Misplaced Pages

#751248

65-414: The Horsehead Nebula is approximately 422 parsecs or 1,375 light-years from Earth. It is one of the most identifiable nebulae because of its resemblance to a horse's head . Using NASA's James Webb Space Telescope , astronomers have captured the nebula's "mane" in unprecedented detail, revealing the complexity of the photodissociation region where ultraviolet light interacts with gas and dust. The nebula

130-407: A star system tend to be small fractions of a light-year, and are usually expressed in astronomical units . However, smaller units of length can similarly be formed usefully by multiplying units of time by the speed of light. For example, the light-second , useful in astronomy, telecommunications and relativistic physics, is exactly 299 792 458 metres or ⁠ 1 / 31 557 600 ⁠ of

195-486: A unit of time . The light-year is most often used when expressing distances to stars and other distances on a galactic scale, especially in non-specialist contexts and popular science publications. The unit most commonly used in professional astronomy is the parsec (symbol: pc, about 3.26 light-years). As defined by the International Astronomical Union (IAU), the light-year

260-405: A "tropical millennium" is decreasing by about 0.06 per millennium (neglecting the oscillatory changes in the real length of the tropical year). This means there should be fewer and fewer leap days as time goes on. A possible reform could omit the leap day in 3200, keep 3600 and 4000 as leap years, and thereafter make all centennial years common except 4500, 5000, 5500, 6000, etc. but the quantity ΔT

325-512: A day less than 365.25 days (365 days, 5 hours, 55 minutes, 12 seconds, or 365.24667 days). Hipparchus used this method because he was better able to detect the time of the equinoxes, compared to that of the solstices. Hipparchus also discovered that the equinoctial points moved along the ecliptic (plane of the Earth's orbit, or what Hipparchus would have thought of as the plane of the Sun's orbit about

390-412: A light-year. Units such as the light-minute, light-hour and light-day are sometimes used in popular science publications. The light-month, roughly one-twelfth of a light-year, is also used occasionally for approximate measures. The Hayden Planetarium specifies the light month more precisely as 30 days of light travel time. Light travels approximately one foot in a nanosecond ; the term "light-foot"

455-411: A number of progressively better tables were published that allowed computation of the positions of the Sun, Moon and planets relative to the fixed stars. An important application of these tables was the reform of the calendar . The Alfonsine Tables , published in 1252, were based on the theories of Ptolemy and were revised and updated after the original publication. The length of the tropical year

520-560: Is "ly", International standards like ISO 80000:2006 (now superseded) have used "l.y." and localized abbreviations are frequent, such as "al" in French, Spanish, and Italian (from année-lumière , año luz and anno luce , respectively), "Lj" in German (from Lichtjahr ), etc. Before 1984, the tropical year (not the Julian year) and a measured (not defined) speed of light were included in

585-402: Is a unit of length used to express astronomical distances and is equal to exactly 9 460 730 472 580 .8 km , which is approximately 5.88 trillion mi. As defined by the International Astronomical Union (IAU), a light-year is the distance that light travels in vacuum in one Julian year (365.25 days). Despite its inclusion of the word "year", the term should not be misinterpreted as

650-546: Is a reformed version of the Julian calendar organized by the Catholic Church and enacted in 1582. By the time of the reform, the date of the vernal equinox had shifted about 10 days, from about March 21 at the time of the First Council of Nicaea in 325, to about March 11. The motivation for the change was the correct observance of Easter. The rules used to compute the date of Easter used a conventional date for

715-402: Is an international standard. It is a solar calendar that is designed to maintain synchrony with the mean tropical year. It has a cycle of 400 years (146,097 days). Each cycle repeats the months, dates, and weekdays. The average year length is 146,097/400 = 365 + 97 ⁄ 400 = 365.2425 days per year, a close approximation to the mean tropical year of 365.2422 days. The Gregorian calendar

SECTION 10

#1732772863752

780-533: Is an odd name. In 1868 an English journal labelled the light-year as a unit used by the Germans. Eddington called the light-year an inconvenient and irrelevant unit, which had sometimes crept from popular use into technical investigations. Although modern astronomers often prefer to use the parsec , light-years are also popularly used to gauge the expanses of interstellar and intergalactic space. Distances expressed in light-years include those between stars in

845-450: Is designed so as to resynchronise the calendar year with the solar year at regular intervals. The word "tropical" comes from the Greek tropikos meaning "turn". Thus, the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn mark the extreme north and south latitudes where the Sun can appear directly overhead, and where it appears to "turn" in its annual seasonal motion. Because of this connection between

910-404: Is given the symbol ♎︎ (because it used to be toward Libra ). Because of the precession of the equinoxes and nutation these directions change, compared to the direction of distant stars and galaxies, whose directions have no measurable motion due to their great distance (see International Celestial Reference Frame ). The ecliptic longitude of the Sun is the angle between ♈︎ and

975-409: Is longer: that tropical year is comparatively short. The "mean tropical year" is based on the mean sun , and is not exactly equal to any of the times taken to go from an equinox to the next or from a solstice to the next. The following values of time intervals between equinoxes and solstices were provided by Meeus and Savoie for the years 0 and 2000. These are smoothed values which take account of

1040-510: Is sometimes used as an informal measure of time. Tropical year A tropical year or solar year (or tropical period ) is the time that the Sun takes to return to the same position in the sky – as viewed from the Earth or another celestial body of the Solar System – thus completing a full cycle of astronomical seasons . For example, it is the time from vernal equinox to the next vernal equinox, or from summer solstice to

1105-551: Is taking place. It is located in the constellation of Orion , which is prominent in the winter evening sky in the Northern Hemisphere and the summer evening sky in the Southern Hemisphere. Colour images reveal a red colour that originates from ionised hydrogen gas ( Hα ) predominantly behind the nebula, and caused by the nearby bright star Sigma Orionis . Magnetic fields channel the gases, leaving

1170-570: Is the product of the Julian year (365.25 days, as opposed to the 365.2425-day Gregorian year or the 365.24219-day Tropical year that both approximate) and the speed of light ( 299 792 458  m/s ). Both of these values are included in the IAU (1976) System of Astronomical Constants , used since 1984. From this, the following conversions can be derived: The abbreviation used by the IAU for light-year

1235-549: Is the product of the J1900.0 mean tropical year and the defined speed of light. Abbreviations used for light-years and multiples of light-years are: The light-year unit appeared a few years after the first successful measurement of the distance to a star other than the Sun, by Friedrich Bessel in 1838. The star was 61 Cygni , and he used a 160-millimetre (6.2 in) heliometre designed by Joseph von Fraunhofer . The largest unit for expressing distances across space at that time

1300-600: The Prutenic Tables in 1551, and gave a tropical year length of 365 solar days, 5 hours, 55 minutes, 58 seconds (365.24720 days), based on the length of a sidereal year and the presumed rate of precession. This was actually less accurate than the earlier value of the Alfonsine Tables. Major advances in the 17th century were made by Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton . In 1609 and 1619 Kepler published his three laws of planetary motion. In 1627, Kepler used

1365-410: The 1970s. A key development in understanding the tropical year over long periods of time is the discovery that the rate of rotation of the earth, or equivalently, the length of the mean solar day , is not constant. William Ferrel in 1864 and Charles-Eugène Delaunay in 1865 predicted that the rotation of the Earth is being retarded by tides. This could be verified by observation only in the 1920s with

SECTION 20

#1732772863752

1430-448: The Earth's orbit being elliptical, using well-known procedures (including solving Kepler's equation ). They do not take into account periodic variations due to factors such as the gravitational force of the orbiting Moon and gravitational forces from the other planets. Such perturbations are minor compared to the positional difference resulting from the orbit being elliptical rather than circular. The mean tropical year on January 1, 2000,

1495-517: The Earth) in a direction opposite that of the movement of the Sun, a phenomenon that came to be named "precession of the equinoxes". He reckoned the value as 1° per century, a value that was not improved upon until about 1000 years later, by Islamic astronomers . Since this discovery a distinction has been made between the tropical year and the sidereal year. During the Middle Ages and Renaissance

1560-539: The Gregorian calendar would be 3 days, 17 min, 33 s behind the Sun after 10,000 years. Aggravating this error, the length of the tropical year (measured in Terrestrial Time) is decreasing at a rate of approximately 0.53 s per century and the mean solar day is getting longer at a rate of about 1.5 ms per century. These effects will cause the calendar to be nearly a day behind in 3200. The number of solar days in

1625-423: The Gregorian calendar. The low-precision extrapolations are computed with an expression provided by Morrison and Stephenson: where t is measured in Julian centuries from 1820. The extrapolation is provided only to show Δ T is not negligible when evaluating the calendar for long periods; Borkowski cautions that "many researchers have attempted to fit a parabola to the measured Δ T values in order to determine

1690-575: The Horsehead is caused mostly by thick dust blocking the light of stars behind it. The lower part of the Horsehead's neck casts a shadow to the left. The visible dark nebula emerging from the gaseous complex is an active site of the formation of "low-mass" stars. Bright spots in the Horsehead Nebula's base are young stars just in the process of forming. Light-year A light-year , alternatively spelled light year ( ly or lyr ),

1755-496: The IAU (1964) System of Astronomical Constants, used from 1968 to 1983. The product of Simon Newcomb 's J1900.0 mean tropical year of 31 556 925 .9747 ephemeris seconds and a speed of light of 299 792 .5 km/s produced a light-year of 9.460 530 × 10  m (rounded to the seven significant digits in the speed of light) found in several modern sources was probably derived from an old source such as C. W. Allen 's 1973 Astrophysical Quantities reference work, which

1820-550: The SI second. As a result, the time scales of TT and UT1 build up a growing difference: the amount that TT is ahead of UT1 is known as Δ T , or Delta T . As of 5 July 2022, TT is ahead of UT1 by 69.28 seconds. As a consequence, the tropical year following the seasons on Earth as counted in solar days of UT is increasingly out of sync with expressions for equinoxes in ephemerides in TT. As explained below, long-term estimates of

1885-462: The Sun as a function of Terrestrial Time, and this angular speed is used to compute how long it would take for the Sun to move 360°. The above formulae give the length of the tropical year in ephemeris days (equal to 86,400 SI seconds), not solar days . It is the number of solar days in a tropical year that is important for keeping the calendar in synch with the seasons (see below). The Gregorian calendar , as used for civil and scientific purposes,

1950-469: The Sun, measured eastward along the ecliptic. This creates a relative and not an absolute measurement, because as the Sun is moving, the direction the angle is measured from is also moving. It is convenient to have a fixed (with respect to distant stars) direction to measure from; the direction of ♈︎ at noon January 1, 2000 fills this role and is given the symbol ♈︎ 0 . There was an equinox on March 20, 2009, 11:44:43.6 TT. The 2010 March equinox

2015-749: The accuracy of the mean tropical year. Many new observing instruments became available, including The complexity of the model used for the Solar System must be limited to the available computation facilities. In the 1920s punched card equipment came into use by L. J. Comrie in Britain. For the American Ephemeris an electromagnetic computer, the IBM Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator was used since 1948. When modern computers became available, it

Horsehead Nebula - Misplaced Pages Continue

2080-448: The apparent speed of the Sun) varies in its elliptical orbit: faster in the perihelion , slower in the aphelion . The equinox moves with respect to the perihelion (and both move with respect to the fixed sidereal frame). From one equinox passage to the next, or from one solstice passage to the next, the Sun completes not quite a full elliptic orbit. The time saved depends on where it starts in

2145-511: The apparent velocity of the Sun as the Earth revolves in its orbit. The most important such time scale is Universal Time , which is the mean solar time at 0 degrees longitude (the IERS Reference Meridian ). Civil time is based on UT (actually UTC ), and civil calendars count mean solar days. However the rotation of the Earth itself is irregular and is slowing down, with respect to more stable time indicators: specifically,

2210-475: The equinox, the tropical year comprises a complete cycle of seasons, and its length is approximated in the long term by the civil (Gregorian) calendar. The mean tropical year is approximately 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, 45 seconds. An equivalent, more descriptive, definition is "The natural basis for computing passing tropical years is the mean longitude of the Sun reckoned from the precessionally moving equinox (the dynamical equinox or equinox of date). Whenever

2275-401: The gradual mean motion. They could express the mean longitude of the Sun in a polynomial such as: where T is the time in Julian centuries. The derivative of this formula is an expression of the mean angular velocity, and the inverse of this gives an expression for the length of the tropical year as a linear function of T . Two equations are given in the table. Both equations estimate that

2340-404: The length of the tropical year is to first find an expression for the Sun's mean longitude (with respect to ♈︎), such as Newcomb's expression given above, or Laskar's expression. When viewed over a one-year period, the mean longitude is very nearly a linear function of Terrestrial Time. To find the length of the tropical year, the mean longitude is differentiated, to give the angular speed of

2405-413: The length of the tropical year was found by comparing equinox dates that were separated by many years; this approach yielded the mean tropical year. If a different starting longitude for the Sun is chosen than 0° ( i.e. ♈︎), then the duration for the Sun to return to the same longitude will be different. This is a second-order effect of the circumstance that the speed of the Earth (and conversely

2470-421: The length of the tropical year were used in connection with the reform of the Julian calendar , which resulted in the Gregorian calendar. Participants in that reform were unaware of the non-uniform rotation of the Earth, but now this can be taken into account to some degree. The table below gives Morrison and Stephenson's estimates and standard errors ( σ ) for ΔT at dates significant in the process of developing

2535-470: The longitude reaches a multiple of 360 degrees the mean Sun crosses the vernal equinox and a new tropical year begins". The mean tropical year in 2000 was 365.24219 ephemeris days , each ephemeris day lasting 86,400 SI seconds. This is 365.24217 mean solar days . For this reason, the calendar year is an approximation of the solar year: the Gregorian calendar (with its rules for catch-up leap days )

2600-450: The magnitude of the deceleration of the Earth's rotation. The results, when taken together, are rather discouraging." One definition of the tropical year would be the time required for the Sun, beginning at a chosen ecliptic longitude, to make one complete cycle of the seasons and return to the same ecliptic longitude. Before considering an example, the equinox must be examined. There are two important planes in solar system calculations:

2665-438: The mental picture of the approximate transit time for light, but he refrained from using the light-year as a unit. He may have resisted expressing distances in light-years because it would reduce the accuracy of his parallax data due to multiplying with the uncertain parameter of the speed of light. The speed of light was not yet precisely known in 1838; the estimate of its value changed in 1849 ( Fizeau ) and 1862 ( Foucault ). It

Horsehead Nebula - Misplaced Pages Continue

2730-448: The motion of planets, and atomic clocks. Ephemeris time (ET) is the independent variable in the equations of motion of the Solar System, in particular, the equations from Newcomb's work, and this ET was in use from 1960 to 1984. These ephemerides were based on observations made in solar time over a period of several centuries, and as a consequence represent the mean solar second over that period. The SI second , defined in atomic time,

2795-457: The nebula into streams, shown as foreground streaks against the background glow. A glowing strip of hydrogen gas marks the edge of the enormous cloud, and the densities of nearby stars are noticeably different on either side. Heavy concentrations of dust in the Horsehead Nebula region and neighbouring Orion Nebula are localized into interstellar clouds , resulting in alternating sections of nearly complete opacity and transparency. The darkness of

2860-413: The next summer solstice. It is the type of year used by tropical solar calendars . The tropical year is one type of astronomical year and particular orbital period . Another type is the sidereal year (or sidereal orbital period), which is the time it takes Earth to complete one full orbit around the Sun as measured with respect to the fixed stars , resulting in a duration of 20 minutes longer than

2925-558: The observations of Tycho Brahe and Waltherus to produce the most accurate tables up to that time, the Rudolphine Tables . He evaluated the mean tropical year as 365 solar days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, 45 seconds (365.24219 days). Newton's three laws of dynamics and theory of gravity were published in his Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica in 1687. Newton's theoretical and mathematical advances influenced tables by Edmond Halley published in 1693 and 1749 and provided

2990-463: The orbit. If the starting point is close to the perihelion (such as the December solstice), then the speed is higher than average, and the apparent Sun saves little time for not having to cover a full circle: the "tropical year" is comparatively long. If the starting point is near aphelion, then the speed is lower and the time saved for not having to run the same small arc that the equinox has precessed

3055-425: The plane of the ecliptic (the Earth's orbit around the Sun), and the plane of the celestial equator (the Earth's equator projected into space). These two planes intersect in a line. One direction points to the so-called vernal, northward, or March equinox which is given the symbol ♈︎ (the symbol looks like the horns of a ram because it used to be toward the constellation Aries ). The opposite direction

3120-493: The same general area, such as those belonging to the same spiral arm or globular cluster . Galaxies themselves span from a few thousand to a few hundred thousand light-years in diameter, and are separated from neighbouring galaxies and galaxy clusters by millions of light-years. Distances to objects such as quasars and the Sloan Great Wall run up into the billions of light-years. Distances between objects within

3185-459: The time between equinoxes (and prevent them from confounding efforts to measure long-term variations) requires precise observations and an elaborate theory of the apparent motion of the Sun. The necessary theories and mathematical tools came together in the 18th century due to the work of Pierre-Simon de Laplace , Joseph Louis Lagrange , and other specialists in celestial mechanics . They were able to compute periodic variations and separate them from

3250-403: The tropical year gets roughly a half second shorter each century. Newcomb's tables were sufficiently accurate that they were used by the joint American-British Astronomical Almanac for the Sun, Mercury , Venus , and Mars through 1983. The length of the mean tropical year is derived from a model of the Solar System, so any advance that improves the solar system model potentially improves

3315-452: The tropical year is 20 min. shorter than the sidereal year. When tropical year measurements from several successive years are compared, variations are found which are due to the perturbations by the Moon and planets acting on the Earth, and to nutation. Meeus and Savoie provided the following examples of intervals between March (northward) equinoxes: Until the beginning of the 19th century,

SECTION 50

#1732772863752

3380-490: The tropical year, because of the precession of the equinoxes . Since antiquity, astronomers have progressively refined the definition of the tropical year. The entry for "year, tropical" in the Astronomical Almanac Online Glossary states: the period of time for the ecliptic longitude of the Sun to increase 360 degrees . Since the Sun's ecliptic longitude is measured with respect to

3445-413: The tropics and the seasonal cycle of the apparent position of the Sun, the word "tropical" was lent to the period of the seasonal cycle . The early Chinese, Hindus, Greeks, and others made approximate measures of the tropical year. In the 2nd century BC Hipparchus measured the time required for the Sun to travel from an equinox to the same equinox again. He reckoned the length of the year to be 1/300 of

3510-512: The underpinnings of all solar system models until Albert Einstein 's theory of General relativity in the 20th century. From the time of Hipparchus and Ptolemy, the year was based on two equinoxes (or two solstices) a number of years apart, to average out both observational errors and periodic variations (caused by the gravitational pull of the planets, and the small effect of nutation on the equinox). These effects did not begin to be understood until Newton's time. To model short-term variations of

3575-463: The vernal equinox (March 21), and it was considered important to keep March 21 close to the actual equinox. If society in the future still attaches importance to the synchronization between the civil calendar and the seasons, another reform of the calendar will eventually be necessary. According to Blackburn and Holford-Strevens (who used Newcomb's value for the tropical year) if the tropical year remained at its 1900 value of 365.242 198 781 25 days

3640-424: The very accurate Shortt-Synchronome clock and later in the 1930s when quartz clocks began to replace pendulum clocks as time standards. Apparent solar time is the time indicated by a sundial , and is determined by the apparent motion of the Sun caused by the rotation of the Earth around its axis as well as the revolution of the Earth around the Sun. Mean solar time is corrected for the periodic variations in

3705-528: Was 365.242 189 7 or 365 ephemeris days , 5 hours, 48 minutes, 45.19 seconds. This changes slowly; an expression suitable for calculating the length of a tropical year in ephemeris days, between 8000 BC and 12000 AD is where T is in Julian centuries of 36,525 days of 86,400 SI seconds measured from noon January 1, 2000 TT. Modern astronomers define the tropical year as time for the Sun's mean longitude to increase by 360°. The process for finding an expression for

3770-401: Was March 20, 17:33:18.1 TT, which gives an interval - and a duration of the tropical year - of 365 days 5 hours 48 minutes 34.5 seconds. While the Sun moves, ♈︎ moves in the opposite direction. When the Sun and ♈︎ met at the 2010 March equinox, the Sun had moved east 359°59'09" while ♈︎ had moved west 51" for a total of 360° (all with respect to ♈︎ 0 ). This is why

3835-567: Was discovered by Scottish astronomer Williamina Fleming in 1888 on a photographic plate taken at the Harvard College Observatory . One of the first descriptions was made by E. E. Barnard , describing it as: "Dark mass, diam. 4′, on nebulous strip extending south from ζ Orionis ", cataloguing the dark nebula as Barnard 33. The dark cloud of dust and gas is a region in the Orion molecular cloud complex, where star formation

3900-437: Was given as 365 solar days 5 hours 49 minutes 16 seconds (≈ 365.24255 days). This length was used in devising the Gregorian calendar of 1582. In Uzbekistan , Ulugh Beg 's Zij-i Sultani was published in 1437 and gave an estimate of 365 solar days 5 hours 49 minutes 15 seconds (365.242535 days). In the 16th century Copernicus put forward a heliocentric cosmology . Erasmus Reinhold used Copernicus' theory to compute

3965-447: Was intended to agree with the ephemeris second based on Newcomb's work, which in turn makes it agree with the mean solar second of the mid-19th century. ET as counted by atomic clocks was given a new name, Terrestrial Time (TT), and for most purposes ET = TT = International Atomic Time + 32.184 SI seconds. Since the era of the observations, the rotation of the Earth has slowed down and the mean solar second has grown somewhat longer than

SECTION 60

#1732772863752

4030-432: Was not yet considered to be a fundamental constant of nature, and the propagation of light through the aether or space was still enigmatic. The light-year unit appeared in 1851 in a German popular astronomical article by Otto Ule . Ule explained the oddity of a distance unit name ending in "year" by comparing it to a walking hour ( Wegstunde ). A contemporary German popular astronomical book also noticed that light-year

4095-480: Was possible to compute ephemerides using numerical integration rather than general theories; numerical integration came into use in 1984 for the joint US-UK almanacs. Albert Einstein 's General Theory of Relativity provided a more accurate theory, but the accuracy of theories and observations did not require the refinement provided by this theory (except for the advance of the perihelion of Mercury) until 1984. Time scales incorporated general relativity beginning in

4160-440: Was the astronomical unit , equal to the radius of the Earth's orbit at 150 million kilometres (93 million miles). In those terms, trigonometric calculations based on 61 Cygni's parallax of 0.314 arcseconds, showed the distance to the star to be 660 000 astronomical units (9.9 × 10  km; 6.1 × 10  mi). Bessel added that light takes 10.3 years to traverse this distance. He recognized that his readers would enjoy

4225-438: Was updated in 2000, including the IAU (1976) value cited above (truncated to 10 significant digits). Other high-precision values are not derived from a coherent IAU system. A value of 9.460 536 207 × 10  m found in some modern sources is the product of a mean Gregorian year (365.2425 days or 31 556 952  s ) and the defined speed of light ( 299 792 458  m/s ). Another value, 9.460 528 405 × 10  m ,

#751248