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102-926: Mary Slessor was a driving force behind the establishment of HOWAD. The school started in 1895. Slessor landed in Calabar in 1876. The Scottish missionary Mary Mitchell Slessor , who had done much work with the Efik people around Calabar, was a driving force behind the establishment of the Institute. Edinburgh was hesitant about accepting Slessor's demand to establish an industrial training center, but eventually decided to set up an institute on similar lines to its two existing ones in Africa, Lovedale Institute in South Africa and Livingstonia in Nyasaland . Robert Laws ,

204-655: A synod sometimes exists. This congregation / presbytery / synod / general assembly schema is based on the historical structure of the larger Presbyterian churches, such as the Church of Scotland or the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) ; some bodies, such as the Presbyterian Church in America and the Presbyterian Church in Ireland , skip one of the steps between congregation and General Assembly, and usually

306-774: A Stranger's Church in London, based on the Geneva models. The Presbyterian church traces its ancestry back primarily to Scotland. In August 1560, the Parliament of Scotland adopted the Scots Confession as the creed of the Scottish Kingdom. In December 1560, the First Book of Discipline was published, outlining important doctrinal issues but also establishing regulations for church government, including

408-419: A United Presbyterian minister who had been involved with both of these institutions for a long time, was sent to make a feasibility study. Laws expressed complete confidence that the success of the other two schools could be replicated in Calabar. The institution was established in 1894. The first school building was a prefabricated classroom block of corrugated iron sheets and Scandinavian pitch pine, built by

510-518: A "Book of Order" to regulate common practice and order. The origins of the Presbyterian churches are in Calvinism . Many branches of Presbyterianism are remnants of previous splits from larger groups. Some of the splits have been due to doctrinal controversy, while some have been caused by disagreement concerning the degree to which those ordained to church office should be required to agree with

612-582: A "distinctive part of Scottish Presbyterian worship". Presbyterian history is part of the history of Christianity , but the beginning of Presbyterianism as a distinct movement occurred during the 16th century Protestant Reformation . As the Catholic Church resisted the Reformers, several different theological movements splintered from the Church and bore different denominations. Presbyterianism

714-435: A Glasgow firm and shipped to Calabar, where it was assembled in 1894. By March 1895 teaching had commenced. By 1900 the school had forty-two students. Two were doing gardening, five printing, eight tailoring, five engineering, eleven carpentry and eleven baking. According to Henry Carr the boys were "well disciplined, and their appearance... cheerful and healthy." They generally spoke English well and had good penmanship. However,

816-608: A centre of great attraction and helped to deepen the interest of the whole community in the Foreign Mission work of the Church." It praises her strong force character, her unostentatious manner, and her zeal for the tribes around Calabar. Slessor's work in Okoyong earned her the Efik nickname of "Obongawan Okoyong" (Queen of Okoyong). This name is still used commonly to refer to her in Calabar. Several memorials in and around

918-680: A chaplaincy by the PCofE and the Church of Scotland in 1908 and as a congregation of the PCofE in 1929), continue as congregations of the URC and university chaplaincies of the Church of Scotland . In recent years a number of smaller denominations adopting Presbyterian forms of church government have organised in England, including the International Presbyterian Church planted by evangelical theologian Francis Schaeffer of

1020-748: A devout Presbyterian who read each issue of the Missionary Record , a monthly magazine published by the United Presbyterian Church (later the United Free Church of Scotland ) to inform members of missionary activities and needs. Slessor developed an interest in religion, and when a mission was instituted in Quarry Pend (close by the Wishart Church), she wanted to teach. Slessor started her mission at

1122-624: A full-length Old English style surplice which resembles the Celtic alb, an ungirdled liturgical tunic of the old Gallican Rite ), which some, particularly those identifying with the Liturgical Renewal Movement, hold to be more ancient and representative of a more ecumenical past. Presbyterians traditionally have held the Worship position that there are only two sacraments : Some early Presbyterians, which were influenced by

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1224-618: A major split, the Salter's Hall controversy , occurred; with the majority siding with nontrinitarian views. Thomas Bradbury published several sermons bearing on the controversy, and in 1719, "An answer to the reproaches cast on the dissenting ministers who subscribed their belief of the Eternal Trinity." By the 18th century many English Presbyterian congregations had become Unitarian in doctrine. A number of new Presbyterian Churches were founded by Scottish immigrants to England in

1326-657: A memorial used to stand in the city's Union Terrace Gardens prior to their redevelopment in 2024. In Dundee , a new city centre park is named 'Slessor Gardens' in her honour. There are also streets named after her in Glasgow, Dundee and Oldmeldrum in Scotland, and in Coventry in England. Slessor was honoured on a 1997 bank note by Clydesdale Bank for the World Heritage Series and Famous Scots Series. She

1428-540: A month later. Slessor, 28 years of age, was first assigned to the Calabar region in the land of the Efik people . She was warned that they believed in traditional West African religion and had superstitions about women giving birth to twins. Slessor lived in the missionary compound for three years, working first in the missions in Old Town and Creek Town. She wanted to go deeper into Calabar, but contracted malaria and

1530-407: A recording of her voice, now The Slessor Collection at Dundee Central Library; he said of her: "She was a very remarkable woman. I look back on her friendship with reverence- one of the greatest honours that have befallen me." Mary Slessor is remembered in the Church of England with a commemoration on 11 January . Presbyterian Christianity • Protestantism Presbyterianism

1632-474: A revolt against modernist doctrine in his Christianity and Liberalism (1923) that critiqued theological modernism. He argued that modernism and liberal theology was a false religion, a pretender that cloaks itself in Christian language – "Liberalism". This religion is a marriage of naturalism, humanism, secularism, and sentimentalism all rolled into one. Presbyterian denominations that trace their heritage to

1734-401: A school provided by the mill owners and the other half working for the company. The Slessors lived in the slums of Dundee. Mary Slessor's father and both brothers died of pneumonia, leaving behind only Mary, her mother, and two sisters. By age fourteen, Mary had become a skilled jute worker at the mill, working from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m. with just an hour for breakfast and lunch. Her mother was

1836-453: A striking facade clad in limestone and punctuated by large windows, alongside abstract stained-glass windows. Both of these were designed by famed architect Harold E. Wagoner . Usually a Presbyterian church will not have statues of saints, nor the ornate altar more typical of a Catholic church. Instead, there is a "communion table", usually on the same level as the congregation, and sometimes elevated similar to an altar, however surrounded by

1938-561: A table in the chancel. By using the "empty" cross, or cross of the Westminster/Celtic cross, Presbyterians emphasize the resurrection and that Christ is not continually dying, but died once and is alive for all eternity. Quite a few Presbyterian church buildings are decorated with a cross, that has a circle around the center, or Celtic cross. This not only emphasizes the resurrection, but also acknowledges historical aspects of Presbyterianism. A baptismal font will be located either at

2040-480: Is a Reformed (Calvinist) Protestant tradition named for its form of church government by representative assemblies of elders . Though other Reformed churches are structurally similar, the word Presbyterian is applied to churches that trace their roots to the Church of Scotland or to English Dissenter groups that formed during the English Civil War . Presbyterian theology typically emphasizes

2142-723: Is also a congregation in the heart of London's financial district called London City Presbyterian Church that is affiliated with the Free Church of Scotland. The Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland also have a congregation in London, as do the Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster - along with five others in England. In 1972, the Presbyterian Church of England (PCofE) united with the Congregational Church in England and Wales to form

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2244-601: Is an Italian Protestant denomination. The church was founded in the 12th century, and centuries later, after the Protestant Reformation, it adhered to Calvinist theology and became the Italian branch of the Presbyterian churches. As such, the church is a member of the World Communion of Reformed Churches. Even before Presbyterianism spread with immigrants abroad from Scotland, there were divisions in

2346-463: Is based on a more subtle point: In confessional churches, theology is not solely an individual matter. While individuals are encouraged to understand Scripture, and may challenge the current institutional understanding, theology is carried out by the community as a whole. It is this community understanding of theology that is expressed in confessions. However, there has arisen a spectrum of approaches to confessionalism . The manner of subscription , or

2448-512: Is more of a faint image, with a more modern design. John Knox (1505–1572), a Scot who had spent time studying under Calvin in Geneva, returned to Scotland and urged his countrymen to reform the Church in line with Calvinist doctrines. After a period of religious convulsion and political conflict culminating in a victory for the Protestant party at the Siege of Leith the authority of

2550-577: Is not one fixed "Presbyterian" worship style. Although there are set services for the Lord's Day in keeping with first-day Sabbatarianism , one can find a service to be evangelical and even revivalist in tone (especially in some conservative denominations), or strongly liturgical, approximating the practices of Lutheranism or more of Anglicanism , or semi-formal, allowing for a balance of hymns, preaching, and congregational participation (favored by many American Presbyterians). Most Presbyterian churches follow

2652-732: The Apostles' Creed ), 16th-century Reformed confessions (the Scots Confession , the Heidelberg Catechism , the Second Helvetic Confession ), and 20th century documents ( The Theological Declaration of Barmen , Confession of 1967 and A Brief Statement of Faith ). The Presbyterian Church in Canada developed the confessional document Living Faith (1984) and retains it as a subordinate standard of

2754-650: The Archbishop of Canterbury , attempted to force the Church of Scotland to use the Book of Common Prayer . What resulted was an armed insurrection, with many Scots signing the Solemn League and Covenant . The Covenanters would serve as the government of Scotland for nearly a decade, and would also send military support to the Parliamentarians during the English Civil War . Following the restoration of

2856-695: The Arminianism of the Wesleyan Methodists. They broke off from the Church of England in 1811, ordaining their own ministers. They were originally known as the Calvinist Methodist connexion and in the 1920s it became alternatively known as the Presbyterian Church of Wales. Presbyterianism ( Irish : Preispitéireachas , Ulster Scots : Prisbytairinism ) is the largest Protestant denomination in Northern Ireland and

2958-499: The Catholic Church was abolished in favour of Reformation by the legislation of the Scottish Reformation Parliament in 1560. The Church was eventually organised by Andrew Melville along Presbyterian lines to become the national Church of Scotland . King James VI and I moved the Church of Scotland towards an episcopal form of government, and in 1637, James' successor, Charles I and William Laud ,

3060-601: The Church of Scotland , traces its early roots to the Christian Church founded by Saint Columba , through the 6th century Hiberno-Scottish mission . Tracing their apostolic origin to Saint John , the Culdees practiced Christian monasticism , a key feature of Celtic Christianity in the region, with a presbyter exercising "authority within the institution, while the different monastic institutions were independent of one another." The Church in Scotland kept

3162-591: The L'Abri Fellowship in the 1970s - now with fifteen English-speaking congregations in England, and 6 Korean-speaking congregations. There is also the Evangelical Presbyterian Church in England and Wales founded in the North of England in the late 1980s. In Wales , Presbyterianism is represented by the Presbyterian Church of Wales , which was originally composed largely of Calvinistic Methodists who accepted Calvinist theology rather than

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3264-754: The Larger and Shorter catechisms, which are approved for use in instruction. Many Presbyterian denominations, especially in North America, have adopted all of the Westminster Standards as their standard of doctrine which is subordinate to the Bible. These documents are Calvinistic in their doctrinal orientation. The Presbyterian Church in Canada retains the Westminster Confession of Faith in its original form, while admitting

3366-574: The Reformed Presbyterian Church of Ireland and the Evangelical Presbyterian Church . There is a Church of Scotland (Presbyterian) in central Paris: The Scots Kirk , which is English-speaking, and is attended by many nationalities. It maintains close links with the Church of Scotland in Scotland itself, as well as with the Reformed Church of France . The Waldensian Evangelical Church (Chiesa Evangelica Valdese, CEV)

3468-483: The Reformed Presbyterian Church of Scotland , the ' Didasko Presbytery' , the International Presbyterian Church and two congregations of the Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster . Combined, they have over 1500 congregations in Scotland. Within Scotland the term ' kirk ' is usually used to refer to a local Presbyterian church. Informally, the term 'The Kirk' refers to the Church of Scotland. Some of

3570-559: The Reformed Presbyterians , would practice a cappella exclusive psalmody , as well as eschew the celebration of holy days. Among the paleo-orthodox and emerging church movements in Protestant and evangelical churches, in which some Presbyterians are involved, clergy are moving away from the traditional black Geneva gown to such vestments as the alb and chasuble , but also cassock and surplice (typically

3672-521: The Reformed theology of John Calvin and his immediate successors, although there is a range of theological views within contemporary Presbyterianism. Local congregations of churches that use Presbyterian polity are governed by sessions made up of representatives of the congregation ( elders ), a conciliar approach as with other levels of decision-making ( presbytery , synod , and general assembly ). There are roughly 75 million Presbyterians in

3774-695: The United Reformed Church (URC). Among the congregations the PCofE brought to the URC were Tunley (Lancashire), Aston Tirrold (Oxfordshire) and John Knox Presbyterian Church, Stepney, London (now part of Stepney Meeting House URC) – these are among the sole survivors today of the English Presbyterian churches of the 17th century. The URC also has a presence in Scotland, mostly of former Congregationalist Churches. Two former Presbyterian congregations, St Columba's, Cambridge (founded in 1879), and St Columba's, Oxford (founded as

3876-483: The Westminster Confession of Faith , which historically serves as an important confessional document – second only to the Bible, yet directing particularities in the standardisation and translation of the Bible – in Presbyterian churches. Presbyterians place great importance upon education and lifelong learning, tempered with the belief that no human action can affect salvation . Continuous study of

3978-618: The World Communion of Reformed Churches . Some Presbyterian churches have entered into unions with other churches, such as Congregationalists , Lutherans , Anglicans , and Methodists . Presbyterians in the United States came largely from Scottish , Scots-Irish immigrants , and also from New England communities that were originally Congregational but changed because of an agreed-upon Plan of Union of 1801 for frontier areas. Presbyterian tradition, particularly that of

4080-556: The episcopal hierarchy of the Elizabethan Church led to his deprivation of his post by Archbishop John Whitgift and his emigration abroad. Between 1645 and 1648, a series of ordinances of the Long Parliament established Presbyterianism as the polity of the Church of England . Presbyterian government was established in London and Lancashire and in a few other places in England, although Presbyterian hostility to

4182-485: The execution of Charles I and the establishment of the republican Commonwealth of England meant that Parliament never enforced the Presbyterian system in England. The Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 brought the return of Episcopal church government in England (and in Scotland for a short time); but the Presbyterian church in England continued in Non-Conformity, outside of the established church. In 1719

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4284-632: The sovereignty of God , the authority of the Scriptures , and the necessity of grace through faith in Christ. Scotland ensured Presbyterian church government in the 1707 Acts of Union , which created the Kingdom of Great Britain . In fact, most Presbyterians in England have a Scottish connection. The Presbyterian denomination was also taken to North America , mostly by Scots and Scots-Irish immigrants. Scotland's Presbyterian denominations hold to

4386-553: The 19th century and later. Following the 'Disruption' in 1843 many of those linked to the Church of Scotland eventually joined what became the Presbyterian Church of England in 1876. Some, such as Crown Court (Covent Garden, London), St Andrew's (Stepney, London) and Swallow Street (London), did not join the English denomination, which is why there are Church of Scotland congregations in England such as those at Crown Court , and St Columba's , Pont Street (Knightsbridge) in London. There

4488-620: The 20th century saw a greater embrace of modern architectural styles, particularly the modernist movement characterized by clean lines, geometric shapes, and open floor plans. Prominent examples include Coral Ridge Presbyterian Church in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, with expansive, light-filled sanctuary and angular design elements. Similarly, the National Presbyterian Church in Washington, D.C., features

4590-414: The 20th century, most denominations allow women to be teaching or ruling elders. Above the sessions exist presbyteries, which have area responsibilities. These are composed of teaching elders and ruling elders from each of the constituent congregations. The presbytery sends representatives to a broader regional or national assembly, generally known as the General Assembly , although an intermediate level of

4692-435: The British Isles usually organise their church services inspired by the principles in the Directory of Public Worship , developed by the Westminster Assembly in the 1640s. This directory documented Reformed worship practices and theology adopted and developed over the preceding century by British Puritans , initially guided by John Calvin and John Knox. It was enacted as law by the Parliament of Scotland , and became one of

4794-540: The Cameroons and Fernando Po. The school provided practical training to male students in carpentry, masonry, blacksmithing, coopering, naval engineering, brickmaking and bricklaying. Female students were taught dress-making and tailoring, domestic science and accountancy. The school soon became the largest vocational training institution in West Africa. The school maintained a vessel on the Calabar River , " The Diamond " for use by students studying maritime subjects. The region of Calabar called Diamond Hill takes its name from

4896-553: The Christian feast of Easter at a date different from the See of Rome and its monks used a unique style of tonsure . The Synod of Whitby in 664, however, ended these distinctions as it ruled "that Easter would be celebrated according to the Roman date, not the Celtic date." Although Roman influence came to dominate the Church in Scotland, certain Celtic influences remained in the Scottish Church, such as "the singing of metrical psalms , many of them set to old Celtic Christianity Scottish traditional and folk tunes", which later became

4998-523: The Church of Scotland's form of government. However, legislation by the United Kingdom parliament allowing patronage led to splits in the Church. In 1733, a group of ministers seceded from the Church of Scotland to form the Associate Presbytery, another group seceded in 1761 to form the Relief Church and the Disruption of 1843 led to the formation of the Free Church of Scotland . Further splits took place, especially over theological issues, but most Presbyterians in Scotland were reunited by 1929 union of

5100-415: The Efik provinces of Calabar and Okoyong testify to the value placed on her work. Some of these include: A female hostel in the University of Nigeria Nsukka is named Mary Slessor Hall in her honour. A girls' house, "Slessor House", was named after her in Achimota School , Ghana . In Scotland, a bust of Slessor is now in the Hall of Heroes of the National Wallace Monument in Stirling . In Aberdeen

5202-434: The Mission House. Some mission compounds were alive with babies. Slessor once saved a pair of twins, a boy and a girl, but the boy did not survive. Mary took the girl as her daughter and called her Janie. She took Janie home to Scotland with her on at least one visit. In 1892, Slessor became vice-consul in Okoyong, presiding over the native court. In 1905 she was named vice-president of Ikot Obong native court. In 1913, she

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5304-451: The Old Boys Association launched a program to rehabilitate the school, with a fund-raising drive. Goals were to tar the access roads, install an electricity generator, renovate the science laboratories, equip the school library and erect a statue of Hope Waddell. By 2005, most of these goals had been met. Principals up to the 1960s were: Sources Mary Mitchell Slessor Mary Mitchell Slessor (2 December 1848 – 13 January 1915)

5406-471: The age of 27, upon hearing that David Livingstone , the famous missionary and explorer, had died. She decided then that she wanted to follow in his footsteps. Eventually, Slessor applied to the Foreign Mission Board of the United Presbyterian Church. After training in Edinburgh , she set sail in the SS Ethiopia on 5 August 1876 with her cousin Robert Mitchell Beedie, a missionary from New Deer in Buchan and arrived at her destination in West Africa just over

5508-425: The authorities and gained her a reputation for eccentricity. However, her exploits were heralded in Britain, and she became known as the "white queen of Okoyong". Slessor continued her focus on evangelism, settling disputes, encouraging trade, establishing social changes and introducing Western education. It was the belief in the area that the birth of twins was considered a particularly evil curse. Natives feared that

5610-403: The chancel. There may be a rail between the communion table and the chancel behind it, which may contain a more decorative altar-type table, choir loft, or choir stalls, lectern and clergy area. The altar is called the communion table, and the altar area is called the chancel by Presbyterians. In Presbyterian, and in Reformed churches, there may be an altar cross, either on the communion table or on

5712-408: The common practice of infanticide of twins in Okoyong , an area of Cross River State , Nigeria . Mary Mitchell Slessor was born on 2, December 1848 in Gilcomston , Aberdeen , Scotland , to a poor working-class family who could not afford proper education. She was the second of seven children of Robert and Mary Slessor. Her father, originally from Buchan , was a shoemaker by trade. Her mother

5814-485: The creation of ten ecclesiastical districts with appointed superintendents which later became known as presbyteries . In time, the Scots Confession would be supplanted by the Westminster Confession of Faith , and the larger and shorter catechisms , which were formulated by the Westminster Assembly between 1643 and 1649. Presbyterians distinguish themselves from other denominations by doctrine , institutional organisation (or "church order") and worship , often using

5916-470: The degree to which the official standards establish the actual doctrine of the church, is a practical matter. That is, the decisions rendered in ordination and in the courts of the church largely determine what the church means, representing the whole, by its adherence to the doctrinal standard. Some Presbyterian traditions adopt only the Westminster Confession of Faith as the doctrinal standard to which teaching elders are required to subscribe, in contrast to

6018-417: The denomination. It is confessional in format, yet like the Westminster Confession, draws attention back to original Bible text. Presbyterians in Ireland who rejected Calvinism and the Westminster Confessions formed the Non-subscribing Presbyterian Church of Ireland . John Gresham Machen, the prominent Presbyterian theologian and Professor of New Testament at Princeton Seminary between 1906 and 1929, led

6120-400: The elders delegate the practicalities of buildings, finance, and temporal ministry to the needy in the congregation to a distinct group of officers (sometimes called deacons, which are ordained in some denominations). This group may variously be known as a "Deacon Board", "Board of Deacons" "Diaconate", or "Deacons' Court". These are sometimes known as "presbyters" to the full congregation. Since

6222-473: The entrance or near the chancel area. Presbyterian architecture generally makes significant use of symbolism. One may also find decorative and ornate stained glass windows depicting scenes from the Bible. Some Presbyterian churches will also have ornate statues of Christ or graven scenes from the Last Supper located behind the chancel. St. Giles' Cathedral in Scotland has a crucifix next to an ornate elevated communion table that hangs alongside. The image of Christ

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6324-425: The established Church of Scotland and the United Free Church of Scotland . There are now ten Presbyterian denominations in Scotland today. These are, listed by number of congregations within Scotland: the Church of Scotland , the Free Church of Scotland , the United Free Church of Scotland , the Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland , the Free Church of Scotland (Continuing) , the Associated Presbyterian Church ,

6426-403: The examination out of 14 candidates from HWTI, which was considered an excellent result. After independence in 1960, followed by closure of the Presbyterian mission, the school became a standard state secondary school. Today it basically runs a grammar school curriculum. The buildings were allowed to deteriorate, the gardens were neglected, and of 2,000 students less than 200 are boarders. In 1994

6528-418: The fact she was a woman, would be less threatening to unreached tribes. For 15 years, Slessor lived with the Okoyong and the Efik people . She learned to speak the native Efik language , and made close personal friendships wherever she went, becoming known for her pragmatism and humour. Slessor lived a simple life in a traditional house with Efiks. Her insistence on lone stations often led her into conflict with

6630-511: The father of one of the infants was a 'devil child', and that the mother had been guilty of a great sin. Unable to determine which twin was fathered by the evil spirit, the natives often abandoned both babies in clay pots to die . In most of Calabar the practice had been eliminated by the Missionaries and King Eyo Honesty II . Slessor left the area of Calabar and moved further in to Okoyong. She adopted every child she found abandoned, and sent out twins' missioners to find, protect and care for them at

6732-415: The first Presbytery in Philadelphia was established. In time, the presbytery would be joined by two more to form a synod (1717) and would evolve into the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America in 1789. The nation's largest Presbyterian denomination, the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) – PC (USA) – can trace its heritage back to the original PCUSA, as can the Presbyterian Church in America (PCA),

6834-477: The foundational documents of Presbyterian church legislation elsewhere. Historically, the driving principle in the development of the standards of Presbyterian worship is the Regulative principle of worship , which specifies that (in worship), what is not commanded is forbidden. Over subsequent centuries, many Presbyterian churches modified these prescriptions by introducing hymnody, instrumental accompaniment, and ceremonial vestments into worship. However, there

6936-478: The government, the mission or other local businesses, or had the opportunity to go on to higher studies. The balance of pupils, at first dominated by coastal communities, gradually shifted to include more from the hinterland. In 1919 the school had 31 Ibibio pupils compared to 82 Efik . By 1927 there were over 50 Ibibio pupils and by 1931 86 Ibibio, with 119 Efik. But students came to the school from all over West Africa, including Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ghana, Dahomey,

7038-413: The growth of teams in the city. Luke, who had picked up the game during seven years as a missionary in Jamaica, could thus perhaps be credited with introducing soccer to Nigeria. A large flat-bed printing Wharfedale press was donated by "friends in Scotland" in 1903 and was still in use after 1960. Students worked in the print works and also as journalists on the Observer , Calabar's first newspaper, which

7140-412: The historical period in which it was written should be understood when it is read. The Westminster Confession is "The principal subordinate standard of the Church of Scotland " but "with due regard to liberty of opinion in points which do not enter into the substance of the Faith" (V). This formulation represents many years of struggle over the extent to which the confession reflects the Word of God and

7242-413: The instruction programs were somewhat haphazard, dictated by whatever job the department was undertaking at any given time. The school was more expensive than other missions, since it required machinery for industrial training, and by 1902 the mission was forced to accept government funding. As the school became established, competition for places became intense since graduates were guaranteed employment by

7344-530: The lack of Western education, as well as widespread human sacrifice at the death of a village elder, who, it was believed, required servants and retainers to accompany him into the next world. According to biographer W. P. Livingstone, when two deputies went out to inspect the Mission in 1881–82, they were much impressed. They stated, "… she enjoys the unreserved friendship and confidence of the people and has much influence over them". This they attributed partly to

7446-596: The larger Presbyterian family. Some later rejoined only to separate again. In what some interpret as rueful self-reproach, some Presbyterians refer to the divided Presbyterian churches as the "Split Ps". Presbyterianism first officially arrived in Colonial America in 1644 with the establishment of Christ's First Presbyterian Church in Hempstead, New York. The Church was organized by the Rev. Richard Denton. In 1703

7548-563: The local presbytery. The pastor or minister is a teaching elder, and Moderator of the Session, but is not usually a member of the congregation; instead, this person is a member of the Presbytery of which the given church is a member. Ruling elders are elected by the congregation and ordained to serve with the teaching elders, assuming responsibility for the nurture and leadership of the congregation. Often, especially in larger congregations,

7650-412: The lowest council known as a session or consistory responsible for the discipline, nurture, and mission of the local congregation . Teaching elders (pastors or ministers) have responsibility for teaching, worship, and performing sacraments. Pastors or ministers are called by individual congregations. A congregation issues a call for the pastor or minister's service, but this call must be ratified by

7752-751: The mainline Presbyterians. These were more of the wave of Presbyterians that were influenced by the Puritans. In the late 19th century a gradual shift began to occur. Prosperous congregations built imposing churches, such as Fourth Presbyterian Church of Chicago , Brick Presbyterian Church in New York City, Shadyside Presbyterian Church in Pennsylvania, St Stephen Presbyterian in Fort Worth, Texas, and many others. While Presbyterian churches historically reflected prevailing architectural trends,

7854-627: The monarchy in 1660, Charles II , despite the initial support that he received from the Covenanters, reinstated an episcopal form of government on the church. However, with the Glorious Revolution of 1688 the Church of Scotland was unequivocally recognised as a Presbyterian institution by the monarch due to Scottish Presbyterian support for the aforementioned revolution and the Acts of Union 1707 between Scotland and England guaranteed

7956-442: The more heathen practices. She saved hundreds of twins out of the bush, where they had been left either to starve to death or to be eaten by animals. She helped heal the sick and stop the practice of determining guilt by making the suspects drink poison. As a missionary, she went to other tribes, spreading the word of Jesus Christ . During this third mission to Calabar, Slessor received news that her mother and sister had died. She

8058-480: The point she could no longer walk long distances in the rainforest but had to be pushed along in a handcart. In early January 1915, while at her remote station near Use Ikot Oku, she suffered a particularly severe fever. Slessor died on 13 January 1915. Her body was transported down the Cross River to Duke Town for the colonial equivalent of a state funeral. A Union Jack covered her coffin. Attendees included

8160-639: The provincial commissioner, along with other senior British officials in full uniform. Flags at government buildings were flown at half-mast. Nigeria's Governor-General, Sir Frederick Lugard , telegraphed his "deepest regrets" from Lagos and published a warm eulogy in the government gazette . A report on her death in The Southern Reporter of 21 January 1915 mentions a time she spent on furlough in Bowden, Roxburghshire, Scottish Borders. It states that "She and her four adopted African children were

8262-413: The puritan movement, were careful to distinguish between the "church", which referred to the members , and the "meeting house", which was the building in which the church met. (Quakers still insist upon this distinction.) Until the late 19th century, very few Presbyterians ever referred to their buildings as "churches". Presbyterians believed that meeting-houses (now called churches) are buildings to support

8364-428: The scriptures, theological writings, and understanding and interpretation of church doctrine are embodied in several statements of faith and catechisms formally adopted by various branches of the church, often referred to as " subordinate standards ". Presbyterian government is by councils (still known as courts in some countries, as boards in others) of elders. Teaching and ruling elders are ordained and convene in

8466-591: The second largest on the island of Ireland (after the Anglican Church of Ireland ), and was brought by Scottish plantation settlers to Ulster who had been strongly encouraged to emigrate by James VI of Scotland, also James I of Ireland and England . An estimated 100,000 Scottish Presbyterians moved to the northern counties of Ireland between 1607 and the Battle of the Boyne in 1690. The Presbytery of Ulster

8568-429: The singular ease with which Slessor spoke the language. After only three more years, Slessor returned to Scotland on yet another health furlough. During the next three years, Slessor looked after her mother and sister (who had also fallen ill), and spoke at many churches, sharing stories from the Calabar area. Slessor then returned to an area farther away from central Calabar, from the areas which had already eliminated

8670-503: The step skipped is the Synod. The Church of Scotland abolished the Synod in 1993. Presbyterian governance is practiced by Presbyterian denominations and also by many other Reformed churches . Presbyterianism is historically a confessional tradition. This has two implications. The obvious one is that confessional churches express their faith in the form of "confessions of faith", which have some level of authoritative status. However this

8772-715: The struggle of conscience of those who came to believe it did not fully do so (e.g. William Robertson Smith ). Some Presbyterian churches, such as the Free Church of Scotland , have no such " conscience clause". The Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) has adopted the Book of Confessions , which reflects the inclusion of other Reformed confessions in addition to the Westminster Standards. These other documents include ancient creedal statements (the Nicene Creed ,

8874-444: The timetable despite opposition by parents, who thought it was a waste of time. Luke defended the sport as being healthy and teaching children cooperation and self-discipline. In the first two decades of the twentieth century, many Hope Waddell graduates moved to Lagos , from 1906 the capital of the new Protectorate of Southern Nigeria , to take white-collar jobs with the government. They brought with them their love of soccer, fostering

8976-420: The traditional liturgical year and observe the traditional holidays, holy seasons, such as Advent , Christmas, Ash Wednesday , Holy Week , Easter, Pentecost , etc. They also make use of the appropriate seasonal liturgical colors , etc. Many incorporate ancient liturgical prayers and responses into the communion services and follow a daily, seasonal, and festival lectionary. Other Presbyterians, however, such as

9078-577: The values and ideals espoused in Scottish Presbyterian denominations can be reflected in this reference in a book from Norman Drummond, chaplain to the Queen in Scotland. Chart of splits and mergers of the Scottish Presbyterian churches In England, Presbyterianism was established in secret in 1592. Thomas Cartwright is thought to be the first Presbyterian in England. Cartwright's controversial lectures at Cambridge University condemning

9180-499: The vessel. In 1898 the school began teaching tailoring and bakery, with the products sold in the city markets. Agricultural students who worked on maintaining the botanical gardens and public parks in Calabar were given free board, clothing and tuition and some pocket money. They showed that new plants to the region including mango, banana, coffee and especially lemon and orange could flourish, although local farmers resisted these innovations. In 1902, Rev. James Luke introduced soccer into

9282-681: The world. Presbyterianism's roots lie in the Reformation of the 16th century. John Calvin's Republic of Geneva was particularly influential. Most Reformed churches that trace their history to Scotland are either presbyterian or congregationalist in government. In the 20th century, some Presbyterians played an important role in the ecumenical movement , including the World Council of Churches . Many Presbyterian denominations have found ways of working together with other Reformed denominations and Christians of other traditions, especially in

9384-406: The worship of God. The decor in some instances was austere so as not to detract from worship. Early Presbyterian meeting-houses were extremely plain. No stained glass, no elaborate furnishings, and no images were to be found in the meeting-house. The pulpit, often raised so as only to be accessible by a staircase, was the centerpiece of the building. But these were not the standard characteristics of

9486-494: Was a Scottish Presbyterian missionary to Nigeria . Once in Nigeria, Slessor... learned Efik , one of the numerous local languages, then began teaching. Because of her understanding of the native language and her bold personality Slessor gained the trust and acceptance of the locals and was able to spread Christianity while promoting women's rights and protecting native children. She is most famous for her role in helping to stop

9588-496: Was awarded the Order of St John . Slessor's health began to suffer in her later years, but she remained in Calabar, where she died in 1915. For the last four decades of her life, Slessor suffered intermittent fevers from the malaria she contracted during her first station to Calabar. However, she downplayed the personal costs, and never gave up her mission work to return permanently to Scotland. The fevers eventually weakened Slessor to

9690-547: Was born in Oldmeldrum , Aberdeenshire , and was a deeply religious woman. In 1859, the family moved to Dundee in search of work. Robert Slessor was an alcoholic and, unable to keep up shoemaking, took a job as a labourer in a mill. Her mother was a skilled weaver and went to work in the mills. At the age of eleven, Mary began work as a "half-timer" in the Baxter Brothers' Mill, meaning she spent half of her day at

9792-508: Was especially influenced by the French theologian John Calvin , who is credited with the development of Reformed theology , and the work of John Knox , a Scottish Catholic Priest who studied with Calvin in Geneva and brought back Reformed teachings to Scotland. An important influence on the formation of presbyterianism in Britain also came from John a Lasco , a Polish reformer, the founder of

9894-453: Was featured on the back of the bank's £10 note, highlighting her work in Calabar. The note also features a map of Calabar, a lithographic vignette depicting her work with children, and a sailing ship emblem. Main-belt asteroid 4793 Slessor (1988 RR4) named to mark her centenary celebrations on 13 January 2015. In 1950, the anthropologist Charles Partridge , a friend of Slessor when both were in Nigeria, donated letters from her, along with

9996-417: Was forced to return to Scotland to recover, leaving Calabar for Dundee in 1879. After 16 months in Scotland, Slessor returned to Calabar, this time to a new assignment three miles farther into Calabar, in Old Town. Since Slessor assigned a large portion of her salary to support her mother and sisters in Scotland, she economised by eating the native food. Issues Slessor confronted as a young missionary included

10098-561: Was formed in 1642 separately from the established Anglican Church. Presbyterians, along with Catholics in Ulster and the rest of Ireland, suffered under the discriminatory Penal Laws until they were revoked in the early 19th century. Presbyterianism is represented in Ireland by the Presbyterian Church in Ireland , the Non-subscribing Presbyterian Church of Ireland , the Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster ,

10200-541: Was not only in Calabar; but also spread to a town called Arochukwu on the far west of Calabar. The people of Calabar belong to the Efik tribe though the popular Arochukwu town is in the Igbo tribe's region. Both Calabar and Arochukwu share some common cultures and are in southeastern Nigeria, precisely Cross River State and Abia State respectively. In August 1888, Slessor travelled north to Okoyong , an area where male missionaries had been killed. She thought her teachings, and

10302-539: Was overcome with loneliness, writing, "There is no one to write and tell my stories and nonsense to." She had also found a sense of independence, writing, "Heaven is now nearer to me than Britain, and no one will worry about me if I go up country." Slessor was a driving force behind the establishment of the Hope Waddell Training Institute in Calabar, which provided practical vocational training to Efiks. The superstitious threat against twins

10404-565: Was produced on the mission press. In 1903 the HWTI added classes in typing, shorthand, bookkeeping, business management and commerce. The school also included a standard all-ages school section giving primary and secondary education, with fees required for secondary school students. In 1921 Calabar was designated by the government as a secondary examination center for the Cambridge Local Examination. That year 8 students passed

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