Endurance riding is an equestrian sport based on controlled long-distance races. It is one of the international competitions recognized by the FEI . There are endurance rides worldwide. Endurance rides can be any distance, though they are rarely over 160 km for a one-day competition.
133-454: At least 48 published The horse ( Equus ferus caballus ) is a domesticated , one-toed , hoofed mammal . It belongs to the taxonomic family Equidae and is one of two extant subspecies of Equus ferus . The horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55 million years from a small multi-toed creature, Eohippus , into the large, single-toed animal of today. Humans began domesticating horses around 4000 BCE , and their domestication
266-662: A saddle or in a harness between the ages of two and four. They reach full adult development by age five, and have an average lifespan of between 25 and 30 years. Horse breeds are loosely divided into three categories based on general temperament: spirited "hot bloods" with speed and endurance; "cold bloods", such as draft horses and some ponies , suitable for slow, heavy work; and " warmbloods ", developed from crosses between hot bloods and cold bloods, often focusing on creating breeds for specific riding purposes, particularly in Europe. There are more than 300 breeds of horse in
399-518: A veterinary check that deems the animal in good health and fit to continue. As with human marathon running, many riders will participate to improve their horse's personal best performance and consider finishing the distance with a proper vet completion record to be a "win". In the United States, most endurance rides are either 50 or 100 miles (160 km) long. Shorter rides, called Limited Distance rides (LD), are organized for new riders to
532-420: A "broad" definition: "a coevolutionary process that arises from a mutualism, in which one species (the domesticator) constructs an environment where it actively manages both the survival and reproduction of another species (the domesticate) in order to provide the former with resources and/or services." He comments that this adds niche construction to the activities of the domesticator. Domestication syndrome
665-454: A clear hierarchy of rank, led by a dominant individual, usually a mare. They are also social creatures that are able to form companionship attachments to their own species and to other animals, including humans. They communicate in various ways, including vocalizations such as nickering or whinnying, mutual grooming , and body language . Many horses will become difficult to manage if they are isolated, but with training, horses can learn to accept
798-425: A constant eye out for danger. Unlike humans, horses do not sleep in a solid, unbroken period of time, but take many short periods of rest. Horses spend four to fifteen hours a day in standing rest, and from a few minutes to several hours lying down. Total sleep time in a 24-hour period may range from several minutes to a couple of hours, mostly in short intervals of about 15 minutes each. The average sleep time of
931-415: A designated crew to assist them during veterinary checks. In upper-level competition, this is particularly important to efficiently prepare the horse for the vet as well as care for both horse and rider during the mandatory hold times. A good crew allows the rider a brief respite and time to concentrate all energies on the strategy and demands of the trail itself. Riders are free to choose their pace during
1064-546: A domestic horse is said to be 2.9 hours per day. Horses must lie down to reach REM sleep . They only have to lie down for an hour or two every few days to meet their minimum REM sleep requirements. However, if a horse is never allowed to lie down, after several days it will become sleep-deprived, and in rare cases may suddenly collapse because it slips, involuntarily, into REM sleep while still standing. This condition differs from narcolepsy , although horses may also suffer from that disorder. Domestication Domestication
1197-860: A few have been domesticated, including squid , cuttlefish and octopus , all used in research on behaviour and neurology . Terrestrial snails in the genera Helix are raised for food. Several parasitic or parasitoidal insects, including the fly Eucelatoria , the beetle Chrysolina , and the wasp Aphytis are raised for biological control. Conscious or unconscious artificial selection has many effects on species under domestication; variability can readily be lost by inbreeding, selection against undesired traits, or genetic drift, while in Drosophila , variability in eclosion time (when adults emerge) has increased. Humans foraged for wild cereals, seeds, and nuts thousands of years before they were domesticated; wild wheat and barley, for example, were gathered in
1330-471: A full 60 calendar months (five years) old. The horse skeleton averages 205 bones. A significant difference between the horse skeleton and that of a human is the lack of a collarbone —the horse's forelimbs are attached to the spinal column by a powerful set of muscles, tendons, and ligaments that attach the shoulder blade to the torso. The horse's four legs and hooves are also unique structures. Their leg bones are proportioned differently from those of
1463-477: A good sense of balance and a strong fight-or-flight response . Related to this need to flee from predators in the wild is an unusual trait: horses are able to sleep both standing up and lying down, with younger horses tending to sleep significantly more than adults. Female horses, called mares , carry their young for approximately 11 months and a young horse, called a foal , can stand and run shortly following birth. Most domesticated horses begin training under
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#17327731050011596-603: A group of equestrians rode from the Lake Tahoe area across the Sierra Nevada Range to Auburn in under 24 hours. They followed the historic Western States Trail. This ride soon became known as the Tevis Cup , and it remains the most difficult of any 100-mile ride in the world because of the severe terrain, high altitude, and 100-degree (~37 °C) temperatures. Endurance riding first was brought to Europe in
1729-546: A heavier rider than the first-place finisher and with equal vet scores, still has a good chance to win the BC award. The majority of American endurance rides are sanctioned by the American Endurance Ride Conference (AERC), founded in 1972 as a governing body for long-distance riding. AERC's motto is "To finish is to win." Though the first horse and rider to finish the race are technically the winner,
1862-587: A helmet. However, individual ride managers may set certain requirements, such as the use of a helmet or hoof protection, and such information is typically included in the ride flyer and/or website. At FEI competitions, riders must wear an equestrian helmet , riding breeches or riding tights, correct footwear, and a shirt with a collar. Endurance riders usually use a saddle that is designed to be lightweight yet comfortable to horse and rider for long hours of riding. There are saddles designed specifically for endurance riding, though they are not universally used. At
1995-633: A high level of intelligence that may or may not be used to cooperate with human handlers. Small size, by itself, is not an exclusive determinant. For example, the Shetland pony which averages 10 hands (40 inches, 102 cm), is considered a pony.Conversely, breeds such as the Falabella and other miniature horses , which can be no taller than 76 centimetres; 7.2 hands (30 in), are classified by their registries as very small horses, not ponies. Horses have 64 chromosomes . The horse genome
2128-437: A higher rate of gastric ulcers than horses listening to music, and racehorses stabled where a radio was played had a higher overall rate of ulceration than horses stabled where there was no radio playing. Horses have a great sense of balance, due partly to their ability to feel their footing and partly to highly developed proprioception —the unconscious sense of where the body and limbs are at all times. A horse's sense of touch
2261-411: A human as a companion, and thus be comfortable away from other horses. However, when confined with insufficient companionship, exercise, or stimulation, individuals may develop stable vices , an assortment of bad habits, mostly stereotypies of psychological origin, that include wood chewing, wall kicking, "weaving" (rocking back and forth), and other problems. Studies have indicated that horses perform
2394-420: A human. For example, the body part that is called a horse's "knee" is actually made up of the carpal bones that correspond to the human wrist . Similarly, the hock contains bones equivalent to those in the human ankle and heel . The lower leg bones of a horse correspond to the bones of the human hand or foot, and the fetlock (incorrectly called the "ankle") is actually the proximal sesamoid bones between
2527-522: A major component of grass, through the process of hindgut fermentation . Cellulose fermentation by symbiotic bacteria and other microbes occurs in the cecum and the large intestine . Horses cannot vomit , so digestion problems can quickly cause colic , a leading cause of death. Although horses do not have a gallbladder , they tolerate high amounts of fat in their diet. The horses' senses are based on their status as prey animals , where they must be aware of their surroundings at all times. The equine eye
2660-484: A means of communication between far-flung places through the exploitation of the pigeon's homing instinct; research suggests it was domesticated as early as 10,000 years ago. Chicken fossils in China have been dated to 7,400 years ago. The chicken's wild ancestor is Gallus gallus , the red junglefowl of Southeast Asia. The species appears to have been kept initially for cockfighting rather than for food. Two insects ,
2793-794: A number of cognitive tasks on a daily basis, meeting mental challenges that include food procurement and identification of individuals within a social system . They also have good spatial discrimination abilities. They are naturally curious and apt to investigate things they have not seen before. Studies have assessed equine intelligence in areas such as problem solving , speed of learning, and memory . Horses excel at simple learning, but also are able to use more advanced cognitive abilities that involve categorization and concept learning . They can learn using habituation , desensitization , classical conditioning , and operant conditioning , and positive and negative reinforcement . One study has indicated that horses can differentiate between "more or less" if
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#17327731050012926-468: A population bottleneck where genetic drift is enhanced by the small population size. Mutations can also be fixed in a population by a selective sweep . Mutational load can be increased by reduced selective pressure against moderately harmful traits when reproductive fitness is controlled by human management. However, there is evidence against a bottleneck in crops, such as barley, maize, and sorghum, where genetic diversity slowly declined rather than showing
3059-586: A precocial species, and foals are capable of standing and running within a short time following birth. Foals are usually born in the spring. The estrous cycle of a mare occurs roughly every 19–22 days and occurs from early spring into autumn. Most mares enter an anestrus period during the winter and thus do not cycle in this period. Foals are generally weaned from their mothers between four and six months of age. Horses, particularly colts, are sometimes physically capable of reproduction at about 18 months, but domesticated horses are rarely allowed to breed before
3192-779: A predictable supply of a resource, resulting in mutual benefits . She noted further that it is not synonymous with agriculture since agriculture depends on domesticated organisms but does not automatically result from domestication. Michael D. Purugganan notes that domestication has been hard to define, despite the "instinctual consensus" that it means "the plants and animals found under the care of humans that provide us with benefits and which have evolved under our control." He comments that insects such as termites , ambrosia beetles , and leafcutter ants have domesticated some species of fungi , and notes further that other groups such as weeds and commensals have wrongly been called domesticated. Starting from Zeder's definition, Purugganan proposes
3325-471: A predominantly white hair coat and pink skin, a fairly rare occurrence. Different and unrelated genetic factors can produce white coat colors in horses, including several different alleles of dominant white and the sabino-1 gene . However, there are no " albino " horses, defined as having both pink skin and red eyes. Gestation lasts approximately 340 days, with an average range 320–370 days, and usually results in one foal ; twins are rare. Horses are
3458-425: A protracted coevolutionary process with multiple stages along different pathways. There are three proposed major pathways that most mammal domesticates followed into domestication: Humans did not intend to domesticate mammals from either the commensal or prey pathways, or at least they did not envision a domesticated animal would result from it. In both of those cases, humans became entangled with these species as
3591-435: A race; however, unscheduled weigh-ins can occur during the race. AERC has various weight divisions, and a rider may be heavier, but not lighter, than the division in which they are enrolled. Bridles for the horses may use a wide variety of bits or hackamores . Riders also often add a breastcollar to keep the saddle in place while traveling over rough terrain. Use of a crupper is not common, but sometimes seen to keep
3724-575: A rapid initial fall at the point of domestication. Further, the genetic diversity of these crops was regularly replenished from the natural population. Similar evidence exists for horses, pigs, cows, and goats. At least three groups of insects, namely ambrosia beetles, leafcutter ants, and fungus-growing termites, have domesticated species of fungi . Ambrosia beetles in the weevil subfamilies Scolytinae and Platypodinae excavate tunnels in dead or stressed trees into which they introduce fungal gardens, their sole source of nutrition. After landing on
3857-603: A recognized Fédération Équestre Internationale discipline in 1978, and the international organization has since set down rules with the welfare of the horse as top priority. In the United States, endurance rides are sanctioned by the FEI, the AERC, or both and seldom by the FEI alone. Usually the stand-alone rides are special FEI rides like the North American Team Challenge. When both the FEI and AERC sanction
3990-798: A ride, the FEI rules prevail. Two well-known American 100-mile (160 km) endurance rides are The Western States Trail Ride, commonly known as the Tevis Cup , held in California, and the Old Dominion ride, held in Virginia. Additionally, the top riders and horses compete at the World Equestrian Games , the Endurance World Championships, and regional championships such as the Pan-Am Games and
4123-418: A shorter distance with the option to increase to a higher mileage offered on the same day. Multi-day rides, with multiple endurance rides on at least consecutive days and totaling at least 155 miles, usually offer their awards to recognize horses who successfully complete all days of the ride. These rides can be just as demanding, if not more, on a horse and rider team than a single-day 100-mile ride and highlight
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4256-402: A suitable tree, an ambrosia beetle excavates a tunnel in which it releases its fungal symbiont . The fungus penetrates the plant's xylem tissue, extracts nutrients from it, and concentrates the nutrients on and near the surface of the beetle gallery. Ambrosia fungi are typically poor wood degraders and instead utilize less demanding nutrients. Symbiotic fungi produce and detoxify ethanol, which
4389-474: A working animal. Among invertebrates , the silkworm and the western honey bee were domesticated over 5,000 years ago for silk and honey , respectively. The domestication of plants began around 13,000–11,000 years ago with cereals such as wheat and barley in the Middle East , alongside crops such as lentil , pea , chickpea , and flax . Beginning around 10,000 years ago, Indigenous peoples in
4522-525: Is a multi-generational mutualistic relationship in which an animal species, such as humans or leafcutter ants , takes over control and care of another species, such as sheep or fungi, to obtain from them a steady supply of resources, such as meat, milk, or labor. The process is gradual and geographically diffuse, based on trial and error. Domestication affected genes for behavior in animals, making them less aggressive. In plants, domestication affected genes for morphology, such as increasing seed size and stopping
4655-500: Is adequate healthy food. All horses move naturally with four basic gaits : Besides these basic gaits, some horses perform a two-beat pace , instead of the trot. There also are several four-beat ' ambling ' gaits that are approximately the speed of a trot or pace, though smoother to ride. These include the lateral rack , running walk , and tölt as well as the diagonal fox trot . Ambling gaits are often genetic in some breeds, known collectively as gaited horses . These horses replace
4788-405: Is an attractant for ambrosia beetles and likely prevents the growth of antagonistic pathogens and selects for other beneficial symbionts. Ambrosia beetles mainly colonise wood of recently dead trees. The leafcutter ants are any of some 47 species of leaf-chewing ants in the genera Acromyrmex and Atta . The ants carry the discs of leaves that they have cut back to their nest, where they feed
4921-572: Is believed to have been widespread by 3000 BCE. Horses in the subspecies caballus are domesticated, although some domesticated populations live in the wild as feral horses . These feral populations are not true wild horses , which are horses that never have been domesticated. There is an extensive, specialized vocabulary used to describe equine-related concepts, covering everything from anatomy to life stages, size, colors , markings , breeds , locomotion , and behavior. Horses are adapted to run , allowing them to quickly escape predators, and possess
5054-432: Is domesticated wheat, which relies on farmers for its reproduction and dissemination. Domesticated plants differ from their wild relatives in many ways, including Plant defenses against herbivory , such as thorns, spines, and prickles , poison, protective coverings, and sturdiness may have been reduced in domesticated plants. This would make them more likely to be eaten by herbivores unless protected by humans, but there
5187-523: Is eliminated from further competition (this is called being "pulled"). After the veterinary inspection, the horse must be held for an additional hold time (usually between 40 – 60 minutes), at which time it is fed and watered. If the veterinary inspection is on the course rather than at base camp, ride management usually delivers to the inspection location a cache of riders' personal gear, food, and water. While riders may compete without additional aid, sometimes referred to as riding cavalry, many riders have
5320-516: Is heavily frowned upon. Traditional endurance ride distances range from 50–100 miles. The most common distance is 50 miles, though longer distances 75 and 100 miles are also completed in one day. Occasionally, 2-day 100-mile rides are offered, where the same rider and horse complete 50 miles each day for two consecutive days and receive credit for a 100-mile ride (competitors must sign up for the 100-mile ride and complete both days in order to receive credit). Elevator rides allow competitors to sign up for
5453-414: Is in the nostrils and nasal cavity, which analyze a wide range of odors. The second, located under the nasal cavity, are the vomeronasal organs , also called Jacobson's organs. These have a separate nerve pathway to the brain and appear to primarily analyze pheromones . A horse's hearing is good, and the pinna of each ear can rotate up to 180°, giving the potential for 360° hearing without having to move
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5586-409: Is measured at the highest point of the withers , where the neck meets the back . This point is used because it is a stable point of the anatomy, unlike the head or neck, which move up and down in relation to the body of the horse. In English-speaking countries, the height of horses is often stated in units of hands and inches: one hand is equal to 4 inches (101.6 mm). The height is expressed as
5719-414: Is one of the largest of any land mammal. Horses are lateral-eyed, meaning that their eyes are positioned on the sides of their heads. This means that horses have a range of vision of more than 350°, with approximately 65° of this being binocular vision and the remaining 285° monocular vision . Horses have excellent day and night vision , but they have two-color, or dichromatic vision ; their color vision
5852-669: Is only weak support for most of this. Farmers did select for reduced bitterness and lower toxicity and for food quality, which likely increased crop palatability to herbivores as to humans. However, a survey of 29 plant domestications found that crops were as well-defended against two major insect pests ( beet armyworm and green peach aphid ) both chemically (e.g. with bitter substances) and morphologically (e.g. with toughness) as their wild ancestors. During domestication, crop species undergo intense artificial selection that alters their genomes, establishing core traits that define them as domesticated, such as increased grain size. Comparison of
5985-425: Is somewhat like red-green color blindness in humans, where certain colors, especially red and related colors, appear as a shade of green. Their sense of smell , while much better than that of humans, is not quite as good as that of a dog. It is believed to play a key role in the social interactions of horses as well as detecting other key scents in the environment. Horses have two olfactory centers. The first system
6118-464: Is summed up by the traditional adage, "no foot, no horse". The horse hoof begins with the distal phalanges , the equivalent of the human fingertip or tip of the toe, surrounded by cartilage and other specialized, blood-rich soft tissues such as the laminae . The exterior hoof wall and horn of the sole is made of keratin , the same material as a human fingernail . The result is that a horse, weighing on average 500 kilograms (1,100 lb), travels on
6251-668: Is the suite of phenotypic traits that arose during the initial domestication process and which distinguish crops from their wild ancestors . It can also mean a set of differences now observed in domesticated mammals, not necessarily reflecting the initial domestication process. The changes include increased docility and tameness, coat coloration, reductions in tooth size, craniofacial morphology, ear and tail form (e.g., floppy ears), estrus cycles, levels of adrenocorticotropic hormone and neurotransmitters, prolongations in juvenile behavior, and reductions in brain size and of particular brain regions. The domestication of animals and plants
6384-725: Is today Baluchistan in Pakistan. In East Asia 8,000 years ago, pigs were domesticated from wild boar genetically different from those found in the Fertile Crescent. The cat was domesticated in the Fertile Crescent, perhaps 10,000 years ago, from European wildcats , possibly to control rodents that were damaging stored food. The domestication of vertebrate animals is the relationship between non-human vertebrates and humans who have an influence on their care and reproduction. In his 1868 book The Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestication , Charles Darwin recognized
6517-613: Is usually considered to be a horse and one less than 14.2 hands (58 inches, 147 cm) a pony, but there are many exceptions to the traditional standard. In Australia, ponies are considered to be those under 14 hands (56 inches, 142 cm). For competition in the Western division of the United States Equestrian Federation , the cutoff is 14.1 hands (57 inches, 145 cm). The International Federation for Equestrian Sports ,
6650-517: Is well-developed. The most sensitive areas are around the eyes, ears, and nose. Horses are able to sense contact as subtle as an insect landing anywhere on the body. Horses have an advanced sense of taste, which allows them to sort through fodder and choose what they would most like to eat, and their prehensile lips can easily sort even small grains. Horses generally will not eat poisonous plants, however, there are exceptions; horses will occasionally eat toxic amounts of poisonous plants even when there
6783-636: Is widely grown for food. The yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae have been used for thousands of years to ferment beer and wine , and to leaven bread . Mould fungi including Penicillium are used to mature cheeses and other dairy products, as well as to make drugs such as antibiotics . Selection of animals for visible traits may have undesired consequences for the genetics of domestic animals. A side effect of domestication has been zoonotic diseases. For example, cattle have given humanity various viral poxes , measles , and tuberculosis ; pigs and ducks have contributed influenza ; and horses have brought
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#17327731050016916-718: The Indian Ocean and those in the Pacific Ocean . The coconut experienced a founder effect , where a small number of individuals with low diversity founded the modern population, permanently losing much of the genetic variation of the wild population. Population bottlenecks which reduced variation throughout the genome at some later date after domestication are evident in crops such as pearl millet , cotton , common bean and lima bean . In wheat, domestication involved repeated hybridization and polyploidy . These steps are large and essentially instantaneous changes to
7049-634: The Levant at least 23,000 years ago. Neolithic societies in West Asia first began to cultivate and then domesticate some of these plants around 13,000 to 11,000 years ago. The founder crops of the West Asian Neolithic included cereals ( emmer , einkorn wheat , barley ), pulses ( lentil , pea , chickpea , bitter vetch ), and flax . Other plants were independently domesticated in 13 centers of origin (subdivided into 24 areas) of
7182-486: The Morgan horse . Horses are able to sleep both standing up and lying down. In an adaptation from life in the wild, horses are able to enter light sleep by using a " stay apparatus " in their legs, allowing them to doze without collapsing. Horses sleep better when in groups because some animals will sleep while others stand guard to watch for predators. A horse kept alone will not sleep well because its instincts are to keep
7315-474: The Trakehner or Hanoverian , developed when European carriage and war horses were crossed with Arabians or Thoroughbreds, producing a riding horse with more refinement than a draft horse, but greater size and milder temperament than a lighter breed. Certain pony breeds with warmblood characteristics have been developed for smaller riders. Warmbloods are considered a "light horse" or "riding horse". Today,
7448-405: The cannon bones (a single equivalent to the human metacarpal or metatarsal bones ) and the proximal phalanges , located where one finds the "knuckles" of a human. A horse also has no muscles in its legs below the knees and hocks, only skin, hair, bone, tendons , ligaments , cartilage , and the assorted specialized tissues that make up the hoof . The critical importance of the feet and legs
7581-619: The coding DNA of chromosome 8 in rice between fragrant and non-fragrant varieties showed that aromatic and fragrant rice, including basmati and jasmine , is derived from an ancestral rice domesticate that suffered a deletion in exon 7 which altered the coding for betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase (BADH2). Comparison of the potato genome with that of other plants located genes for resistance to potato blight caused by Phytophthora infestans . In coconut , genomic analysis of 10 microsatellite loci (of noncoding DNA ) found two episodes of domestication based on differences between individuals in
7714-470: The domestication of wheat . Wild wheat shatters and falls to the ground to reseed itself when ripe, but domesticated wheat stays on the stem for easier harvesting. This change was possible because of a random mutation in the wild populations at the beginning of wheat's cultivation . Wheat with this mutation was harvested more frequently and became the seed for the next crop. Therefore, without realizing it, early farmers selected for this mutation. The result
7847-417: The domestication syndrome , traits presumed essential in the early stages of domestication, while others represent later improvement traits. Domesticated mammals in particular tend to be smaller and less aggressive than their wild counterparts; other common traits are floppy ears, a smaller brain, and a shorter muzzle. Domestication traits are generally fixed within all domesticates, and were selected during
7980-463: The gene controlled by the Melanocortin 1 receptor , also known as the "extension gene" or "red factor". Its recessive form is "red" (chestnut) and its dominant form is black. Additional genes control suppression of black color to point coloration that results in a bay , spotting patterns such as pinto or leopard , dilution genes such as palomino or dun , as well as greying , and all
8113-437: The rhinoviruses . Many parasites , too, have their origins in domestic animals. Alongside these, the advent of domestication resulted in denser human populations, which provided ripe conditions for pathogens to reproduce, mutate, spread, and eventually find a new host in humans. Scholars have expressed widely differing viewpoints on domestication's effects on society. Anarcho-primitivism critiques domestication as destroying
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#17327731050018246-605: The shattering of cereal seedheads. Such changes both make domesticated organisms easier to handle and reduce their ability to survive in the wild. The first animal to be domesticated by humans was the dog , as a commensal , at least 15,000 years ago. Other animals, including goats , sheep , and cows , were domesticated around 11,000 years ago. Among birds, the chicken was first domesticated in East Asia, seemingly for cockfighting, some 7,000 years ago. The horse came under domestication around 5,500 years ago in central Asia as
8379-436: The silkworm and the western honey bee , have been domesticated for over 5,000 years, often for commercial use. The silkworm is raised for the silk threads wound around its pupal cocoon; the western honey bee, for honey , and, from the 20th century, for pollination of crops. Several other invertebrates have been domesticated, both terrestrial and aquatic, including some such as Drosophila melanogaster fruit flies and
8512-591: The "cold-bloods", such as most draft breeds , are quieter and calmer. Sometimes "hot-bloods" are classified as "light horses" or "riding horses", with the "cold-bloods" classified as "draft horses" or "work horses". "Hot blooded" breeds include " oriental horses " such as the Akhal-Teke , Arabian horse , Barb , and now-extinct Turkoman horse , as well as the Thoroughbred , a breed developed in England from
8645-480: The 1960s. Before the ride, horses are inspected by a veterinarian to ensure they are fit to perform in the ride. Riders may be given a map or GPS waypoints for the course, which shows the route, the places for compulsory halts (called "holds"), and any natural obstacles (such as ditches, steep hills, and water crossings). The trails frequently are marked with colored surveyor's tape ribbons at regular intervals with additional ribbons or small arrow markers at turns in
8778-555: The Americas began to cultivate peanuts , squash , maize , potatoes , cotton , and cassava . Rice was first domesticated in China some about 9,000 years ago. In Africa, crops such as sorghum were domesticated. Agriculture developed in some 13 centres around the world, domesticating different crops and animals. Three groups of insects, namely ambrosia beetles , leafcutter ants , and fungus-growing termites have independently domesticated species of fungi, on which they feed. In
8911-535: The Americas, Africa, and Asia (the Middle East, South Asia, the Far East, and New Guinea and Wallacea); in some thirteen of these regions people began to cultivate grasses and grains. Rice was first cultivated in East Asia. Sorghum was widely cultivated in sub-Saharan Africa, while peanuts, squash, cotton, maize , potatoes , and cassava were domesticated in the Americas. Continued domestication
9044-568: The European Endurance Championships. One-day international competitions are 40–160 km. Multi-day competitions are longer but have daily distance limits. Those that are FEI recognized and are broken into the following categories: Note: CEI is the notation that the competition is an FEI-approved international competition. When first recognized by the FEI, there were only four international competitions. This grew to an average of 18 rides per year by 1998, when
9177-595: The Late Pleistocene. Domestication reduces genetic diversity of the domesticated population, especially of alleles of genes targeted by selection. One reason is a population bottleneck created by artificially selecting the most desirable individuals to breed from. Most of the domesticated strain is then born from just a few ancestors, creating a situation similar to the founder effect . Domesticated populations such as of dogs, rice, sunflowers, maize, and horses have an increased mutation load , as expected in
9310-418: The Middle East, including injuries (namely fractures), drugging, and overall rule abuse. Multiple endurance organizations around the world, such as France, Belgium, and Switzerland, issued complaints over FEI's mis-handling of these issues. In June, 2013, AERC issued a letter to USEF demanding that something be done. Of particular concern to AERC members were the effects of excessive speed and racing as well as
9443-636: The Southern Hemisphere. The exception is in endurance riding , where the minimum age to compete is based on the animal's actual calendar age. The following terminology is used to describe horses of various ages: In horse racing , these definitions may differ: For example, in the British Isles, Thoroughbred horse racing defines colts and fillies as less than five years old. However, Australian Thoroughbred racing defines colts and fillies as less than four years old. The height of horses
9576-501: The UK, Endurance GB is the governing body. Winning riders can complete 100-mile (160 km) rides in 14 to 15 hours. Any breed can compete, but the Arabian generally dominates the top levels because of the breed's stamina and natural endurance abilities. Though the need to ride long distances has existed since the domestication of the horse , endurance riding as an organized activity
9709-454: The age of three, especially females. Horses four years old are considered mature, although the skeleton normally continues to develop until the age of six; maturation also depends on the horse's size, breed, sex, and quality of care. Larger horses have larger bones; therefore, not only do the bones take longer to form bone tissue , but the epiphyseal plates are larger and take longer to convert from cartilage to bone. These plates convert after
9842-458: The beginning of the Holocene 11,700 years ago, a warmer climate and increasing human populations led to small-scale animal and plant domestication and an increased supply of food. The appearance of the domestic dog in the archaeological record, at least 15,000 years ago, was followed by domestication of livestock and of crops such as wheat and barley , the invention of agriculture , and
9975-741: The calm, patient temperament needed to pull a plow or a heavy carriage full of people. They are sometimes nicknamed "gentle giants". Well-known draft breeds include the Belgian and the Clydesdale . Some, like the Percheron , are lighter and livelier, developed to pull carriages or to plow large fields in drier climates. Others, such as the Shire , are slower and more powerful, bred to plow fields with heavy, clay-based soils. The cold-blooded group also includes some pony breeds. " Warmblood " breeds, such as
10108-562: The case of the termites, the relationship is a fully obligate symbiosis on both sides. Domestication (not to be confused with the taming of an individual animal ), is from the Latin domesticus , 'belonging to the house'. The term remained loosely defined until the 21st century, when the American archaeologist Melinda A. Zeder defined it as a long-term relationship in which humans take over control and care of another organism to gain
10241-517: The competition, adjusting to the terrain and their mount's condition. Therefore, they must have a great knowledge of pace, knowing when to slow down or speed up during the ride, as well as a great knowledge of their horse's condition and signs of tiring. There is a maximum time allowed to complete mileage (12 hours for 50 miles and 24 hours for a 100-mile ride). Riders may choose to ride or may dismount and walk or jog with their horse without penalty. However, in FEI, they must be mounted when they cross
10374-469: The day. Therefore, compared to humans, they have a relatively small stomach but very long intestines to facilitate a steady flow of nutrients. A 450-kilogram (990 lb) horse will eat 7 to 11 kilograms (15 to 24 lb) of food per day and, under normal use, drink 38 to 45 litres (8.4 to 9.9 imp gal; 10 to 12 US gal) of water . Horses are not ruminants , having only one stomach, like humans. But unlike humans, they can digest cellulose ,
10507-425: The difference in demands entailed by the longer distances, LD miles are counted and recognized separately from endurance miles. Occasionally, a non-competitive introductory trail ride for novice riders and horses will be offered alongside the endurance competition, generally about 15 miles long. All AERC rides are required to offer completion awards to all horse and rider teams who meet completion criteria (including
10640-509: The domestication of animals involved violence against animals and damage to the environment. This, in turn, he argues, corrupted human ethics and paved the way for "conquest, extermination, displacement, repression, coerced and enslaved servitude, gender subordination and sexual exploitation, and hunger." Domesticated ecosystems provide food, reduce predator and natural dangers, and promote commerce, but their creation has resulted in habitat alteration or loss, and multiple extinctions commencing in
10773-515: The domestication syndrome; it is predicted that domestic animals are less resistant to parasites than their wild relatives. Domesticated birds principally mean poultry , raised for meat and eggs: some Galliformes ( chicken , turkey , guineafowl ) and Anseriformes (waterfowl: ducks , geese , and swans ). Also widely domesticated are cagebirds such as songbirds and parrots ; these are kept both for pleasure and for use in research. The domestic pigeon has been used both for food and as
10906-442: The examination, including reducing its heart rate below that specified for the event, typically 64 bpm , although terrain and weather may require the ride veterinarians to set a different maximum target. The riders' time keeps running until their horses reach the required target, so it is important that the horses recover as soon as possible. Any horse deemed unfit to continue (due to lameness or excessive fatigue, for example)
11039-438: The exceptional care, preparation, and commitment of a horse and rider team. While the majority of rides are completed in one or more loops with both the start and finish lines are located in base camp, Pioneer rides (like Tevis) are point-to-point rides where riders start in one location and finish in another. Some riders compete with the assistance of a crew in camp that usually consist of friends, family, or fellow riders. However,
11172-522: The first World Championships were held in the United Arab Emirates . The World Championships provided a huge boost to the sport, and, by 2005, there were 353 international competitions, second to only eventing and show jumping . Due to the huge increase in international competition, endurance is growing quite rapidly worldwide. Recently, there has been increasing concern over horse welfare issues within FEI and particularly Group VII in
11305-447: The freshwater cnidarian Hydra for research into genetics and physiology. Few have a long history of domestication. Most are used for food or other products such as shellac and cochineal . The phyla involved are Cnidaria , Platyhelminthes (for biological pest control ), Annelida , Mollusca , Arthropoda (marine crustaceans as well as insects and spiders), and Echinodermata . While many marine mollusks are used for food, only
11438-401: The front of the mouth, adapted to biting off the grass or other vegetation. There are 24 teeth adapted for chewing, the premolars and molars , at the back of the mouth. Stallions and geldings have four additional teeth just behind the incisors, a type of canine teeth called "tushes". Some horses, both male and female, will also develop one to four very small vestigial teeth in front of
11571-810: The genome and the epigenome , enabling a rapid evolutionary response to artificial selection. Polyploidy increases the number of chromosomes, bringing new combinations of genes and alleles, which in turn enable further changes such as by chromosomal crossover . The microbiome , the collection of microorganisms inhabiting the surface and internal tissue of plants, is affected by domestication. This includes changes in microbial species composition and diversity. Plant lineage, including speciation , domestication, and breeding , have shaped plant endophytes ( phylosymbiosis ) in similar patterns as plant genes. Several species of fungi have been domesticated for use directly as food, or in fermentation to produce foods and drugs. The cultivated mushroom Agaricus bisporus
11704-457: The head. Noise affects the behavior of horses and certain kinds of noise may contribute to stress—a 2013 study in the UK indicated that stabled horses were calmest in a quiet setting, or if listening to country or classical music, but displayed signs of nervousness when listening to jazz or rock music. This study also recommended keeping music under a volume of 21 decibels . An Australian study found that stabled racehorses listening to talk radio had
11837-473: The highest levels in FEI, it is usually a variation on the English saddle in shape, although it may have wider panels and stirrups with a wider tread. Lightweight endurance designs based on western saddles are also popular, particularly in AERC rides. Various experimental designs are also common, including treeless and flexible panel saddles. Regardless of design, endurance saddles are very light to ensure
11970-532: The homogenizing effect of gene flow from wild boars into pigs, and created domestication islands in the genome. The same process may apply to other domesticated animals. The 2023 parasite-mediated domestication hypothesis suggests that endoparasites such as helminths and protozoa could have mediated the domestication of mammals. Domestication involves taming, which has an endocrine component; and parasites can modify endocrine activity and microRNAs . Genes for resistance to parasites might be linked to those for
12103-674: The horse being judged "fit to continue), as well placings and Best Condition awards. Individual rides may offer additional recognitions, including middle-of-the-pack awards and the turtle award (last place). Awards are typically low-cost and provide more sentimental than monetary value. T-shirts are popular awards. Moreover, AERC recognizes year-end accomplishments (such as top season mileage) and lifetime horse and rider mileage accomplishments. Various regional clubs and organizations offer further recognitions and awards. Widely acclaimed riders are typically those with high lifetime mileage accumulation and minimal "pulls" (non-completions). Endurance became
12236-456: The horse does not have to carry unnecessary weight. Many endurance saddles have extra metal rings for the attachment of equipment. Riders who compete in CEI rides must meet a minimum weight of 75 kilograms (165 lb) with their saddle and pads. If the rider and their accompanying tack weighs in under this, they are required to ride with weights. Weigh-ins are generally conducted before and after
12369-417: The hundred mile ride competitors have twenty-four for completion credit. The majority of competitors are amateurs that participate in endurance as a hobby rather than a profession, generally owning a small number of horses and riding them themselves. More competitive riders race for Top 10 placings, but the horse's welfare is still a top priority and putting a horse's health at risk for the sake of competition
12502-436: The incisors show changes as the horse ages; they develop a distinct wear pattern, changes in tooth shape, and changes in the angle at which the chewing surfaces meet. This allows a very rough estimate of a horse's age, although diet and veterinary care can also affect the rate of tooth wear. Horses are herbivores with a digestive system adapted to a forage diet of grasses and other plant material, consumed steadily throughout
12635-426: The initial episode of domestication of that animal or plant, whereas improvement traits are present only in a proportion of domesticates, though they may be fixed in individual breeds or regional populations . Certain animal species, and certain individuals within those species, make better candidates for domestication because of their behavioral characteristics: The beginnings of mammal domestication involved
12768-580: The leaf material to the fungi that they tend. Some of these fungi are not fully domesticated: the fungi farmed by Mycocepurus smithii constantly produce spores that are not useful to the ants, which eat fungal hyphae instead. The process of domestication by Atta ants, on the other hand, is complete; it took 30 million years. Some 330 fungus-growing termite species of the subfamily Macrotermitinae cultivate Termitomyces fungi to eat; domestication occurred exactly once, 25–40 mya . The fungi, described by Roger Heim in 1942, grow on 'combs' formed from
12901-399: The majority of AERC riders aim for a "completion" rather than a placing. As with human marathon running, many riders will participate to improve their horse's personal best performance and consider finishing the distance with a proper vet completion record to be a "win". In addition, each distance race has a time limit. For example, a fifty-mile ride must be completed within twelve hours and
13034-433: The majority of riders compete on their own and riders generally provide assistance to one another as needed. In addition to traditional endurance distances of 50 or more miles, AERC includes a Limited Distance (LD) division. LD's are at least 25 miles and can be as long as 35 miles. Though originally introduced as training rides for beginning riders and horses, they evolved into their own level of competition. However, due to
13167-434: The molars, known as "wolf" teeth, which are generally removed because they can interfere with the bit . There is an empty interdental space between the incisors and the molars where the bit rests directly on the gums, or "bars" of the horse's mouth when the horse is bridled . An estimate of a horse's age can be made from looking at its teeth. The teeth continue to erupt throughout life and are worn down by grazing. Therefore,
13300-1026: The number of full hands, followed by a point , then the number of additional inches, and ending with the abbreviation "h" or "hh" (for "hands high"). Thus, a horse described as "15.2 h" is 15 hands plus 2 inches, for a total of 62 inches (157.5 cm) in height. The size of horses varies by breed, but also is influenced by nutrition . Light-riding horses usually range in height from 14 to 16 hands (56 to 64 inches, 142 to 163 cm) and can weigh from 380 to 550 kilograms (840 to 1,210 lb). Larger-riding horses usually start at about 15.2 hands (62 inches, 157 cm) and often are as tall as 17 hands (68 inches, 173 cm), weighing from 500 to 600 kilograms (1,100 to 1,320 lb). Heavy or draft horses are usually at least 16 hands (64 inches, 163 cm) high and can be as tall as 18 hands (72 inches, 183 cm) high. They can weigh from about 700 to 1,000 kilograms (1,540 to 2,200 lb). The largest horse in recorded history
13433-490: The older oriental breeds. Hot bloods tend to be spirited, bold, and learn quickly. They are bred for agility and speed. They tend to be physically refined—thin-skinned, slim, and long-legged. The original oriental breeds were brought to Europe from the Middle East and North Africa when European breeders wished to infuse these traits into racing and light cavalry horses. Muscular, heavy draft horses are known as "cold bloods." They are bred not only for strength, but also to have
13566-434: The other factors that create the many possible coat colors found in horses. Horses that have a white coat color are often mislabeled; a horse that looks "white" is usually a middle-aged or older gray . Grays are born a darker shade, get lighter as they age, but usually keep black skin underneath their white hair coat (with the exception of pink skin under white markings ). The only horses properly called white are born with
13699-601: The other parts of the bones, and are crucial to development. Depending on maturity, breed, and work expected, horses are usually put under saddle and trained to be ridden between the ages of two and four. Although Thoroughbred race horses are put on the track as young as the age of two in some countries, horses specifically bred for sports such as dressage are generally not put under saddle until they are three or four years old, because their bones and muscles are not solidly developed. For endurance riding competition, horses are not deemed mature enough to compete until they are
13832-644: The overall perception of the sport of endurance riding. Due to this strongly-worded letter, North America was invited to participate in discussions over how to address these issues. The result of these discussions were the creation of the FEI Endurance Strategic Planning Group, which is currently working to address current issues and plan for the future. In 2015, the FEI banned the United Arab Emirates from participating in Endurance racing following scandals of welfare, doping,
13965-568: The quantity involved is less than four. Domesticated horses may face greater mental challenges than wild horses, because they live in artificial environments that prevent instinctive behavior whilst also learning tasks that are not natural. Horses are animals of habit that respond well to regimentation, and respond best when the same routines and techniques are used consistently. One trainer believes that "intelligent" horses are reflections of intelligent trainers who effectively use response conditioning techniques and positive reinforcement to train in
14098-415: The recovery rate of the horse or by a required standard. Additional awards are usually given to the best-conditioned horses who finish in the top 10 for distances of 50 miles (80 km) or more. The Best Conditioned, or "BC" award is generally more prized than finishing first, as it is determined by a combination of speed, weight carried, and veterinary scores. Thus, a horse finishing fourth, but carrying
14231-514: The relationship between them intensified, and humans' role in their survival and reproduction gradually led to formalized animal husbandry . Although the directed pathway for draft and riding animals proceeded from capture to taming, the other two pathways are not as goal-oriented, and archaeological records suggest that they took place over much longer time frames. Unlike other domestic species selected primarily for production-related traits, dogs were initially selected for their behaviors. The dog
14364-464: The rules of the FEI and AERC, the first horse to cross the line and pass the vet check as "fit to continue" is the winner. Under the rules of competitive trail riding and the endurance rules in some nations (though not international competition nor that in the USA), as well as for limited-distance endurance rides (25–49 miles or 40–79 km in one day), the winner is determined by a combination of speed and
14497-414: The saddle from sliding forward on horses. Protective boots may be used on a horse's legs, though boots also cause problems in some types of terrain (they may slip, can collect burrs and dirt, and if crossing water may become waterlogged, any of which can irritate the legs of the horse and lead to lameness), so use varies by the type of ride and the rider's preferences. Hoof protection varies from barefoot to
14630-496: The same animals as horses. The distinction between a horse and pony is commonly drawn on the basis of height, especially for competition purposes. However, height alone is not dispositive; the difference between horses and ponies may also include aspects of phenotype , including conformation and temperament. The traditional standard for height of a horse or a pony at maturity is 14.2 hands (58 inches, 147 cm). An animal 14.2 hands (58 inches, 147 cm) or over
14763-505: The same bones as would a human on tiptoe. For the protection of the hoof under certain conditions, some horses have horseshoes placed on their feet by a professional farrier . The hoof continually grows, and in most domesticated horses needs to be trimmed (and horseshoes reset, if used) every five to eight weeks, though the hooves of horses in the wild wear down and regrow at a rate suitable for their terrain. Horses are adapted to grazing . In an adult horse, there are 12 incisors at
14896-469: The same color may be distinguished from one another by white markings , which, along with various spotting patterns, are inherited separately from coat color. Many genes that create horse coat colors and patterns have been identified. Current genetic tests can identify at least 13 different alleles influencing coat color, and research continues to discover new genes linked to specific traits. The basic coat colors of chestnut and black are determined by
15029-459: The small number of traits that made domestic species different from their wild ancestors. He was also the first to recognize the difference between conscious selective breeding in which humans directly select for desirable traits and unconscious selection, in which traits evolve as a by-product of natural selection or from selection on other traits. There is a difference between domestic and wild populations; some of these differences constitute
15162-681: The sport or young horses being trained. However, LD's have evolved into a competition of their own, in which more experienced riders and horses also participate. There are also longer, usually multi-day, rides as well. In the US, the American Endurance Ride Conference (AERC) sanctions endurance rides. There is a second organization in the U.S., mainly based in the PNW called the Equine Distance Riding Association (EDRA). They sanction endurance rides as well, but not alongside AERC. In
15295-419: The starting and finish lines. AERC riders have no requirement for being mounted at any point before, during, or after the ride. The terrain riders compete over varies greatly from ride to ride. Natural obstacles (called "hazards"), are marked on the trails. In some areas, wilderness or undeveloped areas are difficult to find; in these places, no more than 10% of the route can be on hard-surfaced roads. Under
15428-468: The style that best fits with an individual animal's natural inclinations. Horses are mammals . As such, they are warm-blooded , or endothermic creatures, as opposed to cold-blooded, or poikilothermic animals. However, these words have developed a separate meaning in the context of equine terminology, used to describe temperament, not body temperature . For example, the " hot-bloods ", such as many race horses , exhibit more sensitivity and energy, while
15561-451: The supposed primitive state of harmony with nature in hunter-gatherer societies, and replacing it, possibly violently or by enslavement, with a social hierarchy as property and power emerged. The dialectal naturalist Murray Bookchin has argued that domestication of animals, in turn, meant the domestication of humanity, both parties being unavoidably altered by their relationship with each other. The sociologist David Nibert asserts that
15694-556: The term "Warmblood" refers to a specific subset of sport horse breeds that are used for competition in dressage and show jumping . Strictly speaking, the term " warm blood " refers to any cross between cold-blooded and hot-blooded breeds. Examples include breeds such as the Irish Draught or the Cleveland Bay . The term was once used to refer to breeds of light riding horse other than Thoroughbreds or Arabians, such as
15827-409: The termites' excreta, dominated by tough woody fragments. The termites and the fungi are both obligate symbionts in the relationship. Endurance riding There are two main types of long-distance riding, competitive trail riding and endurance rides. In an endurance ride, discussed in this article, the winning horse is the first one to cross the finish line while stopping periodically to pass
15960-410: The trail. The ride is divided into sections, with different names (legs, phases, loops etc.), depending on sanctioning organization. After each section, horses are stopped for a veterinary inspection (usually called a "vet check" and less often called a "vetgate"), where they are checked for soundness and dehydration , with their pulse and respiration taken. To continue the ride, the horse must pass
16093-637: The transition of humans from foraging to farming in different places and times across the planet. For instance, small-scale trial cultivation of cereals began some 28,000 years ago at the Ohalo II site in Israel. In the Fertile Crescent 11,000–10,000 years ago, zooarchaeology indicates that goats, pigs, sheep, and taurine cattle were the first livestock to be domesticated. Two thousand years later, humped zebu cattle were domesticated in what
16226-785: The trot with one of the ambling gaits. Horses are prey animals with a strong fight-or-flight response . Their first reaction to a threat is to startle and usually flee, although they will stand their ground and defend themselves when flight is impossible or if their young are threatened. They also tend to be curious; when startled, they will often hesitate an instant to ascertain the cause of their fright, and may not always flee from something that they perceive as non-threatening. Most light horse riding breeds were developed for speed, agility, alertness and endurance; natural qualities that extend from their wild ancestors. However, through selective breeding, some breeds of horses are quite docile, particularly certain draft horses. Horses are herd animals , with
16359-399: The urine of pregnant mares . Humans provide domesticated horses with food, water, and shelter, as well as attention from specialists such as veterinarians and farriers . Depending on breed, management and environment, the modern domestic horse has a life expectancy of 25 to 30 years. Uncommonly, a few animals live into their 40s and, occasionally, beyond. The oldest verifiable record
16492-424: The use of 'ringers' and phantom races. After being reinstated to compete later that year, the FEI suspended the country from participating events a second time in 2020 for not complying with rules regarding welfare. Endurance is less formal than many other equestrian competitions, with riders choosing clothes for comfort. The AERC does not have any equipment requirements other than requiring junior riders to wear
16625-1082: The world governing body for horse sport, uses metric measurements and defines a pony as being any horse measuring less than 148 centimetres (58.27 in) at the withers without shoes, which is just over 14.2 hands (58 inches, 147 cm), and 149 centimetres (58.66 in; 14. 2 + 1 ⁄ 2 hands), with shoes. Height is not the sole criterion for distinguishing horses from ponies. Breed registries for horses that typically produce individuals both under and over 14.2 hands (58 inches, 147 cm) consider all animals of that breed to be horses regardless of their height. Conversely, some pony breeds may have features in common with horses, and individual animals may occasionally mature at over 14.2 hands (58 inches, 147 cm), but are still considered to be ponies. Ponies often exhibit thicker manes, tails, and overall coat. They also have proportionally shorter legs, wider barrels, heavier bone, shorter and thicker necks, and short heads with broad foreheads. They may have calmer temperaments than horses and also
16758-569: The world today, developed for many different uses. Horses and humans interact in a wide variety of sport competitions and non-competitive recreational pursuits as well as in working activities such as police work , agriculture , entertainment, and therapy . Horses were historically used in warfare, from which a wide variety of riding and driving techniques developed, using many different styles of equipment and methods of control. Many products are derived from horses, including meat , milk , hide , hair , bone, and pharmaceuticals extracted from
16891-404: Was sequenced in 2007. It contains 2.7 billion DNA base pairs , which is larger than the dog genome , but smaller than the human genome or the bovine genome . The map is available to researchers. Horses exhibit a diverse array of coat colors and distinctive markings , described by a specialized vocabulary. Often, a horse is classified first by its coat color, before breed or sex. Horses of
17024-546: Was " Old Billy ", a 19th-century horse that lived to the age of 62. In modern times, Sugar Puff, who had been listed in Guinness World Records as the world's oldest living pony, died in 2007 at age 56. Regardless of a horse or pony's actual birth date, for most competition purposes a year is added to its age each January 1 of each year in the Northern Hemisphere and each August 1 in
17157-500: Was domesticated long before other animals, becoming established across Eurasia before the end of the Late Pleistocene era, well before agriculture . The archaeological and genetic data suggest that long-term bidirectional gene flow between wild and domestic stocks – such as in donkeys , horses , New and Old World camelids, goats, sheep, and pigs – was common. Human selection for domestic traits likely counteracted
17290-681: Was first developed in the United States based on European cavalry (particularly Polish and Russian WWI) and breeding program tests requiring the ability to carry 300 lb (140 kg) over 100 miles (160 km) in one day. Organized endurance riding as a formal sport began in 1913 in Vermont by the Morgan Horse Club with seven riders on small horses, Arabians or Morgans. They rode for 154 miles in about 31 hours. The most famous endurance ride began in 1955, when Wendell Robie and
17423-532: Was gradual and geographically diffuse – happening in many small steps and spread over a wide area – on the evidence of both archaeology and genetics. It was a process of intermittent trial and error and often resulted in diverging traits and characteristics. Whereas domestication of animals impacted most on the genes that controlled behavior, that of plants impacted most on the genes that controlled morphology (seed size, plant architecture, dispersal mechanisms) and physiology (timing of germination or ripening), as in
17556-447: Was probably a Shire horse named Mammoth , who was born in 1848. He stood 21.2⁄ 4 hands (86.25 inches, 219 cm) high and his peak weight was estimated at 1,524 kilograms (3,360 lb). The record holder for the smallest horse ever is Thumbelina , a fully mature miniature horse affected by dwarfism . She was 43 centimetres; 4.1 hands (17 in) tall and weighed 26 kg (57 lb). Ponies are taxonomically
17689-557: Was triggered by the climatic and environmental changes that occurred after the peak of the Last Glacial Maximum and which continue to this present day. These changes made obtaining food by hunting and gathering difficult. The first animal to be domesticated was the dog at least 15,000 years ago. The Younger Dryas 12,900 years ago was a period of intense cold and aridity that put pressure on humans to intensify their foraging strategies but did not favour agriculture. By
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