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109-421: Ham is pork from a leg cut that has been preserved by wet or dry curing , with or without smoking . As a processed meat , the term ham includes both whole cuts of meat and ones that have been mechanically formed. Ham is made around the world, including a number of regional specialties. In addition, numerous ham products have specific geographical naming protection. The preserving of pork leg as ham has

218-404: A smokehouse or an atomized spray of liquid smoke such that the product appearance is equivalent; a " hickory -smoked" ham must have been smoked using only hickory. However, injecting "smoke flavor" is not legal grounds for claiming the ham was "smoked"; these are labeled "smoke flavor added". Hams can only be labeled "honey-cured" if honey was at least 50% of the sweetener used, is at least 3% of

327-475: A chemical uncoupler similarly to UCP1, was used for weight loss in the 1930s. However, it was quickly discontinued when excessive dosing led to adverse side effects including hyperthermia and death. β 3 -adrenergic agonists , like CL316,243, have also been developed and tested in humans. However, the use of such drugs has proven largely unsuccessful due to several challenges, including varying species receptor specificity and poor oral bioavailability . Cold

436-657: A cold environment, the same adipocytes will adopt a beige phenotype, suggesting that beige adipocytes are retained. Transcriptional regulators, as well as a growing number of other factors, regulate the induction of beige fat. Four regulators of transcription are central to WAT browning and serve as targets for many of the molecules known to influence this process. These include peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) , PRDM16 , peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1 alpha (PGC-1α) , and Early B-Cell Factor-2 (EBF2). The list of molecules that influence browning has grown in direct proportion to

545-639: A common cause of illness, Yersinia enterocolitica —which causes gastroenteritis—is present in various foods, but is most frequently caused by eating uncooked or undercooked pork and can grow in refrigerated conditions. The bacteria can be killed by heat. Nearly all outbreaks in the US have been traced to pork. Pork may be the reservoir responsible for sporadic, locally acquired cases of acute hepatitis E (HEV) reported in regions with relatively mild climates. It has been found to transmit between swine and humans. Trichinosis, also called trichinellosis, or trichiniasis,

654-431: A different role in diet-induced obesity in rodents and humans. Because adipocytes produce leptin, leptin levels are elevated in the obese. However, hunger remains, and—when leptin levels drop due to weight loss—hunger increases. The drop of leptin is better viewed as a starvation signal than the rise of leptin as a satiety signal. However, elevated leptin in obesity is known as leptin resistance . The changes that occur in

763-417: A glue-like web that supports the intestines and the omental depot (which originates near the stomach and spleen ) and - when massive - extends into the ventral abdomen. Both the mesenteric and omental depots incorporate much lymphoid tissue as lymph nodes and milky spots , respectively. The two superficial depots are the paired inguinal depots, which are found anterior to the upper segment of

872-424: A large degree why central obesity is a marker of impaired glucose tolerance and is an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease (even in the absence of diabetes mellitus and hypertension ). Studies of female monkeys at Wake Forest University (2009) discovered that individuals with higher stress have higher levels of visceral fat in their bodies. This suggests a possible cause-and-effect link between

981-449: A larger effect on visceral fat versus total fat. High-intensity exercise is one way to effectively reduce total abdominal fat. An energy-restricted diet combined with exercise will reduce total body fat and the ratio of visceral adipose tissue to subcutaneous adipose tissue, suggesting a preferential mobilization for visceral fat over subcutaneous fat. Epicardial adipose tissue (EAT) is a particular form of visceral fat deposited around

1090-437: A larger portion of the population than leptin mutations. Adipose tissue has a density of ~0.9 g/ml. Thus, a person with more adipose tissue will float more easily than a person of the same weight with more muscular tissue , since muscular tissue has a density of 1.06 g/ml. A body fat meter is a tool used to measure the body fat to weight ratio in the human body. Different meters use various methods to determine

1199-589: A long history, with traces of production of cured ham among the Etruscan civilization known in the 6th and 5th century BC. Cato the Elder wrote about the "salting of hams" in his De agri cultura tome around 160 BC. There are claims that the Chinese were the first people to mention the production of cured ham. Larousse Gastronomique claims an origin from Gaul . It was certainly well established by

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1308-544: A number of enzymatic reactions. The enzymes involved are proteinases ( cathepsins – B , D , H & L , and calpains ) and exopeptidases ( peptidase and aminopeptidase ). These enzymes cause proteolysis of muscle tissue, which creates large numbers of small peptides and free amino acids , while the adipose tissue undergoes lipolysis to create free fatty acids. Salt and phosphates act as strong inhibitors of proteolytic activity . Animal factors influencing enzymatic activity include age, weight, and breed. During

1417-555: A part of the USDA, currently recommends cooking ground pork to 71 °C (160 °F) and whole cuts to 63 °C (145 °F) followed by a 3-minute rest. Pigs can be carriers of various helminths , such as roundworms , pinworms , hookworms . One of the more common is Taenia solium , a type of tapeworm , which may transplant to the intestines of humans after consuming undercooked meat. Raw and undercooked pork can also cause other diseases, such as toxoplasmosis . Although not

1526-663: A pork menu option because Muslims, Jews and Hindus do not consume pork and it had seemed inconsistent with the purpose of bringing together persons of different faiths, though after the complaints raised by the Orthodox community a pork alternative was added. Pork is known to carry some diseases such as pork tapeworm and trichinosis and pigbel , thus uncooked or undercooked pork can be dangerous to consume, although raw pork products are sometimes still consumed in Central European and Eastern European countries of which

1635-467: A significant non-Muslim population. The Qur'anic basis for the Islamic prohibition of pork can be found in surah 2:173 , 5:3 , 6:145 and 16:115 . He has only forbidden you ˹to eat˺ carrion , blood, swine, and what is slaughtered in the name of any other than Allah. But if someone is compelled by necessity—neither driven by desire nor exceeding immediate need—they will not be sinful. Surely Allah

1744-442: A similar manner to bacon . Pork Pork is the culinary name for the meat of the pig ( Sus domesticus ). It is the second-most commonly consumed meat worldwide, with evidence of pig husbandry dating back to 5000 BCE. Pork is eaten both freshly cooked and preserved; curing extends the shelf life of pork products. Ham , gammon , bacon , and pork sausage are examples of preserved pork. Charcuterie

1853-474: A succulent finish. Many brands of American hot dogs and most breakfast sausages are made from pork. Processing of pork into sausages and other products in France is described as charcuterie . Ham and bacon are made from fresh pork by curing with salt ( pickling ) or smoking . Shoulders and legs are most commonly cured in this manner for Picnic shoulder and ham , whereas streaky and round bacon come from

1962-520: A wide variety of cuts and flavours, and is predominantly known as "streaky bacon", or "streaky rashers". Bacon made from the meat on the back of the pig is referred to as " back bacon " and is part of traditional full breakfasts commonly eaten in Britain and Ireland . In the United States, back bacon may also be referred to as "Canadian-style Bacon" or "Canadian Bacon". The canned meat Spam

2071-600: Is All-Forgiving, Most Merciful. Forbidden to you are carrion , blood, and swine; what is slaughtered in the name of any other than Allah; what is killed by strangling, beating, a fall, or by being gored to death; what is partly eaten by a predator unless you slaughter it; and what is sacrificed on altars . You are also forbidden to draw lots for decisions. This is all evil. Today the disbelievers have given up all hope of ˹undermining˺ your faith. So do not fear them; fear Me! Today I have perfected your faith for you, completed My favour upon you, and chosen Islam as your way. But whoever

2180-523: Is All-Forgiving, Most Merciful.” He has only forbidden you ˹to eat˺ carrion, blood, swine, and what is slaughtered in the name of any other than Allah. But if someone is compelled by necessity—neither driven by desire nor exceeding immediate need—then surely Allah is All-Forgiving, Most Merciful. While most Christians do consume pork, some sects prohibit it based on Leviticus chapter 11, Deuteronomy chapter 14, and Isaiah chapters 65 and 66. Some denominations that forbid pork consumption are: When pork

2289-404: Is a parasitic disease caused by eating raw or undercooked pork infected with the larvae of a species of roundworm Trichinella spiralis , commonly called the trichina worm. Infection was once very common, but is now rare in the developed world . From 2002 to 2007, an annual average of 11 cases per year were reported in the United States; the majority were from consuming wild game or the source

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2398-532: Is a "flitch" or "slab bacon", while an individual slice of bacon is a "rasher" (Australia, Ireland, New Zealand and the United Kingdom) or simply a "slice" or "strip" (North America). Slices of bacon are also known as " collops ". Traditionally, the skin is left on the cut and is known as "bacon rind". Rindless bacon, however, is quite common. In both Ireland and the United Kingdom , bacon comes in

2507-433: Is a compound foodstuff or ingredient, being made up of the original meat, as well as the remnants of the preserving agent(s), such as salt, but it is still recognised as a food in its own right. Ham is produced by curing raw pork by salting , also known as dry curing, or brining , also known as wet curing. Additionally, smoking may be employed, and seasonings may be added. Traditional dry cure hams may use only salt as

2616-406: Is a method used to identify protein binding sites on DNA and assess histone modifications. This tool has enabled examination of epigenetic regulation of browning and helps elucidate the mechanisms by which protein-DNA interactions stimulate the differentiation of beige adipocytes. Studies observing the chromatin landscapes of beige adipocytes have found that adipogenesis of these cells results from

2725-495: Is a national delicacy. China was the largest producer of pork in the world in 2020 followed by the European Union and the United States. China, EU and the United States accounted for roughly 76% of the world's pork production as per FAS / USDA Pork may be cooked from fresh meat or cured over time. Cured meat products include ham and bacon . The carcass may be used in many different ways for fresh meat cuts , with

2834-493: Is a poorly understood adipose depot that resides in the bone and is interspersed with hematopoietic cells as well as bony elements. The adipocytes in this depot are derived from mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) which can give rise to fat cells, bone cells as well as other cell types. The fact that MAT increases in the setting of calorie restriction/ anorexia is a feature that distinguishes this depot from other fat depots. Exercise regulates MAT, decreasing MAT quantity and diminishing

2943-453: Is a primary regulator of BAT processes and induces WAT browning. Browning in response to chronic cold exposure has been well documented and is a reversible process. A study in mice demonstrated that cold-induced browning can be completely reversed in 21 days, with measurable decreases in UCP1 seen within a 24-hour period. A study by Rosenwald et al. revealed that when the animals are re-exposed to

3052-474: Is also linked to type 2 diabetes , insulin resistance , inflammatory diseases , and other obesity-related diseases. Likewise, the accumulation of neck fat (or cervical adipose tissue) has been shown to be associated with mortality. Several studies have suggested that visceral fat can be predicted from simple anthropometric measures, and predicts mortality more accurately than body mass index or waist circumference. Men are more likely to have fat stored in

3161-400: Is an active part of the endocrine system, secreting the hormones leptin and resistin . The relationship between the subcutaneous adipose layer and total body fat in a person is often modelled by using regression equations. The most popular of these equations was formed by Durnin and Wormersley, who rigorously tested many types of skinfold, and, as a result, created two formulae to calculate

3270-560: Is associated with an improvement of the function of those organs. In the latter case, non-invasive weight loss interventions like diet or exercise can decrease ectopic fat (particularly in heart and liver) in overweight or obese children and adults. Free fatty acids (FFAs) are liberated from lipoproteins by lipoprotein lipase (LPL) and enter the adipocyte, where they are reassembled into triglycerides by esterifying them onto glycerol . Human fat tissue contains from 61% to 94% lipids , with obese and lean individuals tending towards

3379-493: Is associated with insulin resistance in type-2 diabetes. It is stored in relatively high amounts around the organs of the abdominal cavity , but is not to be confused with visceral fat. The specific cause for the accumulation of ectopic fat is unknown. The cause is likely a combination of genetic, environmental, and behavioral factors that are involved in excess energy intake and decreased physical activity. Substantial weight loss can reduce ectopic fat stores in all organs and this

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3488-422: Is compelled by extreme hunger—not intending to sin—then surely Allah is All-Forgiving, Most Merciful. Say, ˹O Prophet,˺ “I do not find in what has been revealed to me anything forbidden to eat except carrion, running blood, swine—which is impure—or a sinful offering in the name of any other than Allah. But if someone is compelled by necessity—neither driven by desire nor exceeding immediate need—then surely your Lord

3597-553: Is composed of several adipose depots, including mesenteric , epididymal white adipose tissue (EWAT), and perirenal depots. Visceral fat is often expressed in terms of its area in cm (VFA, visceral fat area). An excess of visceral fat is known as abdominal obesity , or "belly fat", in which the abdomen protrudes excessively. New developments such as the Body Volume Index (BVI) are specifically designed to measure abdominal volume and abdominal fat. Excess visceral fat

3706-401: Is controlled through the balanced control of lipolytic B-adrenergic receptors and a2A-adrenergic receptor-mediated antilipolysis. Fat cells have an important physiological role in maintaining triglyceride and free fatty acid levels, as well as determining insulin resistance . Abdominal fat has a different metabolic profile—being more prone to induce insulin resistance. This explains to

3815-607: Is implicated in the chronic release of pro-inflammatory markers known as adipokines , which are responsible for the development of metabolic syndrome —a constellation of diseases including type 2 diabetes , cardiovascular disease and atherosclerosis . Adipose tissue is derived from preadipocytes and its formation appears to be controlled in part by the adipose gene . The two types of adipose tissue are white adipose tissue (WAT), which stores energy, and brown adipose tissue (BAT), which generates body heat. Adipose tissue—more specifically brown adipose tissue—was first identified by

3924-429: Is located inside the abdominal cavity , packed between the organs (stomach, liver, intestines, kidneys, etc.). Visceral fat is different from subcutaneous fat underneath the skin , and intramuscular fat interspersed in skeletal muscles . Fat in the lower body, as in thighs and buttocks, is subcutaneous and is not consistently spaced tissue, whereas fat in the abdomen is mostly visceral and semi-fluid. Visceral fat

4033-454: Is lower than that of beef, but much higher than that of chicken, so the USDA treats pork as a red meat . In 1987, the U.S. National Pork Board began an advertising campaign to position pork as " the other white meat "—due to a public perception of chicken and turkey (white meat) as healthier than red meat. The campaign was highly successful and resulted in 87% of consumers identifying pork with

4142-414: Is made of chopped pork shoulder meat and ham. Due to the fact that pigs can eat unused food originally meant for humans, and due to the high availability of such food in many industrialized countries, pork and other products from pigs have become securely sourced and low-priced commodities. This makes pig products very popular as raw material in many industrially produced products. Its myoglobin content

4251-399: Is preferred over beef for economic and aesthetic reasons; the pig is easy to feed and is not used for labour. The colours of the meat and the fat of pork are regarded as more appetizing, while the taste and smell are described as sweeter and cleaner. It is also considered easier to digest. In rural tradition, pork is shared to celebrate important occasions and to form bonding. In China, pork

4360-451: Is primarily located around the neck and large blood vessels of the thorax , where it may effectively act in heat exchange. BAT is robustly activated upon cold exposure by the release of catecholamines from sympathetic nerves that results in UCP1 activation. Nearly half of the nerves present in adipose tissue are sensory neurons connected to the dorsal root ganglia . BAT activation may also occur in response to overfeeding. UCP1 activity

4469-499: Is quicker than traditional brining, normally being completed in a few days. Wet-cured ham is usually cooked, either during processing, or after ageing. It is first brined, then cooked in a container and finally surface pasteurized. Italian regulations allow it to contain salt, nitrites, sugar, dextrose, fructose, lactose, maltodextrin, milk protein, soy protein, natural or modified starches, spices, gelatin, and flavorings. Ham can also be additionally preserved through smoking , in which

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4578-648: Is rapidly gaining popularity as a therapeutic target for the treatment of obesity and diabetes. DNA microarray is a bioinformatics tool used to quantify expression levels of various genes simultaneously, and has been used extensively in the study of adipose tissue. One such study used microarray analysis in conjunction with Ingenuity IPA software to look at changes in WAT and BAT gene expression when mice were exposed to temperatures of 28 and 6 °C. The most significantly up- and downregulated genes were then identified and used for analysis of differentially expressed pathways. It

4687-464: Is so important that the nation maintains a "strategic pork reserve". Red braised pork ( hong shao rou ), a delicacy from Hunan Province , was one of Mao Zedong 's favorite dishes. Other popular Chinese pork dishes are sweet and sour pork, bakkwa , and charsiu . In the Philippines , due to 300 years of Spanish colonization and influence, lechon , which is an entire roasted suckling pig,

4796-402: Is stimulated by long chain fatty acids that are produced subsequent to β-adrenergic receptor activation. UCP1 is proposed to function as a fatty acid proton symporter , although the exact mechanism has yet to be elucidated. In contrast, UCP1 is inhibited by ATP , ADP , and GTP . Attempts to simulate this process pharmacologically have so far been unsuccessful. Techniques to manipulate

4905-943: Is the branch of cooking devoted to prepared meat products, many from pork. Pork is the most popular meat in the Western world , particularly in Central Europe . It is also very popular in East and Southeast Asia ( Mainland Southeast Asia , Philippines , Singapore , and East Timor ). The meat is highly prized in Asian cuisines , especially in China (including Hong Kong ) and Northeast India , for its fat content and texture. Some religions and cultures prohibit pork consumption , notably Islam and Judaism . Pigs were domesticated in Mesopotamia around 13,000 BC. Charcuterie

5014-422: Is the branch of cooking devoted to prepared meat products such as bacon , ham , sausage , terrines , galantines , pâtés and confit , primarily from pig. Originally intended as a way to preserve meats before the advent of refrigeration, these preparations are prepared today for the flavors that are derived from the preservation processes. In 15th-century France , local guilds regulated tradesmen in

5123-453: Is to be a reserve of lipids, which can be oxidised to meet the energy needs of the body and to protect it from excess glucose by storing triglycerides produced by the liver from sugars, although some evidence suggests that most lipid synthesis from carbohydrates occurs in the adipose tissue itself. Adipose depots in different parts of the body have different biochemical profiles. Under normal conditions, it provides feedback for hunger and diet to

5232-568: Is traditionally prepared with pork trimmings: ears, tail and feet. According to the USDA 's Foreign Agricultural Service , nearly 100 million metric tons of pork were consumed worldwide in 2006 (preliminary data). Increasing urbanization and disposable income has led to an uprising in pork consumption in China, where 2006 consumption was 20% higher than in 2002, and a further 5% increase projected in 2007. In 2015 recorded total 109.905 million metric tons of pork were consumed worldwide. By 2017, half

5341-412: Is typically kept in the brine for around 3 to 14 days. Wet curing also has the effect of increasing volume and weight of the finished product, by about 4%. The wet curing process can also be achieved by pumping the curing solution into the meat. This can be quicker, increase the weight of the finished product by more than immersion, and ensure a more even distribution of salt through the meat. This process

5450-450: Is used primarily in cubes ( lardons ) as a cooking ingredient valued both as a source of fat and for its flavour. In Italy , besides being used in cooking, bacon ( pancetta ) is also served uncooked and thinly sliced as part of an antipasto . Bacon is also used for barding roasts, especially game birds. Bacon is often smoked with various wood fuels for up to ten hours. Bacon is eaten fried, baked, or grilled. A side of unsliced bacon

5559-442: Is what you shall not eat from what brings up its cud or possesses split hooves—the camel, because it brings up its cud but does not possess split hooves...and the pig, because it has split hooves that are completely cloven, but it does not bring up its cud—it is impure to you and from its flesh you may not eat. And the pig, because it possesses split hooves and does not bring up its cud—from its flesh you may not eat. As indicated by

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5668-614: The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church . There is also a theory that pork was taboo in Scotland until roughly 1800 . Pork is a well-known example of a non-kosher food . This prohibition is based on Leviticus chapter 11 and Deuteronomy chapter 14: These are the creatures that you may eat from among all the animals that are upon the land. Everything that possesses a split hoof, which is fully cloven, and that brings up its cud—this you may eat. But this

5777-511: The Rockefeller University , together with Rudolph Leibel , Douglas Coleman et al. discovered the protein leptin that the genetically obese mouse lacked. Leptin is produced in the white adipose tissue and signals to the hypothalamus . When leptin levels drop, the body interprets this as a loss of energy, and hunger increases. Mice lacking this protein eat until they are four times their normal size. Leptin, however, plays

5886-479: The resistance , then uses information on the person's weight, height, age, and sex to calculate an approximate value for the person's body fat percentage. The calculation measures the total volume of water in the body (lean tissue and muscle contain a higher percentage of water than fat), and estimates the percentage of fat based on this information. The result can fluctuate several percentage points depending on what has been eaten and how much water has been drunk before

5995-548: The Eastern European countries are believed to have a higher risk of trichinosis. Undercooked or untreated pork may harbour pathogens, or can be recontaminated after cooking if left exposed for a long period of time. In one instance, the Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) detected Listeria monocytogenes in 210 kg (460 lb) of Polidori brand fully cooked pork sausage crumbles, although no one

6104-537: The Roman period, as evidenced by an import trade from Gaul mentioned by Marcus Terentius Varro in his writings. The modern word ham is derived from the Old English ham or hom meaning the hollow or bend of the knee, from a Germanic base where it meant 'crooked'. It began to refer to the cut of pork derived from the hind leg of a pig around the 15th century. Because of the preservation process, ham

6213-463: The Swiss naturalist Conrad Gessner in 1551. In humans, adipose tissue is located: beneath the skin ( subcutaneous fat ), around internal organs ( visceral fat ), in bone marrow ( yellow bone marrow ), intermuscular ( muscular system ), and in the breast ( breast tissue ). Adipose tissue is found in specific locations, which are referred to as adipose depots . Apart from adipocytes, which comprise

6322-628: The Torah verses, pork is non-kosher because Jews may not consume an animal that possesses one trait but not the other of cloven hooves and regurgitating cud . Hogs, which are not ruminants , do not chew cud as cattle and sheep do. Practicing Jews suffice on the biblical explanation of the swine as 'unclean'. Maimonides shared this view in classifying the swine as an unclean creature in both its habit and diet. The prohibition of swine-eating in Ancient Israelite cuisine , according to Douglas,

6431-713: The UK, one family living in Turkey, one in Egypt, and one in Austria —and two other families have been found that carry a mutated ob receptor. Others have been identified as genetically partially deficient in leptin, and, in these individuals, leptin levels on the low end of the normal range can predict obesity. Several mutations of genes involving the melanocortins (used in brain signaling associated with appetite) and their receptors have also been identified as causing obesity in

6540-575: The United Kingdom, a pork leg cut, either whole or sliced, that has been cured but requires additional cooking is known as gammon . Gammons were traditionally cured before being cut from a side of pork along with bacon . When cooked, gammon is ham. Cooked ham joints are a popular dish around Christmas time, particularly in the Anglosphere and Northern Europe. Gammon can also served as gammon steaks, which are fried or grilled, and served in

6649-482: The United States, the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) says that "the word 'ham', without any prefix indicating the species of animal from which derived, shall be used in labeling only in connection with the hind legs of swine". In addition to the main categories, some processing choices can affect legal labeling. For instance, in the United States, a "smoked" ham must have been smoked by hanging over burning wood chips in

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6758-716: The abdomen due to sex hormone differences . Estrogen (female sex hormone) causes fat to be stored in the buttocks, thighs, and hips in women. When women reach menopause and the estrogen produced by the ovaries declines, fat migrates from the buttocks, hips and thighs to the waist; later fat is stored in the abdomen. Visceral fat can be caused by excess cortisol levels. At least 10 MET -hours per week of aerobic exercise leads to visceral fat reduction in those without metabolic-related disorders. Resistance training and caloric restriction also reduce visceral fat, although their effect may not be cumulative. Both exercise and hypocaloric diet cause loss of visceral fat, but exercise has

6867-458: The abdomen is referred to as a panniculus . A panniculus complicates surgery of the morbidly obese individual. It may remain as a literal "apron of skin" if a severely obese person loses large amounts of fat (a common result of gastric bypass surgery ). Obesity is treated through exercise, diet, and behavioral therapy. Reconstructive surgery is one aspect of treatment. Visceral fat or abdominal fat (also known as organ fat or intra-abdominal fat)

6976-507: The beige phenotype. One such study used RNA-Seq to compare gene expression profiles of WAT from wild-type (WT) mice and those overexpressing Early B-Cell Factor-2 (EBF2). WAT from the transgenic animals exhibited a brown fat gene program and had decreased WAT specific gene expression compared to the WT mice. Thus, EBF2 has been identified as a potential therapeutic molecule to induce beiging. Chromatin immunoprecipitation with sequencing (ChIP-seq)

7085-503: The body density of both men and women. These equations present an inverse correlation between skinfolds and body density—as the sum of skinfolds increases, the body density decreases. Factors such as sex, age, population size or other variables may make the equations invalid and unusable, and, as of 2012 , Durnin and Wormersley's equations remain only estimates of a person's true level of fatness. New formulae are still being created. Marrow fat, also known as marrow adipose tissue (MAT),

7194-551: The body would be more efficient at retaining fat in times of plenty, thereby endowing greater resistance to starvation in times of food scarcity. This hypothesis, originally advanced in the context of glucose metabolism and insulin resistance, has been discredited by physical anthropologists, physiologists, and the original proponent of the idea himself with respect to that context, although according to its developer it remains "as viable as when [it was] first advanced" in other contexts. In 1995, Jeffrey Friedman , in his residency at

7303-405: The brain. Mice have eight major adipose depots, four of which are within the abdominal cavity . The paired gonadal depots are attached to the uterus and ovaries in females and the epididymis and testes in males; the paired retroperitoneal depots are found along the dorsal wall of the abdomen , surrounding the kidney, and, when massive, extend into the pelvis. The mesenteric depot forms

7412-402: The contractile function of the vessels that they surround. Brown fat or brown adipose tissue (BAT) is a specialized form of adipose tissue important for adaptive thermogenesis in humans and other mammals. BAT can generate heat by "uncoupling" the respiratory chain of oxidative phosphorylation within mitochondria through tissue-specific expression of uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1). BAT

7521-426: The curative agent, although this is comparatively rare. This process involves cleaning the raw meat, covering it in salt while it is gradually pressed to squeeze out fluid. Specific herbs and spices may be used to add flavour during this step. The hams are then washed and hung in a dark, temperature-regulated place until dry. It is then hung to air for another period of time. The duration of the curing process varies by

7630-564: The differentiation of "brown fat" could become a mechanism for weight loss therapy in the future, encouraging the growth of tissue with this specialized metabolism without inducing it in other organs. A review on the eventual therapeutic targeting of brown fat to treat human obesity was published by Samuelson and Vidal-Puig in 2020. Until recently, brown adipose tissue in humans was thought to be primarily limited to infants, but new evidence has overturned that belief. Metabolically active tissue with temperature responses similar to brown adipose

7739-490: The food production industry in each city. The guilds that produced charcuterie were those of the charcutiers . The members of this guild produced a traditional range of cooked or salted and dried meats, which varied, sometimes distinctively, from region to region. The only "raw" meat the charcutiers were allowed to sell was unrendered lard . The charcutier prepared numerous items, including pâtés , rillettes , sausages , bacon , trotters , and head cheese . Before

7848-408: The formation of cell specific chromatin landscapes, which regulate the transcriptional program and, ultimately, control differentiation. Using ChIP-seq in conjunction with other tools, recent studies have identified over 30 transcriptional and epigenetic factors that influence beige adipocyte development. The thrifty gene hypothesis (also called the famine hypothesis) states that in some populations

7957-514: The formula, and has a discernible effect on flavor. So-called "lean" and "extra lean" hams must adhere to maximum levels of fat and cholesterol per 100 grams of product. Whole fresh pork leg can be labeled as fresh ham in the United States. A number of hams worldwide have some level of protection of their unique characteristics, usually relating to their method of preservation or location of production or processing. Dependent on jurisdiction, rules may prevent any other product being sold with

8066-403: The heart and found to be a metabolically active organ that generates various bioactive molecules, which might significantly affect cardiac function. Marked component differences have been observed in comparing EAT with subcutaneous fat , suggesting a location-specific impact of stored fatty acids on adipocyte function and metabolism. Most of the remaining nonvisceral fat is found just below

8175-487: The high and low ends of this range, respectively. There is a constant flux of FFAs entering and leaving adipose tissue. The net direction of this flux is controlled by insulin and leptin—if insulin is elevated, then there is a net inward flux of FFA, and only when insulin is low can FFA leave adipose tissue. Insulin secretion is stimulated by high blood sugar, which results from consuming carbohydrates. In humans, lipolysis (hydrolysis of triglycerides into free fatty acids)

8284-535: The highest percentage of cells within adipose tissue, other cell types are present, collectively termed stromal vascular fraction (SVF) of cells. SVF includes preadipocytes , fibroblasts , adipose tissue macrophages , and endothelial cells . Adipose tissue contains many small blood vessels . In the integumentary system , which includes the skin, it accumulates in the deepest level, the subcutaneous layer, providing insulation from heat and cold. Around organs, it provides protective padding. However, its main function

8393-444: The hind limbs (underneath the skin) and the subscapular depots, paired medial mixtures of brown adipose tissue adjacent to regions of white adipose tissue, which are found under the skin between the dorsal crests of the scapulae. The layer of brown adipose tissue in this depot is often covered by a "frosting" of white adipose tissue; sometimes these two types of fat (brown and white) are hard to distinguish. The inguinal depots enclose

8502-419: The hypothalamus to result in leptin resistance in obesity are currently the focus of obesity research. Gene defects in the leptin gene ( ob ) are rare in human obesity. As of July 2010 , only 14 individuals from five families have been identified worldwide who carry a mutated ob gene (one of which was the first ever identified cause of genetic obesity in humans)—two families of Pakistani origin living in

8611-516: The importation or consumption of pork products. Examples are Iran , Mauritania , Oman , Qatar , Saudi Arabia , Algeria , Turkmenistan , Uzbekistan , Tajikistan , Yemen , Somalia , Sudan , Afghanistan , Djibouti , Kuwait , Mali , Niger , Senegal , Gambia , Libya , Pakistan (except in some communities) and the Maldives . However, in other Muslim-majority countries with significant non-Muslim minorities, such as Indonesia (except

8720-430: The inguinal group of lymph nodes. Minor depots include the pericardial , which surrounds the heart, and the paired popliteal depots, between the major muscles behind the knees, each containing one large lymph node . Of all the depots in the mouse, the gonadal depots are the largest and the most easily dissected, comprising about 30% of dissectible fat. In an obese person, excess adipose tissue hanging downward from

8829-592: The liver, has garnered a great deal of interest after being identified as a potent stimulator of glucose uptake and a browning regulator through its effects on PGC-1α. It is increased in BAT during cold exposure and is thought to aid in resistance to diet-induced obesity FGF21 may also be secreted in response to exercise and a low protein diet, although the latter has not been thoroughly investigated. Data from these studies suggest that environmental factors like diet and exercise may be important mediators of browning. In mice, it

8938-588: The mass production and re-engineering of pigs in the 20th century, pork in Europe and North America was traditionally an autumn dish—pigs and other livestock coming to the slaughter in the autumn after growing in the spring and fattening during the summer. Due to the seasonal nature of the meat in Western culinary history, apples (harvested in late summer and autumn) have been a staple pairing to fresh pork. The year-round availability of meat and fruits has not diminished

9047-427: The meat is placed in a smokehouse (or equivalent) to be cured by the action of smoke. The main flavor compounds of smoked ham are guaiacol , and its 4-, 5-, and 6-methyl derivatives as well as 2,6-dimethylphenol. These compounds are produced by combustion of lignin, a major constituent of wood used in the smokehouse. In many countries the term is now protected by statute, with a specific definition. For instance, in

9156-512: The metabolism and in general the function of adipose-derived stem cells. Adipose tissue is a major peripheral source of aromatase in both males and females, contributing to the production of estradiol . Adipose derived hormones include: Adipose tissues also secrete a type of cytokines (cell-to-cell signalling proteins) called adipokines (adipose cytokines), which play a role in obesity-associated complications. Perivascular adipose tissue releases adipokines such as adiponectin that affect

9265-590: The need for feeder cells . The use of a patient's own cells reduces the chance of tissue rejection and avoids ethical issues associated with the use of human embryonic stem cells . A growing body of evidence also suggests that different fat depots (i.e. abdominal, omental, pericardial) yield adipose-derived stem cells with different characteristics. These depot-dependent features include proliferation rate , immunophenotype , differentiation potential , gene expression , as well as sensitivity to hypoxic culture conditions. Oxygen levels seem to play an important role on

9374-518: The particular appellation, such as through the European protected geographical indication . Ham is typically used in its sliced form, often as a filling for sandwiches and similar foods, such as in the ham sandwich and ham and cheese sandwich . Other variations include toasted sandwiches such as the croque-monsieur and the Cubano . It is also a popular topping for pizza in the United States . In

9483-540: The popularity of certain cuts varying worldwide. Most of the pig can be used to produce fresh meat and, in the case of a suckling pig , the whole body of a young pig ranging in age from two to six weeks is roasted. Danish roast pork or flæskesteg , prepared with crispy crackling is a national favourite as the traditional Christmas dinner. Pork is particularly common as an ingredient in sausages . Many traditional European sausages are made with pork, including chorizo , fuet , Cumberland sausage and salami giving it

9592-474: The popularity of this combination on Western plates. Pigs are the second most widely eaten animal in the world, accounting for about 34% of meat production worldwide. As a result, large numbers of pork recipes have been developed throughout the world. Jamón , made from the hind legs of a pig, is the most well-known Spanish dry-cured ham. Feijoada , the national dish of Brazil (also served in Portugal),

9701-416: The popularity of this topic and is constantly evolving as more knowledge is acquired. Among these molecules are irisin and fibroblast growth factor 21 ( FGF21 ), which have been well-studied and are believed to be important regulators of browning. Irisin is secreted from muscle in response to exercise and has been shown to increase browning by acting on beige preadipocytes. FGF21, a hormone secreted mainly by

9810-603: The potential for the use of microarray in the study of WAT browning. RNA sequencing ( RNA-Seq ) is a powerful computational tool that allows for the quantification of RNA expression for all genes within a sample. Incorporating RNA-Seq into browning studies is of great value, as it offers better specificity, sensitivity, and a more comprehensive overview of gene expression than other methods. RNA-Seq has been used in both human and mouse studies in an attempt characterize beige adipocytes according to their gene expression profiles and to identify potential therapeutic molecules that may induce

9919-479: The process itself, conditions such as temperature, duration, water content, redox potential , and salt content all have an effect on the meat. The salt content in dry-cured ham varies throughout a piece of meat, with gradients determinable through sampling and testing or non-invasively through CT scanning . Wet-cured hams are brined , which involves the immersion of the meat in a brine , sometimes with other ingredients such as sugar also added for flavour. The meat

10028-537: The province of Aceh ), Malaysia , Brunei , Lebanon , Iraq , Tunisia , Egypt , Morocco , Bahrain , Bangladesh , Kyrgyzstan , Kazakhstan , Jordan , Albania , Azerbaijan , Turkey , Bosnia and Herzegovina , Kosovo , Syria , Sierra Leone , Guinea , Chad and the United Arab Emirates (except the Emirate of Sharjah ), pork is available in hotels, restaurants and supermarkets that cater to

10137-401: The ratio. They tend to under-read body fat percentage. In contrast with clinical tools like DXA and underwater weighing , one relatively inexpensive type of body fat meter uses the principle of bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) in order to determine an individual's body fat percentage. To achieve this, the meter passes a small, harmless, electric current through the body and measures

10246-580: The salt. Nitrites are used because they prevent bacterial growth and, in a reaction with the meat's myoglobin , give the product a desirable dark red color. The amount and mixture of salt and nitrites used have an effect on the shrinkage of the meat. Because of the toxicity of nitrite, some areas specify a maximum allowable content of nitrite in the final product. Under certain conditions, especially during cooking, nitrites in meat can react with degradation products of amino acids , forming nitrosamines , which are known carcinogens . The dry curing of ham involves

10355-514: The side (round from the loin and streaky from the belly). Ham and bacon are popular foods in the West, and their consumption has increased with industrialisation. Non-western cuisines also use preserved meat products. For example, salted preserved pork or red roasted pork is used in Chinese and Asian cuisine. Bacon is defined as any of certain cuts of meat taken from the sides, belly, or back that have been cured or smoked. In continental Europe, it

10464-522: The size of marrow adipocytes. The exercise regulation of marrow fat suggests that it bears some physiologic similarity to other white adipose depots. Moreover, increased MAT in obesity further suggests a similarity to white fat depots. Ectopic fat is the storage of triglycerides in tissues other than adipose tissue, that are supposed to contain only small amounts of fat, such as the liver , skeletal muscle , heart , and pancreas . This can interfere with cellular functions and hence organ function and

10573-482: The skin in a region called the hypodermis . This subcutaneous fat is not related to many of the classic obesity-related pathologies, such as heart disease , cancer, and stroke , and some evidence even suggests it might be protective. The typically female (or gynecoid) pattern of body fat distribution around the hips, thighs, and buttocks is subcutaneous fat, and therefore poses less of a health risk compared to visceral fat. Like all other fat organs, subcutaneous fat

10682-418: The slogan. The board retired the slogan on 4 March 2011. Pork is very high in thiamin (vitamin B 1 ). Pork with its fat trimmed is leaner than the meat of most domesticated animals, but is high in cholesterol and saturated fat . Eating of pork is prohibited by Jewish dietary laws and Islamic dietary laws , and is also avoided by mainstream Seventh-day Adventists , Rastafarians , and members of

10791-516: The two, wherein stress promotes the accumulation of visceral fat, which in turn causes hormonal and metabolic changes that contribute to heart disease and other health problems. Recent advances in biotechnology have allowed for the harvesting of adult stem cells from adipose tissue, allowing stimulation of tissue regrowth using a patient's own cells. In addition, adipose-derived stem cells from both human and animals reportedly can be efficiently reprogrammed into induced pluripotent stem cells without

10900-461: The type of ham. For example, Jinhua ham takes approximately 8 to 10 months to complete, jamón serrano cures in 9–12 months, prosciutto di Parma takes more than 12 months, and Iberian ham can take up to 2 years to reach the desired flavor characteristics. Many dry-cured hams, such as prosciutto , are eaten without being cooked. Most modern dry cure hams also use nitrites (either sodium nitrite or potassium nitrite ), which are added along with

11009-624: The world's pork was consumed in China. Pork is popular throughout eastern Asia and the Pacific, where whole roast pig is a popular item in Pacific Island cuisine. It is consumed in a great many ways and highly esteemed in Chinese cuisine . Currently China is the world's largest pork consumer, with pork consumption expected to total 53 million metric tons in 2012, which accounts for more than half of global pork consumption. In China, pork

11118-536: Was 2.7 kg in 2009. Although pork marketing is prohibited in some religious localities, pork products are available elsewhere at non-kosher butchers and by the Mizra and Tiv Ta'am non-kosher supermarket chain, which caters to Russian immigrants. A modern Hebrew euphemism for pork is "white meat". Pork meat is prohibited by the Islamic dietary laws . Throughout the Islamic world many countries severely restrict

11227-711: Was because the pig was raised by non-Israelites, ate carrion and did not fit into the classification of ungulates . Harris disagrees and points out that Egyptians and Sumerians also restricted pigs and that goats also ate corpses, yet were not declared unclean in Ancient Israel. Harris offers an explanation based on environmental and economic factors instead. In Israel , pig-raising has been limited by law to certain areas and institutions. Some pig-related laws are openly circumvented. Swine production has increased from an estimated annual slaughter of 50,000 swine in 1960 to 180,000 in 2010. Pig meat consumption per capita

11336-506: Was discovered that many of the pathways upregulated in WAT after cold exposure are also highly expressed in BAT, such as oxidative phosphorylation , fatty acid metabolism , and pyruvate metabolism. This suggests that some of the adipocytes switched to a beige phenotype at 6 °C. Mössenböck et al. also used microarray analysis to demonstrate that insulin deficiency inhibits the differentiation of beige adipocytes but does not disturb their capacity for browning. These two studies demonstrate

11445-757: Was first reported in the neck and trunk of some human adults in 2007, and the presence of brown adipose in human adults was later verified histologically in the same anatomical regions. Browning of WAT, also referred to as "beiging", occurs when adipocytes within WAT depots develop features of BAT. Beige adipocytes take on a multilocular appearance (containing several lipid droplets) and increase expression of uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1). In doing so, these normally energy-storing adipocytes become energy-releasing adipocytes. The calorie-burning capacity of brown and beige fat has been extensively studied as research efforts focus on therapies targeted to treat obesity and diabetes. The drug 2,4-dinitrophenol , which also acts as

11554-450: Was found that beiging can occur through the production of methionine-enkephalin peptides by type 2 innate lymphoid cells in response to interleukin 33 . Due to the complex nature of adipose tissue and a growing list of browning regulatory molecules, great potential exists for the use of bioinformatics tools to improve study within this field. Studies of WAT browning have greatly benefited from advances in these techniques, as beige fat

11663-414: Was made ill from consumption of the product. The FSIS has previously stated that listeria and other microorganisms must be "...destroyed by proper handling and thorough cooking to an internal temperature of 71 °C (160 °F)," and that other microorganisms, such as E. coli , Salmonella , and Staphylococcus aureus can be found in inadequately cooked pork, poultry, and other meats. The FSIS,

11772-604: Was not included on the menu of the Liverpool Council's first Christian Orthodox Interfaith lunch some members of the Macedonian Orthodox community objected, citing the historical significance of the dish to the community during the Ottoman era and raising complaints that the council was discriminating against Orthodox Christians . A spokeswoman for the council explained that the council had not prepared

11881-548: Was unknown. The number of cases has decreased because of legislation prohibiting the feeding of raw meat garbage to hogs, increased commercial and home freezing of pork, and the public awareness of the danger of eating raw or undercooked pork or wild game products. Adipose Previously treated as being hormonally inert, in recent years adipose tissue has been recognized as a major endocrine organ, as it produces hormones such as leptin , estrogen , resistin , and cytokines (especially TNFα ). In obesity, adipose tissue

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