to longevity. The term plastics covers a range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic condensation or polymerization products that can be molded or extruded into objects, films, or fibers . Their name is derived from the fact that in their semi-liquid state they are malleable, or have the property of plasticity . Plastics vary immensely in heat tolerance, hardness, and resiliency. Combined with this adaptability,

2196-849: The business, splitting it into two divisions. Ernst took over the Holderbank building materials business, while Max oversaw the other lines. This organization scheme remained in place until the 1970s. After World War II, Hans Gygi, son of Adolf Gygi, took over leadership. He oversaw the company during the Swiss housing boom of the 1950s, and as Holderbank expanded into Canada, then throughout North and South America. The company went public in 1958 in order to raise more capital to fuel further expansion. Hydroelectric projects in Switzerland generated large concrete contracts, offsetting losses in Egypt when

2257-457: The cement hydrates and eventually hardens into a stone-like material. When used in the generic sense, this is the material referred to by the term "concrete". For a concrete construction of any size, as concrete has a rather low tensile strength , it is generally strengthened using steel rods or bars (known as rebars ). This strengthened concrete is then referred to as reinforced concrete . In order to minimise any air bubbles, that would weaken

2318-399: The company changed its name from "Holderbank Financière Glaris" to Holcim (short for Hol derbank cim ent). Asia drove growth in the 2000s, as the company saw more than 50% of its business come from emerging markets. In 2005, Holcim purchased Aggregate Industries for US$ 4.1 billion, entering the United Kingdom for the first time. That year, the company also expanded into India by acquiring

2379-559: The company on a course of expansion. In 1922, Holderbank, as the company was then known, expanded beyond the Swiss borders into France. Schmidheiny continued to expand, primarily by buying stakes in existing companies. By the end of the decade Holderbank held stakes in Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands, and Egypt. Positions in Lebanon and South Africa soon followed. Schmidheiny died in the 1930s and his sons, Ernst Jr. and Max , took over

2440-467: The country's government nationalized Holderbank's factories. During the early 1970s, growth in Brazil and Mexico improved the company's bottom line. The Schmidheiny brothers convinced shareholders that the company should consolidate holdings and merge with Schweizerischen Cement-Industrie-Gesellschaft. The combined company had annual revenue of 800 million Swiss francs and established Holderbank as one of

2501-648: The early 20th century. Gypsum concrete is a mixture of gypsum plaster and fibreglass rovings . Although plaster and fibres fibrous plaster have been used for many years, especially for ceilings, it was not until the early 1990s that serious studies of the strength and qualities of a walling system Rapidwall , using a mixture of gypsum plaster and 300mm plus fibreglass rovings, were investigated. With an abundance of gypsum (naturally occurring and by-product chemical FGD and phospho gypsums) available worldwide, Gypsum concrete-based building products, which are fully recyclable, offer significant environmental benefits. Metal

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2562-409: The early 20th century. Cement blocks also sometimes are filled with grout or covered with a parge coat . Concrete is a composite building material made from the combination of aggregate and a binder such as cement . The most common form of concrete is Portland cement concrete, which consists of mineral aggregate (generally gravel and sand ), portland cement and water . After mixing,

2623-519: The firm. Schmidheiny holds a doctorate from Tufts University and a bachelor's degree from the ETH Zurich , and an MBA from IMD Business School , Switzerland. The Indian School of Business has a Thomas Schmidheiny chair of family business. As of 2023, the post was held by Sougata Ray. Schmidheiny is married with four children; he owns vineyards and wineries in Argentina, Switzerland and

2684-542: The first time. Thomas Schmidheiny took over leadership, overseeing the company as in expanded into Eastern Europe and experienced a boom in Spanish construction preceding the 1992 Summer Olympics . By 1986, Holderbank was the world's largest cement manufacturer. In the 1990s, the company consolidated its European holdings as the American market drove growth. Expansion into Eastern Europe and Russia continued. In 2001,

2745-609: The general uniformity of composition and lightness of plastics ensures their use in almost all industrial applications today. High performance plastics such as ETFE have become an ideal building material due to its high abrasion resistance and chemical inertness. Notable buildings that feature it include: the Beijing National Aquatics Center and the Eden Project biomes. Building papers and membranes are used for many reasons in construction. One of

2806-419: The industry's largest companies worldwide. The oil crisis of 1973 hit the industry hard as construction demand dried up in much of the world. Strong markets in Lebanon and South Africa allowed Holderbank to weather the storm. By 1976, revenue and profits had returned to pre-crisis levels. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, Holderbank continued its expansion in Latin America and expanded into Asia and Spain for

2867-471: The material is not as durable as advertised. The cost of materials should be taken into consideration to bear the risk to buy combustive materials to enlarge the lifetime. It is said that, "if it must be done, it must be done well". Pollution costs can be macro and micro. The macro, environmental pollution of extraction industries building materials rely on such as mining, petroleum, and logging produce environmental damage at their source and in transportation of

2928-895: The material. Several studies have shown that increasing the amount of these plant particles increases porosity, moisture buffering capacity, and maximum absorbed water content on the one side, while decreasing density, thermal conductivity, and compressive strength on the other. Plant-based materials are largely derived from renewable resources and mainly use co-products from agriculture or the wood industry. When used as insulation materials, most bio-based materials exhibit (unlike most other insulation materials) hygroscopic behaviour, combining high water vapour permeability and moisture regulation. Brush structures are built entirely from plant parts and were used in primitive cultures such as Native Americans and pygmy peoples in Africa. These are built mostly with branches, twigs and leaves, and bark, similar to

2989-456: The measurement of hydration characteristics of a cement-aggregate mix; the comparison of the mechanical properties of cement-aggregate mixes and the visual assessment of microstructural properties of the wood-cement mixes. It has been found that the hydration test by measuring the change in hydration temperature with time is the most convenient method. Recently, Karade et al. have reviewed these methods of compatibility assessment and suggested

3050-411: The merger would proceed. The new company would be based in Switzerland and have a manufacturing capacity of 427 million tons a year, which would vastly exceed the 227 million ton capacity of current industry leader Anhui Conch . Lafarge Chief Executive Officer Bruno Lafont will lead the new company, while Holcim's Wolfgang Reitzle will be chairman. Executives from both companies said the deal will save

3111-407: The modern culture. Glass " curtain walls " can be used to cover the entire facade of a building, or it can be used to span over a wide roof structure in a " space frame ". These uses though require some sort of frame to hold sections of glass together, as glass by itself is too brittle and would require an overly large kiln to be used to span such large areas by itself. Glass bricks were invented in

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3172-638: The new company 1.4 billion euros (US$ 1.9 billion) annually and create "the most advanced group in the building materials industry." Analysts said the deal could lead to further mergers within the industry and give competitors a chance to pick up assets at a bargain price. Building material In history, there are trends in building materials from being natural to becoming more human-made and composite ; biodegradable to imperishable; indigenous (local) to being transported globally; repairable to disposable; chosen for increased levels of fire-safety, and improved seismic resistance. These trends tend to increase

3233-635: The oldest building papers is red rosin paper which was known to be in use before 1850 and was used as an underlayment in exterior walls, roofs, and floors and for protecting a jobsite during construction. Tar paper was invented late in the 19th century and was used for similar purposes as rosin paper and for gravel roofs . Tar paper has largely fallen out of use supplanted by asphalt felt paper . Felt paper has been supplanted in some uses by synthetic underlayments, particularly in roofing by synthetic underlayments and siding by housewraps . Thomas Schmidheiny Thomas Schmidheiny (born 17 December 1945)

3294-438: The raw materials, manufacturing, transportation of the products, retailing, and installation. An example of the micro aspect of pollution is the off-gassing of the building materials in the building or indoor air pollution . Red List building materials are materials found to be harmful. Also the carbon footprint , the total set of greenhouse gas emissions produced in the life of the material. A life-cycle analysis also includes

3355-413: The rest of the world, and continue to be built, though on a smaller scale. Some of these buildings have remained habitable for hundreds of years. Mud-bricks , also known by their Spanish name adobe are ancient building materials with evidence dating back thousands of years BC. Compressed earth blocks are a more modern type of brick used for building more frequently in industrialized society since

3416-502: The structure, a vibrator is used to eliminate any air that has been entrained when the liquid concrete mix is poured around the ironwork. Concrete has been the predominant building material in the modern age due to its longevity, formability, and ease of transport. Recent advancements, such as insulating concrete forms , combine the concrete forming and other construction steps (installation of insulation). All materials must be taken in required proportions as described in standards. The tent

3477-600: The structure. Social costs are injury and health of the people producing and transporting the materials and potential health problems of the building occupants if there are problems with the building biology. Globalization has had significant impacts on people both in terms of jobs, skills, and self-sufficiency are lost when manufacturing facilities are closed and the cultural aspects of where new facilities are opened. Aspects of fair trade and labor rights are social costs of global building material manufacturing. Bio-based materials (especially plant-based materials) are used in

3538-539: The timber frames. Snow and occasionally ice, were used by the Inuit peoples for igloos and snow is used to build a shelter called a quinzhee . Ice has also been used for ice hotels as a tourist attraction in northern climates. Clay based buildings usually come in two distinct types. One being when the walls are made directly with the mud mixture, and the other being walls built by stacking air-dried building blocks called mud bricks . Other uses of clay in building

3599-524: The two largest producers in terms of sales as of 2014. In 2024, Holcim announced its plans to add 1,000 units of the battery-electric truck from Mercedes-Benz Trucks to its European fleet, with both companies signing a joint letter of intent for this purpose. The volume represents the most significant planned single order for the eActros 600, which has contributed to the achievement of the sustainability goals of both companies. Also, in 2024, Holcim announced plans to spin off its North American business, listing

3660-526: Was the chairman of Holcim , one of the world's leading cement manufacturers, founded by his grand-uncle in 1912. Schmidheiny resigned his chairmanship as part of a deal to settle an investigation of insider trading in Spain. He has remained on the Board since that time. Since the merger between Holcim and Lafarge Thomas Schmidheiny retains 11.4% of the company Lafarge-Holcim and is the biggest shareholder of

3721-709: Was the market leader in cement production in Australia, Azerbaijan, India, Slovakia, Switzerland, and Latin America. Holcim is headquartered in Zug , Switzerland, and holds interests in more than 70 countries worldwide. They employ over 63,000 people. Subsidiaries include St. Lawrence Cement (Canada), Aggregate Industries (the UK), and Holcim Apasco (Mexico). The company's products include cement, clinker, concrete, lime, aggregates, and roofing materials. They also offer consulting services, third-party research and development, and land waste management services. Their largest business segment

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