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127-629: The three main centres of the style were in France, especially in the period 1530–1550, in Prague from 1576, and in the Netherlands from the 1580s—the first two phases very much led by royal patronage . In the last 15 years of the century, the style, by then becoming outdated in Italy, was widespread across northern Europe , spread in large part through prints. In painting, it tended to recede rapidly in

254-589: A cooperative to a share of the surplus or profit generated by the co-op, called a patronage refund . This refund is a form of dividend . In the Church of England , patronage is the commonly used term for the right to present a candidate to a benefice. The liturgical feast of the Patronage of Our Lady was first permitted by decree of the Sacred Congregation of Rites on 6 May 1679, for all

381-547: A court style, found natural vehicles in the work of goldsmiths, set off by gems and coloured enamels, in which the misshaped pearls we call " baroque " might form human and animal torsos, both as jewellery for personal adornment and in objects made for the Wunderkammer . Ewers and vases took fantastic shapes, as did standing cups with onyx or agate bowls, and elaborate saltcellars like the Saliera of Benvenuto Cellini ,

508-503: A court painter of Rudolf II, played an important role in the development of the still life as an independent genre, and in particular still lifes of flowers. An undated flower piece executed by Hoefnagel in the form of a miniature is the first known independent still life. Hoefnagel enlivened his flower pieces with insects and attention to detail typical of his nature studies. This can be seen in his 1589 Amoris Monumentum Matri Chariss(imae) (ex-Nicolaas Teeuwisse 2008). Karel van Mander

635-498: A Mannerist, but just as his paintings were keenly collected by Rudolf, Mannerist artists, including Gillis van Coninxloo and Bruegel's son Jan, followed him in developing the landscape as a subject. Landscape painting was recognised as a Netherlandish speciality in Italy, where several Northern landscapists were based, such as Matthijs and Paul Bril , and the Germans Hans Rottenhammer and Adam Elsheimer ,

762-498: A coating for the outside of a building and " plaster " to a coating for interiors. As described below, however, the materials themselves often have little or no difference. Other European languages, notably Italian, do not have the same distinction: stucco means plaster in Italian and serves for both. The basic composition of stucco is lime , water, and sand. The difference in nomenclature between stucco, plaster , and mortar

889-399: A finish layer, which is thinner and faster to apply, compared to the traditional application of three-coat stucco. Imitation stone stucco can also be produced using the traditional application, but with marble dust being added to the mixture. As with any cement-based material, stucco must be reinforced to resist movement cracking. Plastic or wire mesh lath , attached with nails or screws to

1016-487: A great deal of patronage, in the sense that they make decisions on the appointment of officials inside and outside government (for example on quangos in the UK). Patronage is therefore a recognized power of the executive branch . In most countries, the executive has the right to make many appointments, some of which may be lucrative (see also sinecures ). In some democracies , high-level appointments are reviewed or approved by

1143-534: A knowing fashion. In Northern Europe, however, such artists, and such an audience, could hardly be found. The prevailing style remained Gothic , and different syntheses of this and Italian styles were made in the first decades of the 16th century by more internationally aware artists such as Albrecht Dürer , Hans Burgkmair and others in Germany, and the misleadingly named school of Antwerp Mannerism , in fact unrelated to, and preceding, Italian Mannerism. Romanism

1270-648: A native French style with strong Mannerist elements that was then able to develop largely on its own. Jean Cousin the Elder , for example, produced paintings, such as Eva Prima Pandora and Charity , that, with their sinuous, elongated nudes, drew palpably upon the artistic principles of the Fontainebleau school. Cousin's son Jean the Younger , most of whose works have not survived, and Antoine Caron both followed in this tradition, producing an agitated version of

1397-433: A sand finish or sprayed. Originally, the lath material was strips of wood installed horizontally on the wall, with spaces between, that would support the wet plaster until it cured. This lath and plaster technique became widely used. In exterior wall applications, the lath is installed over a weather-resistant asphalt - impregnated felt or paper sheet that protects the framing from the moisture that can pass through

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1524-498: A similar aesthetic into pottery, and much of it carries royal cyphers. This was followed by the "rustic" pottery of Bernard Palissy , with vessels covered in elaborately modelled relief animals and plants. Painted Limoges enamel adopted the style with enthusiasm around 1540, and many workshops produced highly detailed painting until about the 1580s. Apart from the Palace of Fontainebleau itself, other important buildings decorated in

1651-401: A small distant view from above to one side (example below). Paul Brill's early landscapes were distinctly Mannerist in their artificiality and crowded decorative effects, but after his brother's death, he gradually evolved a more economical and realistic style, perhaps influenced by Annibale Carracci . Still-life painting, usually mostly of flowers and insects, also emerged as a genre during

1778-402: A solid masonry , brick , or stone surface. The finish coat usually contained an integral color and was typically textured for appearance. Then with the introduction and development of heavy timber and light wood-framed construction methods, stucco was adapted for this new use by adding a reinforcement lattice, or lath , attached to and spanning between the structural supports and by increasing

1905-499: A specialty of richly carved and veneered cabinets inlaid with tortoiseshell, ebony, and ivory, with architectural interiors, mirrored to multiply reflections in feigned spaces. In England the Mannerist excesses of Jacobean furniture were expressed in extreme legs turned to imitate stacked covered standing cups, and a proliferation of enlaced strapwork covered plane surfaces. Following the success of Brussels tapestries woven after

2032-480: A store by a regular customer, and the guardianship of saints . The word patron derives from the Latin patronus ('patron'), one who gives benefits to his clients (see patronage in ancient Rome ). In some countries the term is used to describe political patronage or patronal politics , which is the use of state resources to reward individuals for their electoral support. Some patronage systems are legal, as in

2159-452: A stroke, a power struggle began between Soviet Premier Alexei Rykov , Pravda editor Nikolai Bukharin , Profintern leader Mikhail Tomsky , Red Army founder Leon Trotsky , former Premier Lev Kamenev , Comintern leader Grigory Zinoviev , and General Secretary Joseph Stalin . Stalin used patronage to appoint many Stalinist delegates (such as Vyacheslav Molotov , Lazar Kaganovich , Grigory Ordzhonikidze , and Mikhail Kalinin ) to

2286-681: A style influenced by Caravaggio . For Hendrik Goltzius , the greatest printmaker of the day, his most Mannerist phase under the influence of Spranger only lasted for the five years between 1585, when he engraved his first print after one of the Spranger drawings brought from Prague by Karel van Mander , to his trip to Rome in 1590, from which he "returned a changed artist. From this time on he no longer made prints after Spranger's extravaganzas. The monstrous muscle-men and over-elongated female nudes with tiny heads ... were replaced by figures with more normal proportions and movements." Spranger's work "had

2413-419: A title for his sculptures after their completion; for him it was only the forms that mattered. Whereas the artists of both Fontainebleau and Prague were mostly provided with a home so congenial in both intellectual and physical terms that they stayed to the end of their lives, for artists of the last Netherlandish phase of the movement Mannerism was very often a phase through which they passed before moving on to

2540-422: A warmer climate (like California , Nevada , Arizona , New Mexico and Florida ), stucco is the predominant exterior for both residential and commercial construction. Stucco exterior (with wood frame interior) became a popular alternative in the southwestern United States during the 1970s, as the masonry labor costs for adobe rose. Stucco has also been used as a sculptural and artistic material. Stucco relief

2667-477: A wide and immediate effect in the Northern Netherlands", and the group known as the "Haarlem Mannerists", principally Goltzius, van Mander, and Cornelis van Haarlem was matched by artists in other cities. Partly because most of his Netherlandish followers had only seen Spranger's work through prints and his mostly very free drawings, his more painterly handling was not adopted, and they retained

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2794-492: Is meritocracy . In many Latin American countries, patronage developed as a means of population control , concentrating economic and political power in a small minority which held privileges that the majority of the population did not. In this system, the patrón holds authority and influence over a less powerful person, whom he protects by granting favors in exchange for loyalty and allegiance. With roots in feudalism ,

2921-492: Is a construction material made of aggregates , a binder , and water. Stucco is applied wet and hardens to a very dense solid. It is used as a decorative coating for walls and ceilings, exterior walls, and as a sculptural and artistic material in architecture. Stucco can be applied on construction materials such as metal , expanded metal lath , concrete , cinder block , or clay brick and adobe for decorative and structural purposes. In English, "stucco" sometimes refers to

3048-419: Is based more on use than composition. Until the latter part of the nineteenth century, it was common that mortar as well as plaster , which was used inside a building, and stucco, which was used outside, would consist of the same primary materials: lime and sand . Animal or plant fibers were often added for additional strength. Sometimes additives such as acrylics and glass fibers are added to improve

3175-576: Is combined with a preference for narrative that is more in line with Netherlandish tradition". In Flanders, though not in the United Provinces, the mostly temporary displays for royal entries provided occasional opportunities for lavish public exhibitions of Mannerist style. Festival books recorded the entries into Antwerp of French princes and Habsburg archdukes. Mannerism was dominant in Poland–Lithuania between 1550 and 1650, when it

3302-415: Is familiar in the contemporary world. This kind of system continues across many fields of the arts. Though the nature of the sponsors has changed—from churches to charitable foundations, and from aristocrats to plutocrats —the term patronage has a more neutral connotation than in politics. It may simply refer to direct support (often financial) of an artist, for example by grants . In the latter part of

3429-552: Is marked by strong activity of the Jesuits and Counter-Reformation , which led to banishing of progressive Arians ( Polish Brethren ) in 1658. See below for the German-Silesian painter Bartholomeus Strobel , Polish court artist from 1639. The importance of prints as a medium for disseminating Mannerist style has already been mentioned; Northern Mannerism "was a style that lent itself admirably to printmaking, and inspired

3556-512: Is now known only from his extraordinary etchings , though he was also a painter. His style derives from Netherlandish Mannerism, though his technique from Italian etchers, especially Barocci and Ventura Salimbeni . Unusually, his subjects were mainly religious, and though the costumes are often extravagant, suggest intense religious feelings on his part. Even later, the German- Silesian painter Bartholomeus Strobel , who had spent

3683-419: Is now remembered mainly as a writer on art rather than an artist. Though he endorsed the Italian hierarchy of genres , with history painting at the top, he was readier than Vasari and other Italian theorists (above all Michelangelo , who was brusquely dismissive of 'lower' forms of art) to accept the value of other specialized genres of art, and to accept that many artists should specialize in these, if that

3810-493: Is occasionally made fun of by sportswriters and other media. In polo , a "patron" is a person who puts together a team by hiring one or more professionals. The rest of the team may be amateurs, often including the patron themself. Also, people who attend hurling or Gaelic football games organised by the Gaelic Athletic Association are referred to as patrons. Stucco Stucco or render

3937-463: Is still in negotiation today, as there are points yet to be decided. Political patronage is not always considered corrupt. In the United States, the U.S. Constitution provides the president with the power to appoint individuals to government positions. The president also may appoint personal advisers without congressional approval. Not surprisingly, these individuals tend to be supporters of

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4064-452: Is that the empire is safe with Rudolf at the helm so that the arts and trade can flourish. The Flemish sculptor Hans Mont also worked for Rudolf and designed the triumphal arch for Rudolf II's formal entry into Vienna in 1576. Works from Rudolf's Prague were highly finished and refined, with most paintings being relatively small. The elongation of figures and strikingly complex poses of the first wave of Italian Mannerism were continued, and

4191-407: Is the support, encouragement, privilege, or financial aid that an organization or individual bestows on another. In the history of art, arts patronage refers to the support that princes , popes , and other wealthy and influential people have provided to artists such as musicians, painters, and sculptors. It can also refer to the right of bestowing offices or church benefices , the business given to

4318-436: Is very hard and brittle and can easily crack and separate from the surcface if the base on which it is applied is not stable. Typically its color was gray, from the innate color of most Portland cement, but white Portland cement is also available. Today's stucco manufacturers offer a very wide range of colors that can be mixed integrally in the finish coat. Other materials such as stone and glass chips are sometimes "dashed" onto

4445-549: Is visually extended into a heavenly architecture with a depiction of Christ , the Virgin Mary or the Last Judgment at the center. Stucco is used to form a semi-plastic extension of the real architecture that merges into the painted architecture. Because of its " aristocratic " appearance, Baroque-looking stucco decoration was used frequently in upper-class apartments of the 19th and early 20th century. Beginning in

4572-504: Is where their talent lay. Specialization of many artists in the various genres was well advanced by the end of the century, in both the Netherlands and Prague, exemplified by Bruegel's two sons, Jan and Pieter , though it was also typical of the period that they both had more than one speciality during their careers. Although landscapes, scenes of peasant life, sea-scapes and still lifes could be bought by dealers for stock, and good portraits were always in demand, demand for history painting

4699-593: The Brookings Institution , Harold Trinkunas, stated that involving the military in business was "a danger", with Trinkunas explaining that the Venezuelan military "has the greatest ability to coerce people, into business like they have". According to Bloomberg Business , "[b]y showering contracts on former military officials and pro-government business executives, Chavez put a new face on the system of patronage". There are historical examples where

4826-835: The Party Politburo and Sovnarkom in order to sway the votes in his favour, making Stalin the effective leader of the country by 1929. In 2012, the African National Congress (ANC) mayor of Beaufort West in the Western Cape Province wrote a letter that openly and illegally solicited funds from the Construction Education and Training Authority for the ANC's 2016 election campaign. This episode, amongst many others including instances revolving around President Jacob Zuma, revealed how

4953-695: The Pendleton Act in 1883, which set up the Civil Service Commission . Henceforth, applicants for most federal government jobs would have to pass an examination. Federal politicians' influence over bureaucratic appointments waned, and patronage declined as a national political issue. Beginning in 1969, a Supreme Court case in Chicago, Michael L. Shakman v. Democratic Organization of Cook County , occurred involving political patronage and its constitutionality. Shakman claimed that much of

5080-590: The Protestant Reformation , Counter-Reformation , French Wars of Religion and Dutch Revolt . The relationship between Mannerism, religion and politics was very complex. Although religious works were produced, Northern Mannerist art de-emphasized religious subjects, and when it did treat them was usually against the spirit both of the Counter-Reformation attempt to control Catholic art and Protestant views on religious imagery. In

5207-591: The Raphael Cartoons , Mannerist painters like Bernard van Orley and Perino del Vaga were called upon to design cartoons in Mannerist style for the tapestry workshops of Brussels and Fontainebleau. Painterly compositions in Mannerist taste appeared in Limoges enamels too, adapting their compositions and ornamented borders from prints. Moresques , swags and festoons of fruit inspired by rediscovered Ancient Roman grotesque ornament, first displayed in

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5334-509: The Raphael school Vatican Stanze , were disseminated through ornament prints . This ornamental vocabulary was expressed in the North less in such frescoes and more in tapestry and illuminated manuscript borders. In France, Saint-Porchaire ware of Mannerist forms and decor was produced in limited quantities for a restricted fashion-conscious clientele from the 1520s to the 1540s, while

5461-646: The United States House of Representatives , the New York City Board of Advisors, and the New York State Senate . In 1873, Tweed was convicted for diverting between $ 40 million and $ 200 million of public monies. Six months after James Garfield became president in 1881, Charles J. Guiteau , a disappointed office-seeker, assassinated him. To prevent further political violence and to assuage public outrage, Congress passed

5588-440: The arabesque reached its full maturity, carved stucco remained a very common medium for decoration and calligraphic inscriptions. Indian architecture used stucco as a material for sculpture in an architectural context. It is rare in the countryside. In Roman art of the late Republic and early Empire, stucco was used extensively for the decoration of vaults. Though marble was the preferred sculptural medium in most regards, stucco

5715-568: The legislature (as in the advice and consent of the United States Senate ); in other countries, such as those using the Westminster system , this is not the case. Other types of political patronage may violate the laws or ethics codes, such as when political leaders engage in nepotism (hiring family members) and cronyism such as fraudulently awarding non-competitive government contracts to friends or relatives or pressuring

5842-405: The prodigy houses of Elizabethan architecture made use of ornament derived from the books of Wendel Dietterlin and Hans Vredeman de Vries within a distinctive overall style derived from many sources. The portrait miniaturist Isaac Oliver shows tentative Late Mannerist influence, which also appears in some immigrant portrait painters, such as William Scrots , but generally England was one of

5969-444: The 1920s, stucco, especially in its Neo-Renaissance and Neo-Baroque materialization, became increasingly unpopular with modern architects in some countries, resulting not only in new buildings without stucco but also in a widespread Movement  [ de ] to remove the stucco from existing tenements. Stucco was still employed in the 1950s in molded forms for decorating the joints between walls and ceilings inside houses. It

6096-439: The 20th century to allow some participation in power structures, but many systems still favor a small powerful elite, who distribute economic and political favors in exchange for benefits to the lower classes. From the ancient world onward, patronage of the arts was important in art history . It is known in greatest detail in reference to medieval and Renaissance Europe, though patronage can also be traced in feudal Japan ,

6223-490: The 20th century, the academic sub-discipline of patronage studies began to evolve, in recognition of the important and often neglected role that the phenomenon of patronage had played in the cultural life of previous centuries. Charitable and other non-profit making organizations often seek one or more influential figureheads to act as patrons. The relationship often does not involve money. As well as conferring credibility, these people can use their contacts and charisma to assist

6350-547: The African National Congress as ruling political party utilized patronage to reward supporters and strengthen the leading faction of the party's control over governmental institutions. In the United States during the Gilded Age , patronage became a controversial issue. Tammany boss William M. Tweed was an American politician who ran what is considered now to have been one of the most corrupt political machines in

6477-533: The Barmakids in those times is reflected in The Book of One Thousand and One Nights ; the vizier Ja'far appears in several stories, as well as a tale that gave rise to the expression "Barmecide feast". We know of Yahya b Khalid al Barmaki (805) as a patron of physicians and, specifically, of the translation of Hindu medical works into both Arabic and Persian. In all likelihood, however, his activity took place in

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6604-473: The Baroque concept that integrates the three classic arts , architecture , sculpture , and painting . The Greco-Buddhist art of modern Afghanistan and northern Pakistan made extensive use in monasteries and temples of stucco for three-dimensional monumental sculpture as well as reliefs. These were usually carved from a rough modelling over a framework and then painted. Similar techniques are used for

6731-644: The Canadian tradition of the prime minister to appoint senators and the heads of a number of commissions and agencies; in many cases, these appointments go to people who have supported the political party of the prime minister. As well, the term may refer to a type of corruption or favoritism in which a party in power rewards groups, families, or ethnicities for their electoral support using illegal gifts or fraudulently awarded appointments or government contracts. The opposite of this structure, where all individuals advance based on their personal traits and abilities,

6858-467: The Fontainebleau prints were apparently made directly from drawn designs for the decorations of the palace, and consisted largely or entirely of ornamental frames or cartouches , although such was the scale of Fontainebleau that these might contain several full-length figures. Variations on the elaborate framings, as if made of cut, pierced and rolled parchment, played out in decorative framing schemes, engraved title pages and carved and inlaid furniture into

6985-815: The High Renaissance or the Baroque. Another subject popularized by Brughel, Saint John Preaching in the Wilderness , was given Mannerist treatments by several artists, as a lush landscape subject. But for Dutch Protestants the subject recalled the years before and during their Revolt, when they were forced to congregate for services in the open countryside outside towns controlled by the Spanish. Henry VIII of England had been spurred in emulation of Fontainebleau to import his own, rather less stellar, team of Italian and French artists to work on his new Nonsuch Palace , which also relied heavily on stuccoes, and

7112-459: The Mannerist aesthetic in the context of the French Wars of Religion . The iconography of figurative works was mostly mythological, with a strong emphasis on Diana , goddess of the hunting that was the original function of Fontainebleau, and namesake of Diane de Poitiers , mistress and muse of Henry II , and keen huntress herself. Her slim, long-legged and athletic figure "became fixed in

7239-463: The Prague of Rudolf II, an explosion of mythological imagery was produced that had not been seen since Fontainebleau". Goddesses were usually naked, or nearly so, and a more overt atmosphere of eroticism prevails than is found in most Renaissance mythological works, evidently reflecting Rudolf's "special interests". The dominating figure was Hercules , identified with the emperor, as he had earlier been with earlier Habsburg and Valois monarchs. But

7366-465: The Younger 's only surviving painting, The Last Judgement , also comments on the civil war, betraying a "typically Mannerist penchant for miniaturization". Tiny, naked human beings "swarm over the earth like worms", while God looks down in judgement from above. Cornelis van Haarlem's Massacre of the Innocents (1590, Rijksmuseum ), more Baroque than Mannerist, may involve his childhood memories of

7493-557: The age of twenty in Bologna , though selling much of his work back to Flanders. Both Marten de Vos and Otto van Veen had travelled there; Van Veen, who had actually worked in Rudolf's Prague, was the founder of the Guild of Romanists , an Antwerp club for artists who had visited Rome. They were more conscious of recent trends in Italian art, and the emergence of Baroque style, which in

7620-434: The apex of Mannerist goldsmithing, completed in 1543 for Francis I and later given to Rudolf's uncle , another great collector . Wenzel Jamnitzer and his son Hans, goldsmiths to a succession of Holy Roman Emperors, including Rudolf, were unexcelled in the north. Silversmiths made covered cups and richly wrought ewers and platters, strictly for display, perhaps incorporating the large sea-shells now being brought back from

7747-593: The arts to endorse their political ambitions, social positions, and prestige. That is, patrons operated as sponsors . Many languages have terms for patrons (such as the English "mecenate") that are derived from the name of Gaius Maecenas , generous friend and adviser to the Roman Emperor Augustus . Some patrons, such as the Medici family of Florence , used artistic patronage to "cleanse" wealth that

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7874-420: The building as well as in the wall by its excellent permeability- It is more elastic and workable than cement render. Lime itself is usually white; color comes from the aggregate or any added pigments . Lime stucco has the property of being self-healing to a limited degree because of the slight water solubility of lime (which in solution can be deposited in cracks, where it solidifies). Portland cement stucco

8001-512: The case of Rudolf's Prague and French art after the mid-century, secular and mythological Mannerist art seems to have been partly a deliberate attempt to produce an art that appealed across religious and political divides. At the same time, Mannerism at its most extreme was usually a court style, often used to propagandize for the monarchy, and it risked becoming discredited through association with unpopular rulers. While Rudolf's genuine tolerance seems to have avoided this in Germany and Bohemia , by

8128-479: The city itself. Rudolf also commissioned work from Italy, above all from Giambologna, who the Medicis would not allow to leave Florence, and four great mythological allegories were sent by Paolo Veronese . The Emperor's influence affected art in other German courts, notably Munich and Dresden , where the goldsmith and artist Johann Kellerthaler was based. Rudolf was not very interested in religion, and "in

8255-494: The countries least affected by the movement except in the area of ornament. Though Northern Mannerism achieved a landscape style, portrait-painting remained without Northern equivalents of Bronzino or Parmigianino , unless the remarkable but somewhat naive Portraiture of Elizabeth I is considered as such. One of the last flowerings of Northern Mannerism came in Lorraine , whose court painter Jacques Bellange (c.1575–1616)

8382-740: The country's history. Tweed and his corrupt associates ruled for a brief time with absolute power over the city and state of New York. At the height of his influence, Tweed was the third-largest landowner in New York City , a director of the Erie Railway , the Tenth National Bank , and the New-York Printing Company, as well as proprietor of the Metropolitan Hotel . At times he was a member of

8509-475: The crowded, disconcertingly lifelike compositions of snakes and toads characterize the Mannerist painted earthenware platters of Bernard Palissy . Like the Jamnitzers on occasion, Palissy made moulds from real small creatures and plants to apply to his creations. Northern Europe in the 16th century, and especially those areas where Mannerism was at its strongest, was affected by massive upheavals including

8636-576: The ecclesiastical provinces of Spain , in memory of the victories obtained over the Saracens, heretics and other enemies from the sixth century to the reign of Philip IV of Spain . Pope Benedict XIV ordered it to be kept in the Papal States on the third Sunday of November. To other places it is granted, on request, for some Sunday in November, to be designated by the ordinary . In many places,

8763-515: The elegant distance of Bronzino 's figures was mediated through the works of the absent Giambologna, who represented the ideal of the style. Prints were essential to disseminate the style to Europe, Germany and the Low Countries in particular, and some printmakers, like the greatest of the period, Hendrik Goltzius , worked from drawings sent from Prague, while others, like Aegidius Sadeler who lived in Spranger's house, had been tempted to

8890-568: The end of the century Mannerism had become associated by the Calvinist Protestants and other patriots of France and the Netherlands with their unpopular Catholic rulers. But, at least earlier, many of the artists producing extreme Mannerist style were Protestant, and in France Calvinist, for example Bernard Palissy and a high proportion of the masters of Limoges enamel workshops. Certain Mannerist works seem to echo

9017-414: The erotic imaginary". Other parts of Northern Europe did not have the advantage of such intense contact with Italian artists, but the Mannerist style made its presence felt through prints and illustrated books, the purchases of Italian works by rulers and others, artists' travels to Italy, and the example of individual Italian artists working in the North. Much of the most important work at Fontainebleau

9144-560: The existing patronage system. Boliburguesía is a term that was coined by journalist Juan Carlos Zapata in order to "define the oligarchy that has developed under the protection of the Chavez government ". During Hugo Chávez's tenure, he seized thousands of properties and businesses while also reducing the footprint of foreign companies. Venezuela's economy was then largely state-run and was operated by military officers that had their business and government affairs connected. Senior fellow at

9271-581: The feast of the Patronage is held with an additional Marian title of Queen of All Saints, of Mercy, Mother of Graces . The Office is taken entirely from the Common of the Blessed Virgin, and the Mass is the "Salve sancta parens". The Church Patronage (Scotland) Act 1711 , (in force until 1874) resulted in multiple secessions from the Church of Scotland , including the secession of 1733 , which led to

9398-458: The finish coat before drying, with the finished product commonly known as "rock dash", "pebble dash", or also as roughcast if the stones are incorporated directly into the stucco, used mainly from the early 20th through the early 21st centuries. As a building material, stucco is a durable, attractive, and weather-resistant wall covering. It was traditionally used as both an interior and exterior finish applied in one or two thin layers directly over

9525-504: The form of the first School of Fontainebleau , where from 1530 several Florentine artists of quality were hired to decorate the royal Palace of Fontainebleau , with some French assistants being taken on. The most notable imports were Rosso Fiorentino (Giovanni Battista di Jacopo di Gaspare, 1494–1540), Francesco Primaticcio ( c.  1505 –1570), Niccolò dell'Abbate ( c.  1509 –1571), all of whom remained in France until their deaths. This conjunction succeeded in generating

9652-797: The formation of the Associate Presbytery, the secession of 1761 , which led to the formation of the Relief Church , and the Disruption of 1843 , which led to the formation of the Free Church of Scotland . While most news companies, particularly in North America are funded through advertising revenue, secondary funding sources include audience members and philanthropists who donate to for-profit and non-profit organizations. Political leaders have at their disposal

9779-458: The hands of Van Veen's pupil from 1594 to 1598, Rubens , would soon sweep over Flemish art. In religious works, Flemish artists were also subject to the decrees of the Council of Trent , leading to a reaction against the more extreme virtuosities of Mannerism and to a clearer, more monumental style akin to the Italian maniera grande . In the retables of de Vos, for example, "a tempered Mannerism

9906-482: The hands, when the best "give an aesthetic stimulus of that involuntary kind that sometimes comes from listening to music". Plaquettes , small low relief panels in bronze, often gilded, were used in various settings, as on Rudolph's crown. Female sphinxes with extravagantly elongated necks and prominent breasts support a Burgundian cabinet of walnut in the Frick Collection , New York; soon Antwerp made

10033-471: The killings (in fact only of the garrison) after the Siege of Haarlem in 1572–3, which he lived through. Brughel's completely un-mannerist version of the same subject was bought by Rudolf, who had someone turn many of the massacred children into geese, calves, cheeses, and other less disturbing spoils. In general, Mannerist painting emphasizes peace and harmony, and less often chooses battle subjects than either

10160-568: The last an important figure in the Early Baroque. Most still painted Netherlandish panoramas from a high view-point, with small figures forming a specific subject, but Gillis van Coninxloo followed the earlier Danube School and Albrecht Altdorfer in developing the pure and "close-up" forest landscape in his works from about 1600, which was taken up by his pupil Roelandt Savery and others. Bloemaert painted many landscapes reconciling these types by combining close-up trees, with figures, and

10287-735: The last years of Rudolf's reign as a young artist in Prague, continued the Rudolfine style into the 1640s, despite the horrors visited on Silesia by the Thirty Years War , in works such as his enormous Feast of Herod with the Beheading of St John the Baptist in the Prado . From 1634 he retreated to the safety of Poland as court artist. French artists influenced by the first School of Fontainebleau: Patronage Patronage

10414-472: The life-size statues decorating the gopurams of Hindu temples in modern South Asia . Since stucco can be used for decoration as well as for figurative representation, it provides an ideal transitive link from architectural details to wall paintings such as the typically Baroque trompe-l'œil ceilings, as in the work of the Wessobrunner School . Here, the real architecture of the church

10541-547: The new century, under the new influence of Caravaggio and the early Baroque , but in architecture and the decorative arts, its influence was more sustained. The sophisticated art of Italian Mannerism begins during the High Renaissance of the 1520s as a development of, a reaction against, and an attempt to excel, the serenely balanced triumphs of that style. As art historian Henri Zerner explains: "The concept of Mannerism—so important to modern criticism and notably to

10668-521: The noble classes financed scientific pursuits. Many Barmakids were patrons of the sciences, which greatly helped the propagation of Indian science and scholarship from the neighboring Academy of Gundishapur into the Arabic world. They patronized scholars such as Jabir ibn Hayyan and Jabril ibn Bukhtishu . They are also credited with the establishment of the first paper mill in Baghdad. The power of

10795-572: The orbit of the caliphal court in Iraq, where at the behest of Harun al Rashid (786 -809), such books were translated into Arabic. Thus Khurasan and Transoxania were effectively bypassed in this transfer of learning from India to Islam, even though, undeniably the Barmakis cultural outlook owed something to their land of origin, northern Afghanistan, and Yahya al Barmaki's interest in medicine may have derived from no longer identifiable family tradition. In

10922-413: The organization to raise funds or to affect government policy. The British royal family are especially prolific in this respect, devoting a large proportion of their time to a wide range of causes. Sometimes consumers support smaller or local businesses or corporations out of loyalty even if less expensive options exist. Their regular custom is referred to as 'patronage'. Patronage may entitle members of

11049-504: The other gods were not neglected; their conjunctions and transformations had significance in Renaissance Neo-Platonism and Hermeticism that were taken more seriously in Rudolf's Prague than any other Renaissance court. It seems, however, that the painted allegories from Prague contain neither very specific complicated meanings, nor hidden recipes for alchemy. Giambologna frequently chose, or let someone else choose,

11176-441: The patronage going on in Chicago politics was unlawful on the grounds of the first and fourteenth amendments. Through a series of legal battles and negotiations, the two parties agreed upon The Shakman Decrees . Under these decrees, it was declared that the employment status of most public employees could not be affected positively or negatively based on political allegiance, with exceptions for politically inclined positions. The case

11303-544: The period, re-purposing the inherited tradition of late Netherlandish miniature borders; Jan Brueghel the Elder also painted these. Such subjects appealed to both aristocratic patrons and the bourgeois market, which was far larger in the Netherlands. This was especially so in the Protestant north, after the movement of populations in the Revolt, where the demand for religious works was largely absent. Joris Hoefnagel ,

11430-429: The plaster something to attach to and to add strength. Types include expanded-metal lath, woven-wire lath, and welded-wire lath. If applied during very dry weather, the layers of stucco are sprayed with water for one or more days to keep a level of moisture within the stucco while it cures, a process known as "moist curing". If the stucco dries too soon, the chemical hardening ("hydration") will be incomplete, resulting in

11557-409: The porous stucco. Following World War II , the introduction of metal wire mesh , or netting, replaced the use of wood lath. Galvanizing the wire made it corrosion resistant and suitable for exterior wall applications. At the beginning of the 21st century, this "traditional" method of wire mesh lath and three coats of exterior plaster was still widely used. In some parts of the United States with

11684-522: The president. Similarly, at the state and local levels, governors and mayors retain appointments powers. Some scholars have argued that patronage may be used for laudable purposes, such as the "recognition" of minority communities through the appointment of their members to a high-profile position. Bearfield has argued that patronage be used for four general purposes: create or strengthen a political organization; achieve democratic or egalitarian goals; bridge political divisions and create coalitions, and to alter

11811-475: The printmaking at Fontainebleau, and the prints made there (unusually for the period, all in etching ) were technically rather rough, produced in smaller numbers, and mainly influential in France. They were made in an intense period of activity approximately from 1542 to 1548. Those made in Paris were engravings and of a higher quality; produced from about 1540 to about 1580, they had a wider distribution. Many of

11938-424: The problem became more acute, as much Northern work continued to gradually assimilate aspects of Renaissance style, while the most advanced Italian art had spiralled into an atmosphere of self-conscious sophistication and complexity that must have seemed a world apart to Northern patrons and artists, but enjoyed a reputation and prestige that could not be ignored. France received a direct injection of Italian style in

12065-444: The production of a succession of masterpieces of the printmaker's art". Goltzius was already the most celebrated engraver in the Netherlands when the Mannerist virus struck, and despite the disruptions of war he and other Netherlandish printmakers were connected with the well-oiled machinery of distribution across Europe that had been built up over the preceding fifty years, originally centred on Antwerp . The same had not been true for

12192-838: The public service to hire an unqualified family member or friend. Political patronage, also known as " padrino system ", has been the source of many controversies and corruption . It has been an open secret that one cannot join the political arena of the Philippines without mastery of the padrino system. From the lowest barangay official to the President of the Republic , it is expected that one gains political debts and dispenses political favor to advance one's career or gain influence, if not wealth. After Soviet leader Vladimir Lenin 's retirement from politics in March 1923 following

12319-563: The purest known type of Mannerism in its elegant form, appropriate to an exquisite but neurotic aristocratic society". His cartoons for the Valois Tapestries , which hark back to the triumphalist History of Scipio tapestries designed for Francis I by Giulio Romano , were a propaganda exercise on behalf of the Valois monarchy, emphasizing its courtly splendour at the time of its threatened destruction through civil war. Jean Cousin

12446-400: The regular Turkish invasions, and during his reign of 1576–1612 Rudolf was to become an obsessive collector of old and new art, his artists mixing with the astronomers, clockmakers, botanists, and "wizards, alchemists and kabbalists" whom Rudolf also gathered around him. Rudolf's artistic preferences were for mythological scenes with nudes as well as allegorical propaganda pieces which extolled

12573-580: The renewed taste for Fontainebleau art—designates a style in opposition to the classicism of the Italian Renaissance embodied above all by Andrea del Sarto in Florence and Raphael in Rome". The High Renaissance was a purely Italian phenomenon, and Italian Mannerism required both artists and an audience highly trained in the preceding Renaissance styles, whose conventions were often flouted in

12700-578: The same manner as commercial patronage, those who attend a sporting event may be referred to as patrons, though the usage in much of the world is now considered archaic—with some notable exceptions. Those who attend the Masters Tournament , one of the four major championships of professional golf , are still traditionally referred to as "patrons," largely at the insistence of the Augusta National Golf Club . This insistence

12827-606: The seventeenth century. Printed Mannerist ornament, in a somewhat broader sense of the word, was a good deal easier to produce than the risky application of an extreme Mannerist style to large figure compositions, and had been spreading across Europe well in advance of painting in the form of frames to portrait prints, book frontispieces , so like the elaborate doorways and fireplaces of Mannerist architecture, ornament books for artists and craftsmen, and emblem books . From these and works in their own medium, goldsmiths, frame and furniture makers, and workers in many other crafts developed

12954-486: The structural framing, is embedded into the base coat to provide stiffening for the stucco. Where stucco is to be applied to a structure of wood-framing or light-gauge steel framing, the framing is protected from moisture damage by applying a cement based primer, or a vapor-permeable, water-resistant weather barrier; typically an asphalt -saturated paper or one of a variety of manufactured plastic-based sheets, known as " building wraps " or "stucco wraps". The properties of

13081-487: The structural properties of the stucco. This is usually done with what is considered a one-coat stucco system, as opposed to the traditional three-coat method. In the latter nineteenth century, Portland cement was added with increasing frequency to cover surfaces in contact with soil or water. At the same time, traditional lime plasters were often being replaced by gypsum plaster. Lime is almost as good in balancing humidity as clay. It prevents moisture accumulation inside

13208-547: The style were the Château d'Anet (1547–52) for Diane de Poitiers, and parts of the Palais du Louvre . Catherine de' Medici's patronage of the arts promoted the Mannerist style, except in portraiture, and her court festivities were the only regular northern ones to rival the intermedios and entries of the Medici court in Florence; all of which relied heavily on the visual arts. After an interlude when work on Fontainebleau

13335-423: The support of noble or ecclesiastical patrons. Figures as late as Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Ludwig van Beethoven also participated in the system to some degree; it was only with the rise of bourgeois and capitalist social forms in the middle 19th century that European culture moved away from its patronage system to the more publicly supported system of museums, theaters, mass audiences and mass consumption that

13462-446: The system was designed to maintain an inexpensive, subservient labor force, which could be utilized to limit production costs and allow wealth and its privileges to be monopolized by a small elite. Long after slavery , and other forms of bondage like the encomienda and repartimiento systems were abolished, patronage was used to maintain rigid class structures. With the rise of a labor class, traditional patronage changed in

13589-493: The thickness and number of layers of the total system. The lath added support for the wet plaster and tensile strength to the brittle, cured stucco; while the increased thickness and number of layers helped control cracking. The traditional application of stucco and lath occurs in three coats—the scratch coat, the brown coat and the finish coat. The two base coats of plaster are either hand-applied or machine sprayed. The finish coat can be troweled smooth, hand-textured, floated to

13716-826: The tighter and more realistic technique in which they had been trained. Many Dutch mannerist painters could switch styles depending on subject or commission, and continued to produce portraits and genre scenes in styles based on local traditions at the same time they were working on highly Mannerist paintings. After his return from Italy, Goltzius moved to a quieter proto-Baroque classicism, and his work in that style influenced many. Joachim Wtewael , who settled in Utrecht after returning from Italy in 1590, drew more influence from Italian Mannerists than from Prague, and also continued to produce kitchen scenes and portraits alongside his naked deities. Unlike many, notably his fellow Utrechter Abraham Bloemaert , once Wtewael's repertoire of styles

13843-447: The traditional Southeast Asian kingdoms, and elsewhere—art patronage tended to arise wherever a royal or imperial system and an aristocracy dominated a society and controlled a significant share of resources. Samuel Johnson defined a patron as "one who looks with unconcern on a man struggling for life in the water, and, when he has reached ground, encumbers him with help". Rulers, nobles, and very wealthy people used patronage of

13970-482: The tropics, which were "cherished as Art produced by Nature". In the Netherlands a uniquely anamorphic " auricular style ", employing writhing and anti-architectural cartilaginous motifs was developed by the van Vianen family of silversmiths. Though Mannerist sculptors produced life-size bronzes, the bulk of their output by unit was of editions of small bronzes, often reduced versions of the large compositions, which were intended to be appreciated by holding and turning in

14097-577: The violence of the time, but dressed in classical clothing. Antoine Caron painted the unusual subject of Massacres under the Triumvirate (1562, Louvre), during the Wars of Religion, when massacres were a frequent occurrence, above all in the Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre of 1572, six years after the painting. According to art historian Anthony Blunt , Caron produced "what is perhaps

14224-488: The virtues of himself as ruler. A work combining the elements of eroticism and propaganda is Minerva triumphs over Ignorance ( Kunsthistorisches Museum ), which shows Minverva (the Roman goddess of war, wisdom, arts and trade) with exposed breasts and a helmet treading down Ignorance, symbolised by a man with the ears of an ass. Bellona , another Roman goddess of war, and the nine Muses surround Minerva. The propaganda message

14351-565: The vocabulary of Mannerist ornament all over Europe, spread by ornament books and prints by Androuet du Cerceau and others—Rosso seems to have been the originator of the style. A number of areas in the decorative arts joined in the style, especially where there were customers from the court. High-style walnut furniture made in metropolitan centers like Paris and Dijon, employed strapwork framing and sculptural supports in dressoirs and buffets . The mysterious and sophisticated Saint-Porchaire ware , of which only about sixty pieces survive, brought

14478-604: The vocabulary of Mannerist ornament. The pattern illustrations shown in Wendel Dietterlin 's book Architectura of 1593–94, produced in the relative backwater of Strasbourg , were some of the most extreme application of the style to architectural ornament. The Northern Mannerist style was especially influential in the prodigy houses built in England by Elizabethan courtiers. The visual wit and sophistication of Mannerism in northern hands, which made it pre-eminently

14605-404: The weather barrier must not only protect the framing from rain and moisture, but at the same time allow the free passage of any water vapor generated inside the building to escape through the wall. A wide variety of stucco accessories, such as weep screeds , control and expansion joints, corner-aids and architectural reveals are sometimes also incorporated into the lath. Wire lath is used to give

14732-474: The world of late-Renaissance philosophy than they seem now. At the end of his reign he devised a project for a new palace and just before he died the young Flemish painter Bartholomeus Spranger had been summoned from Rome, where he had made a successful career. Maximilian's son, Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor was to prove an even better patron than his father would have been, and Spranger never left his service. The court soon transferred to Prague , safer from

14859-542: Was abandoned at the height of the French Wars of Religion, a "Second School of Fontainebleau" was formed from local artists in the 1590s. Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor (reigned 1564–1576), who made his base in Vienna , had humanist and artistic tastes, and patronised a number of artists, mostly famously Giambologna and Giuseppe Arcimboldo , whose fantasy portraits made up of objects were slightly more serious in

14986-422: Was better for use in vaults because it was lighter and better suited to adapt to the curvature of the ceiling. Baroque and Rococo architecture makes heavy use of stucco. Examples can be found in churches and palaces, where stucco is mostly used to provide a smooth, decorative transition from walls to ceiling, decorating and giving measure to ceiling surfaces. Stucco is an integral part of the art of belcomposto ,

15113-449: Was decorated from about 1541. But Henry died before it was completed and a decade later it was sold by his daughter Mary without ever having seen major use by the court. The palace was destroyed before 1700 and only small fragments of work associated with it have survived, as well as a faint ripple of influence detectable in later English art , for example in the grand but unsophisticated stuccoes at Hardwick Hall . Some (but not all) of

15240-474: Was finally replaced by the Baroque. The style includes various mannerist traditions, which are closely related with ethnic and religious diversity of the country, as well as with its economic and political situation at that time. The period between 1550 and 1650 was a Golden Age of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (created in 1569) and a Golden Age of Poland. The first half of the 17th century

15367-470: Was formed, he never changed it until his death in 1631. For painters in the Low Countries there was also the alternative of traditional Northern realist styles, which had continued to develop through Pieter Bruegel the Elder (d.1567) and other artists, and in the next century were to dominate the painting of the Dutch Golden Age . Despite his visit to Italy, Brughel certainly cannot be called

15494-453: Was generally painted the same colour as the ceiling and used in designs where a picture rail or rat rail was in use. Modern stucco is used as an exterior cement plaster wall covering. It is usually a mix of sand , Portland cement , lime and water, but may also consist of a proprietary mix of additives including fibers and synthetic acrylics that add strength and flexibility. Modern synthetic stucco can be applied as one base layer and

15621-466: Was in the form of stucco reliefs , often executed by French artists to drawings by the Italians (and then reproduced in prints), and the Fontainebleau style affected French sculpture more strongly than French painting. The huge stucco frames which dominate their inset paintings with bold high-relief strapwork , swags of fruit, and generous staffage of naked nymph-like figures, were very influential on

15748-449: Was more thoroughly influenced by Italian art of the High Renaissance, and aspects of Mannerism, and many of its leading exponents had travelled to Italy. Netherlandish painting had been generally the most advanced in northern Europe since before 1400, and the best Netherlandish artists were better able than those of other regions to keep up with Italian developments, though lagging at a distance. For each succeeding generations of artists,

15875-513: Was not equal to the potential supply, and many artists, like Cornelius Ketel , were forced to specialize in portraiture; "artists travel along this road without delight", according to van Mander. The Mannerist painters in the now permanently separated southern provinces of Habsburg Flanders in fact were less influenced by Prague than those in the United Provinces . They had more easy access to Italy, where Denis Calvaert lived from

16002-783: Was perceived as ill-gotten through usury . Art patronage was especially important in the creation of religious art . The Roman Catholic Church and later Protestant groups sponsored art and architecture , as seen in churches , cathedrals , painting , sculpture and handicrafts . While sponsorship of artists and the commissioning of artwork is the best-known aspect of the patronage system, other disciplines also benefited from patronage, including those who studied natural philosophy ( pre-modern science ), musicians , writers , philosophers , alchemists , astrologers , and other scholars . Artists as diverse and important as Chrétien de Troyes , Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo , William Shakespeare , and Ben Jonson all sought and enjoyed

16129-479: Was used in the architectural decoration schemes of many ancient cultures. Examples of Egyptian , Minoan , and Etruscan stucco reliefs remain extant. In the art of Mesopotamia and ancient Persian art there was a widespread tradition of figurative and ornamental internal stucco reliefs, which continued into Islamic art , for example in Abbasid Samarra , now using geometrical and plant-based ornament. As

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