Misplaced Pages

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101-686: The Hammerskins were one of the most prominent American white power skinhead groups. The Anti-Defamation League describes them as the United States' best-organized neo-Nazi skinhead group, with the Hammerskin Nation website boasting six chapters in the United States and chapters existing in Canada, various European countries, New Zealand, and Australia. The organization is self-described as "leaderless". Individual members have been involved in many violent attacks and hate crimes , mostly in

202-487: A paranoid anxiety about the demographic decline of the white race embodied in the widespread slogan "9 per cent", meaning that only 9 per cent of the world's population is white by their own calculations. Women are a minority among the white power skinhead movement. In Britain, France and Germany, they rarely attend events. Female presence at gigs is however more frequent in Italy, and entire families have been seen attending

303-425: A self-inflicted gunshot wound to the head. Authorities released an audio recording of the incident, during which the first responding officer, Lieutenant Brian Murphy, was shot by the gunman. It contained the words "I have someone walking out the driveway towards me. Man with a gun, white t-shirt", followed by the sound of gunfire. In September 2012, authorities released video recordings taken by squad cars during

404-500: A "Project Schoolyard USA" to distribute sample CDs to middle and high students across the United States. In the United States, most white power skinhead groups are organized at either the state, county, city or neighborhood level; the Hammerskin Nation is one of the few exceptions, due to its international presence. A 2007 report by the Anti-Defamation League says groups such as white power skinheads, neo-Nazis, and

505-420: A "crucified skinhead" are also extremely popular among white power skinheads, with the traditional crucifix sometimes replaced with a Tiwaz rune. The central themes of white power skinheads revolve around "the ethnic war which will be waged in the future and the denunciation of a global Jewish conspiracy to promote miscegenation " (see White genocide conspiracy theory ). The white power skinhead movement

606-519: A Nazi rock gig organized in Milan. In Germany, the hard rock band Böhse Onkelz ('Evil Uncles'), formed in 1980 in Frankfurt am Main, lay the ground for the radicalization of the skinhead movement by connecting the music scene with right-wing nationalism. Although they never openly embraced " white power " ideas, their 1981 song Türken Raus ('Turks Out') earned them a reputation as a racist band. In

707-726: A contraction of "Hey, you!" pronounced with a Cockney accent – emerged as a skinhead version of punk rock in the late 1970s, contrasting with the sometimes multiracial bands of the left-wing and unpolitical skinhead resurgence, which rather drew influence from the original Jamaican ska roots of the late 1960s. Coined as a nickname for the new genre by British journalist Gary Bushell in 1980, "Oi!" soon became synonymous with "skinhead". Unlike many of their followers, however, early Oi! band members were generally not neo-Nazi or even affiliated with right-wing organizations, and they increasingly distanced themselves from some of their fans, who contributed to recurrent riots at concerts. In July 1981,

808-623: A cultural attachment to Catholicism . Music groups Films Video games Wisconsin Sikh temple shooting India Pakistan Afghanistan The Wisconsin Sikh temple shooting was a mass shooting that took place at the gurdwara ( Sikh temple) in Oak Creek, Wisconsin on August 5, 2012, when 40-year-old Wade Michael Page fatally shot six people and wounded four others. A seventh victim died of his wounds in 2020. Page committed suicide by shooting himself in

909-488: A dozen of skinheads. Their size became noticeable by 1994, in the atmosphere of chaos that followed the dissolution of the Soviet Union and Mikhail Gorbachev 's attempts at liberal reforms and rapid economic privatization . Their number skyrocketed throughout the 1990s, fuelled by economic disorder, the collapse of the education system, and the legitimization of violence against political opponents and minorities by

1010-477: A meeting in the town hall. In August 1992, racist skinheads participated in the Rostock-Lichtenhagen riots , lynching immigrants with the help of ordinary citizens as passersby cheered. During the 1990s, the number of Neo-Nazi groups in reunified Germany skyrocket, with numerous unemployed young East Germans joining the white power skinhead movement. In France, the white power skinhead movement

1111-894: A pogrom at the Yasenevo Market on Hitler's birthday in April 2001, then a second pogrom in the Moscow underground transit system in November 2001, which resulted in 4 deaths. Despite some common grounds with Vladimir Putin 's nationalist agenda, skinheads remain opposed to vestiges of authority in the country. The skinhead subculture presents itself, in the words of scholar Peter Worger, as an "ultra-nationalist alternative to Putin’s state-sanctioned patriotism." The neo-Nazi Russian National Unity group, in contrast, as known to have enrolled young members from skinhead gangs. The Federal Law on Counteracting Extremist Activity, adopted in 2002 after

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1212-440: A public voice to widespread anxieties concerning non-white immigration and the "threat" which was supposedly posed by South Asian immigrants. Although there is "little agreement [among scholars] on the extent to which Powell was responsible for racial attacks", the speech may have helped unleash " Paki-bashing " violence against South Asian immigrants, which was referred to as "skinhead terror" by The Observer in April 1970, with

1313-425: A range of tattoos on his arms and upper body, which were said to show his links to white supremacist organizations. Oak Creek Police Chief John Edwards declined to speculate on the motive behind the attack, saying "I don't know why, and I don't know that we'll ever know, because when he died, that died with him what his motive was or what he was thinking." President Barack Obama offered his condolences, calling

1414-416: A responding officer, Lt. Brian Murphy, who was shot fifteen times at close range, including once in the face and once in the back of the head. He was discharged from the hospital on August 22, 2012. Sikhs for Justice, a New York–based group, pledged a $ 10,000 award to Murphy. Two Sikh residents of Yuba City, California donated another $ 100,000 to Lieutenant Murphy and praised his bravery. Included among

1515-587: A self-inflicted gunshot wound to the head after he killed six people in a Sikh temple in Oak Creek, Wisconsin. Page had become a "fully patched" member of the Hammerskins in autumn 2011, according to the Anti-Defamation League . He played in at least three Hammerskin-affiliated bands; End Apathy, Definite Hate and 13 Knots. According to media sources and civil rights organizations, End Apathy, Wade's main band, had played at several recent Hammerskin events in

1616-477: A strong cultural influence on the local far-right. White power skinheads see both the permissive society and the sexual revolution as "perversions", and they generally promote an image of "clean-living, drug-free, heterosexual, working-class males". Homophobia and rejection of any form of drug-taking (except tobacco and alcohol) are common traits found across skinhead groups. According to historian John F. Pollard , this " puritanical " stance takes its roots in

1717-525: A truck driver from 2006 to 2010, but was fired after receiving a citation for impaired driving due to drinking. Page had ties to white supremacist and neo-Nazi groups, and was reportedly a member of the Hammerskins . He entered the white power music scene in 2000, becoming involved in several neo-Nazi bands. He founded the band End Apathy in 2005 and played in the bands Definite Hate and Blue Eyed Devils, all considered racist white-power bands by

1818-506: A violent melee in a night club, chanting "young, gifted and white" and cutting the speakers as the West Indian disc jockey was playing Young, Gifted and Black by Bob and Marcia . The skinhead scene had mostly died out by 1973. Around 1977, a second wave started to emerge from the disintegration of the punk subculture , which was radicalized as " street punk " when some of its members accentuated its aggressive character. Although

1919-721: Is generally associated with neo-Nazism , in part, this is due to its origins in the National Front and the British Movement , along with the presence of former Nazis (especially former members of the SS ) who mentored members of nascent German racist skinhead groups in the 1980s–1990s. Historian John F. Pollard contends that "the racist skinhead ideology is fundamentally neo-Nazi in inspiration." Camus and Lebourg also argue that although not all racist skinheads can be classified as 'neo-Nazi', neo-Nazism remains hegemonic in

2020-424: Is made difficult by the lack of a formal and organized structure, the issue of overlapping memberships, and a tradition of silence which has been set up in an attempt to cultivate the mystique of their clandestine activities and prevent the police from estimating the size of local groups. In 1995, around 70,000 of them were estimated to be present in 33 countries (half of them were estimated to be "hard-core activists",

2121-525: The 2014 election . Pardeep Kaleka said that the shooting was "a warning of the increasingly public and violent role that white supremacy would play in the next decade." Since 2013, the Sikh Coalition has encouraged Sikhs to use the National Day of Sevā to honor the lives of those lost in the shooting. Political scientist Naunihal Singh criticized the media response, pointing out that

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2222-680: The FNJ , the youth wing of the Front National , the neo-fascist Troisième Voie and later with the neo-Nazi organisation PNFE . The label rapidly grew as the second-largest white power music label in Europe, although the European white power rock scene only managed to enter the mainstream market in Sweden, where the band Ultima Thule reached the top of the charts in 1993. In the first half of

2323-703: The Glasnost during the 1980s, a period of relative liberalization led by the Soviet regime which allowed for fascist discourses to emerge among young Russian punks, primarily as a reaction against the ideology and history of the Soviet Union . Football hooliganism also played a role in the diffusion of neo-fascist rhetoric in the 1980s. The subculture, known in Russian as skinkhedy , appeared in 1992 in Moscow with

2424-647: The Sikh community "a part of our broader American family," and ordered flags at federal buildings flown at half-staff until August 10 to honor the victims. Obama called for "soul searching" on how to reduce violence. Wisconsin Governor Scott Walker and other officials also issued statements of sympathy for the victims of the shooting and their families. Nancy Powell and the United States Ambassador to India attended prayers for

2525-526: The Southern Poverty Law Center . Page's former step-mother apologized to the Sikh victims and said she had not been in touch with her stepson for the past twelve years, after divorcing his father. A former friend described him as a "loner" and said he had talked about an "impending racial holy war ". According to his neighbors, Page lived alone, rarely left his apartment, and avoided eye contact with them. Page legally purchased

2626-590: The United Kingdom between the late 1960s and the late 1970s, before spreading across Eurasia and North America in the 1980–1990s. Some argue that skinheads shave their heads to represent their detachment from society. Scholar Timothy S. Brown defines the skinheads as a "style community", that is to say a "community in which the primary site of identity is personal style", which allows innovative configurations to be made in new geographical and cultural contexts, or around opposing political ideologies – as in

2727-400: The dichotomy between racist and anti-racist skinheads. From a group perspective, John Clarke, a professor who studied skinheads in the 1970s, has noted that the "skinhead style represents an attempt to recreate the traditional working class community, as a substitution for the real decline of the latter which started in the 1960s." According to Jean-Yves Camus and Nicolas Lebourg ,

2828-483: The modern pagan religion reconstructed on the beliefs of Norse and Ancient Germans , is particularly popular among skinheads due to its warrior ethos . Blood & Honour magazine regularly points out that Odinism is a "religion of warriors", while Christianity is a "religion of slaves". In the United States, racialist pagan groups like the Odin Brotherhood or Wotansvolk have found some followers in

2929-464: The white power skinhead movement, which emerged within the skinhead subculture from the late 1970s onward, can be defined by "racism; proletarian consciousness; an aversion to organization, dismissed in favor of gang behavior; and an ideological training that began with or is based on music ." They have mostly emerged from working-class backgrounds, except in Russia, where they have mostly emerged from

3030-408: The "Paki-bashers" simply being referred to as "skinheads" in many contemporary reports. By the early 1970s, the reggae scene had ceased to be simply a "party music" and, under the influence of Rastafarism , got closer to community-oriented themes like black liberation and African mysticism, which participated in alienating some white proletarians from the community. In 1973 white skinheads launched

3131-472: The "Southall Riots" were sparked when hundreds of skinheads were welcomed at an Oi! gig which was performed in a predominantly-Asian suburb of London. Some skinheads began to attack the neighboring Asian stores, and 400 Asians later responded by burning the venue with paraffin bombs while the skinheads were fleeing with help from the police. The event led to a moral panic in Britain and the skinhead subculture

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3232-482: The 1980s and 1990s, many young American neo-Nazis and white supremacists, often associated with the Ku Klux Klan , joined the growing US white power skinhead movement. By 1988, there were ~2,000 neo-Nazi skinheads in the United States. The first identifiable neo-Nazi skinhead group was the short-lived Chicago's Romantic Violence, established in 1984 by 25-year-old Clark Martell . The group collapsed when Martell

3333-631: The 1980s, the German neo-Nazi skinheads were known for their violence, sometimes murderous. In 1985, a 76-year-old Jew who had survived the Holocaust was trampled to death during a fight between skinheads and anti-fascist demonstrators. In 1987, skinheads attacked Christians during a festival in Lindau because of the town council's refusal to allow the neo-Nazi Alliance of the German People to hold

3434-674: The 1980s, the racist faction of the skinhead subculture began to appear in Scandinavia, the Netherlands, West Germany, Austria, the United States, Canada, and Australia; and by the mid-1980s, it also began to appear in France, Belgium, Denmark, and Switzerland. During the 1990s, the movement rapidly grew in the West and simultaneously, it rapidly began to spread to Eastern Europe, in particular, it rapidly began to spread to Russia . Before

3535-571: The Army, Page had learned to repair the Hawk missile system , before becoming a psychological operations specialist. He was demoted and received a general discharge for "patterns of misconduct," including being drunk while on duty and going absent without leave . After his discharge, Page returned to Colorado, living in the Denver suburb of Littleton from 2000 through 2007. Page worked as

3636-511: The Aryan and Nordic Fest in the United States. Despite a widespread misogynistic culture and a general absence of commitment to female equality, some skinhead women have rejected the traditional gender roles and can act as aggressively as their male counterparts. Skinheads present themselves as an excluded or martyr group repressed by the " police state " of liberal democracies. Blood & Honour and Combat18 have promoted conspiracy theories about

3737-492: The Hammerskins was banned by the German government on 19 September 2023. White power skinhead White power skinheads , also known as racist skinheads and neo-Nazi skinheads (but derided as boneheads by anti-racist skinheads), are members of a neo-Nazi , white supremacist and antisemitic offshoot of the skinhead subculture . Many of them are affiliated with white nationalist organizations and some of them are members of prison gangs . The movement emerged in

3838-480: The Internet came to be widely available after the mid-1990s, white power skinhead music played a key role in the international diffusion of white supremacist ideologies within a highly fragmented racist movement. In many European countries, merchandising – and sometimes illegal racist or Holocaust-denying material – was sold via mail-order or during the touring of bands. Measuring the number of white power skinheads

3939-732: The Jamaican influence in the original British skinhead subculture. The next largest antiracist skinhead organizations are SLO (Skinheads Liberation Organization) and RASH ( Red and Anarchist Skinheads ). Early skinheads typically wore steel-toed combat boots or Doc Martens , thin red suspenders , Crombie coats, sheepskin bomber jackets, blue jeans, mohair suits, in addition to a shaved head or very closely-cropped hair. The Anti-Defamation League writes that although steel-toed workboots are typical of both racist and anti-racist skinheads, white power skinheads commonly fit their boots with white- or red-coloured laces to signify their affiliation to

4040-519: The KKK have been growing more active in the United States, with a particular focus on opposition to illegal immigration . The Aryan Brotherhood has grown in some parts of the United States by swallowing whole skinhead gangs. The Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC) noted in 2020 that the skinhead movement had "almost no young recruits" in the United States. The SPLC writes, "Image-conscious white nationalist groups and militant neo-Nazi groups are attracting

4141-651: The National Front's public image, the movement draw thousands of young people to neo-fascism and provided the party with a new medium to diffuse their message. In an effort to clean up both the British National Party 's discourse and public image, Griffin publicly distanced the party from the skinhead subculture after he became its chairman in 1999. The party expelled skinhead members, although it has allowed white power band members to join and has accepted donations from neo-fascist skinhead concerts in

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4242-482: The National Front, appeared in reaction to the Rock against Fascism movement. To draw new adherents, the National Front attempted to use the white power music scene to re-frame its message from overt hate of foreigners and minorities to self-love and collective defence of white identity. Donaldson and the National Front founded a record label named White Noise Club, which released Skrewdriver's album White Power in 1983,

4343-544: The Nazi imagery and have had a powerful influence on the worldwide movement, as evidenced by the popularity of David Lane 's Fourteen Words and William Luther Pierce 's The Turner Diaries , which some Combat 18 leaders regard as their "Bible". According to Camus and Lebourg, the Nazifying imagery of white power skinheads was "at first largely provocative", and sometimes a way for the proletarian youth "of responding to

4444-703: The Sikh community, and dignitaries such as Governor Walker attended. Congressman Paul Ryan introduced a bill in Congress condemning the tragedy which stated the House "condemns the senseless attack". On September 19, 2012, a Congressional hearing addressed hate crimes in response to the tragedy, before the Senate Judiciary Committee 's Subcommittee on the Constitution, Civil Rights and Human Rights convened by Senator Dick Durbin . In

4545-540: The US (notably the Wisconsin Sikh temple shooting ), although these have not been organized by the group. It maintains an active recruitment strategy, and encourages members to enlist in military forces in order to learn combat skills for an upcoming race war . Its website is defunct. It has run Facebook groups under the name Crew 38 (now inactive) and its online forums , and this name is also used for supporters of

4646-566: The United States prior to the shooting-spree. The Australian group, founded in 1993, is known as the Southern Cross Hammerskins. In 2014 they were reported to be active in Melbourne , Brisbane , Gold Coast , Sydney and Adelaide , with a focus on anti-Asian and anti-Muslim sentiment . They target young men, particularly at heavy metal music festivals, and are aligned with skinheads . A support group called Crew 38

4747-487: The United States, and strongly condemned the actions, such as flag-burnings, taken by the protesters. U.S.-based Sikh community groups pledged assistance to the victims and their families, and urged Sikh Americans to organize interfaith vigils. They also organized to send an emergency response team to Wisconsin. In some online forums, individuals with far right views expressed support for the gunman and his actions. Many other Americans held candlelight vigils in support of

4848-564: The [mainstream] right, whose conservatism is alien to their own mind-set and mode of life. For them, "the system" has abandoned the little guy, and gangs constitute a countersociety of pleasure and solidarity. [...]. In every country, the White Power movement shows what happens when entire swathes of marginal populations are abandoned to economic violence. Jean-Yves Camus & Nicolas Lebourg (2017), Far-Right Politics in Europe , Oxford University Press : pp. 108–109. Odinism ,

4949-775: The aftermath of the shooting, Amar Kaleka , the son of Satwant Singh Kaleka, became involved in politics, supporting gun control and new legislation to reduce hate crimes . Kaleka criticized Obama, who visited the sites of other mass shootings, but not the Sikh Temple. As a member of the Democratic Party , Kaleka ran unsuccessfully in the Democratic primary for the United States House of Representatives in Wisconsin's 1st congressional district in

5050-427: The anti-permissive way of life of the original skinheads who rejected the mod and hippie subcultures. A central element of this puritanism is the skinhead idea of "naturalness"; their aim is to "eliminate all abnormalities like, homosexuals, lesbians and other kinds of 'sick' and 'deviant' people". Skinheads' opposition to abortion partly results from a backlash against feminism and the sexual revolution, and from

5151-399: The death of Ian Stuart Donaldson , suggesting that he was the victim of a political "assassination". The common skinhead motto "hated but proud" expresses the closed, excluded, but feared lifestyle of white power skinheads. These young proletarians turn neither to the left, which according to them is more inclined to defend the "immigrant delinquent" than "the hard-working white guy", nor to

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5252-595: The early 2000s. In 1990 the European Parliament 's Committee of Inquiry into Racism and Xenophobia reported that the violent and racist skinhead subculture was "by far the most worrying development since the last Committee of Inquiry report [in 1985]." The death of Donaldson in a car crash in September 1993, followed by that of Nicky Crane who succumbed to AIDS in December of the same year, led to

5353-419: The educated middle class in the urban centres. In 2004, there were about 50,000 self-identified skinheads in the country, with groups active in approximately 85 cities. Up to 2,000 rioters linked to the Russian skinhead movement have participated in an anti-Chechen pogrom in 2006. Under serious police pressure, the number of racist acts and Neo-Nazis started to significantly decline in Russia from 2009. In

5454-635: The educated, urban middle class. The original skinhead subculture began in the United Kingdom in 1968–1969, probably in London and Southeast England, more specifically in the East End of London according to Clarke. It had heavy British mod and Jamaican rude boy influences, including an appreciation for black music genres like rocksteady , ska , and early West Indian reggae . The particular lifestyle and aggressive look of skinheads

5555-472: The eighth, third and eighth letters of the alphabet). As of October 12, 2018, their website showed six U.S. chapters: West, Northwest, Midland, Confederate, Northern, and Eastern, and chapters in Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, New Zealand, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Luxembourg, Switzerland and Brazil. Each chapter, both in the US and internationally, has a specific design which often includes

5656-516: The eponymous song becoming "the most recognizable neo-fascist skinhead song". In 1987, a music festival was organized by National Front member Phil Andrewon on Nick Griffin 's Suffolk property, and was attended by hundreds of racist skinheads from across Europe who gave the Nazi salute and sang along a chorus that demanded "white power for Britain". A split within White Noise Club led to

5757-545: The establishment of Blood & Honour in 1987. Donaldson had become involved with the West German label Rock-O-Rama and felt the need to create his own global neo-fascist skinhead movement without any political party affiliation. The music promotion network quickly turned into the "major reference point for young neo-fascists and neo-Nazis throughout Europe who came to Britain to attend the gigs of Skrewdriver and other bands." Even though skinhead violence helped damage

5858-600: The fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 in Eastern Europe, where it has been particularly strong since the transition to capitalism. The white power music scene rapidly embraced the growth of the Internet, which allowed them to bypass local European hate speech laws and further develop their international networks. In 2013, Hammerskin Nation (HSN) managed to bring together over 1,000 skinheads from all over Europe at

5959-445: The far-right skinhead movement. Scholars concede at the same time the difficulty of separating the public use of the provocative and subversive aesthetics surrounding Nazi symbols from actual belief in, and commitment to, Nazi ideology. The early-20th century Judeo-Bolshevik and Judeo-Masonic conspiracy theories have since evolved into the idea of a Zionist Occupied Government (ZOG), which claims that Jews secretly control

6060-550: The founder of the gurdwara; Prakash Singh, 39, a Granthi ; Sita Singh, 41; Ranjit Singh, 49; and Suveg Singh, 84. All of the male victims wore turbans as part of their Sikh faith. Four of the victims were Indian nationals, while the rest were Americans. Prakash Singh, who was born in India and had served as a Granthi at the Gurudwara for around seven years, had received his green card in early 2012. The injured included

6161-464: The governments of Western states . Their attitude toward the Holocaust ranges from outright denial to minimization of the death toll, and even to glorifying the event in the lyrics of white power bands such as No Remorse or Warhammer. Nazi theories of Slavs as Untermenschen ('sub-humans') have been largely abandoned in favor of a more "inclusive" concept of white supremacy . American neo-Nazism and white supremacism largely helped "crystallize"

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6262-587: The group in Australia. The Hammerskins emerged in the late 1980s from the Dallas based Confederate Hammerskins. Their name is based on a scene in the 1982 film Pink Floyd – The Wall . The first international chapters of the group were formed in Northern Ireland and Switzerland in 1990, and Australian and Canadian chapters followed in 1993. During the following year, the regional groups amalgamated, rebranding as Hammerskin Nation, but in 1999 reverted to

6363-547: The group. Many Outlaw Hammerskins members attended the 2002 NordicFest, and the group was planning to provide security for a white pride festival hosted by the National Knights of the Ku Klux Klan . The Outlaw Hammerskins are now defunct. Many of its members have been convicted of harassment , assault and even murder . On August 5, 2012, Hammerskin Wade Michael Page was shot by police and died of

6464-496: The gun in Wisconsin. Following emergency calls around 10:25 a.m. CDT , police responded to a shooting at a Sikh gurdwara located in Oak Creek , Wisconsin. On arrival, they engaged the gunman, later identified as Wade Michael Page, who had shot several people at the temple, killing six. Page wounded an officer; after being shot in the stomach by another, he fatally shot himself in the head. Four people were killed inside

6565-464: The handgun used in the shooting on July 28, 2012, at a gun shop in West Allis , Wisconsin. Page passed the background checks required, and paid cash for the gun, along with three 19-round magazines . The owner of the gun shop said that Page's appearance and demeanor in the shop "raised no eyebrows whatsoever". Following the shooting, photographs of Page appeared in media reports showing him with

6666-407: The head. Page was an American white supremacist and Army veteran from Cudahy, Wisconsin . Apart from the shooter, all of the dead were members of the Sikh faith. The incident drew responses from President Barack Obama and Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh . Dignitaries attended candlelight vigils in countries such as the U.S., Canada, and India. First Lady Michelle Obama visited

6767-404: The incident, including the moments when Murphy was shot, and the gunman being shot by another officer. Murphy was shot fifteen times by Page, but survived. The Joint Terrorism Task Force investigated the site, and Oak Creek police chief John Edwards said his force treated the incident as a " domestic terrorism incident" in "the beginning stages of this investigation". Oak Creek police handed

6868-528: The injured was Baba Punjab Singh, a Sikh Granthi who was shot in the head. He was left partially paralyzed from the wound for more than seven years and died on March 2, 2020. Wade Michael Page (November 11, 1971 – August 5, 2012) was an American white supremacist living in Cudahy, Wisconsin . Page was born and grew up in Colorado . He served in the U.S. Army from April 1992 through October 1998, In

6969-516: The investigation over to the FBI . They also investigated possible ties to white supremacist groups and other racial motivations . The FBI said there was no reason to think anyone else was involved in the attack, and they were not aware of any past threat made against the temple. U.S. Attorney General Eric Holder described the incident as "an act of terrorism, an act of hatred, a hate crime ". The six victims killed included one woman, Paramjit Kaur, 41; and five men, Satwant Singh Kaleka, 65,

7070-399: The large-scale diffusion of the movement. By the end of 1999 there were 3,500 to 3,800 skinheads in Moscow, up to 2,700 in St Petersburg , and at least 2,000 in Nizhnii Novgorod . The movement remained unnoticed in the general public until the early 2000s, when acts of violence began to multiply. Skinheads attacked a Vietnamese hostel in October 2000, an Armenian school in March 2001, led

7171-406: The late 1970s, anti-racist forces within the skinhead subculture, sometimes called " Red Skins " when associated with left-wing politics , have sought to resist the white power skinheads, who they often deride as "boneheads". Anti-racist skinheads generally emphasize the multicultural roots of the original skinhead subculture, and the authenticity of the skinhead style, which developed outside of

7272-483: The newly established liberal state, illustrated by Boris Yeltsin 's attack on the Russian parliament during the 1993 Russian constitutional crisis , and the introduction of a state of emergency the same year to police and deport Caucasians in preparation for the First Chechen War . Sensationalized coverage of the skinhead movement by Russian state-owned media until the early 2000s has also participated in

7373-680: The only visible part if worn under open jackets – with NSDAP, the acronym of Adolf Hitler 's Nazi Party . However, the brand has also been popular since the 1980s among non-Nazi skinheads. Lonsdale has publicly denounced the trend and sponsored various anti-racist events and campaigns. White power skinheads also tend to bear tattoos displaying their affiliation to the white power movement, although some leaders have encouraged members to abstain from receiving tattoos. Frequent depictions include Viking warriors or Berserkers , World War II German soldiers (especially Waffen-SS ), and skinheads themselves – often all three together. Tattoos portraying

7474-448: The original Hammerskins logo and a symbol, logo or flag that represents the state or country. The organization is self-described as "leaderless". It maintains an active recruitment strategy, and encourages members to enlist in military forces in order to learn combat skills for an upcoming race war . Individual members have been involved in many violent attacks and hate crimes , mostly in the US, although these have not been organized by

7575-610: The others were estimated to be their friends and associates), including 5,000 in Germany, 4,000 in Czechia, 4,000 in Hungary, and 3,500 in the US. By 2002, 350 white power music bands were active the US and Western Europe, and as of 2012, about 138 racist skinhead organizations were operating worldwide. In most European countries, the racist skinhead subculture became polarized on the far-right between 1983 and 1986, and shortly after

7676-544: The perceived shift in men's styles away from traditional masculinity , which was embodied by the "middle-class, peace-loving, long-haired student" of the hippie movement . The identity of the 1960s skinheads, however, was not based on white power , neo-Nazism or neo-fascism , even though some skinheads had engaged in " Paki-bashing ", i.e. violence against Pakistanis and other South Asian immigrants . Even so, black West Indians ("Caribs") were also involved in skinhead gang attacks against South Asian immigrants, and

7777-462: The political realm. They oppose the views of white power skinheads, for whom the skinhead subculture emerged from a "pure white", working-class cultural and social context, emphasizing the " Paki-bashing " of the late 1960s to allege that the original skinheads as "white separatists". The Skinheads Against Racial Prejudice (SHARP), founded in 1986 in New York City, stress the importance of

7878-437: The punk movement emphasized nihilistic and narcissistic values instead of the working class heritage, their opposition to the middle and upper class, the adoption of Nazi imagery by some punks to maximize shock value, and the development of an underground network of punk fanzines , inspired and facilitated the parallel emergence of a racist skinhead subculture. The latent right-wing and anti-immigrant leaning, present within

7979-409: The regional system under an international umbrella. Power struggles had split the group into several factions by 2008. The website and online forums went offline in 2001 with little explanation, and not long afterwards, the white supremacist Tom Metzger announced the termination of the group known as Hammerskin Nation. However, another "official" Hammerskin Nation website was launched in 2002, which

8080-583: The sacralization of the memory of World War II". Pollard also notes that "adolescent rebellion", involving a desire to be different by rejecting prevailing societal norms by using shocking imagery (like the wearing of Nazi regalia by motorcycle gangs in the 1960s and punk rockers in the 1970s), probably plays some part in the decision to wear neo-Nazi or racist symbols, or even to adopt the ideas they embody. References to Nazism have also been less significant in countries like Italy or Hungary, where fascist figures like Benito Mussolini and Ferenc Szálasi still exert

8181-464: The skinhead movement since the late 1960s, became progressively dominant in the United Kingdom, fuelled by the job crisis, the economic decline, and an increase in immigration during the late 1970s–early 1980s. By the early 1980s, the white power skinhead subculture had spread across most of Britain, largely "through face to face interaction among the fans at football matches." The cartoon character Black Rat, created in 1970 by French artist Jack Marchal,

8282-430: The skinhead movement, and skinhead groups have also tended to revive Slavic paganism . Pollard says, however, "the appropriation of Odinist/pagan imagery and iconography by racist skinheads seems to be largely symbolic, rather than a serious attempt to adopt an alternative religion to Christianity." Also, Odinism and neo-paganism have been less popular in countries like Italy or Spain, where skinhead groups have maintained

8383-548: The skinhead pogroms, was rarely enforced by the police and skinheads are rather prosecuted for murders associated with hooliganism and everyday-life conflicts than for hate speech and racist violence. Some of the skinhead groups are autonomous, while others are linked to the US-based organizations Blood & Honour and Hammerskin Nation. Contrary to most other countries, the Russian skinhead subculture has attracted members from all income levels, and they have tended to come from

8484-422: The subculture as an opportunity to expand their audience. At the time of his death in 2002, National Alliance leader William Luther Pierce , who regarded music as an opportunity to reach a young audience and counteract mainstream cultural productions, had become the world's largest white power music producer thanks to his label Resistance Records . In 2004, the white power label Panzerfaust Records launched

8585-480: The subculture. These laces are usually done in a "ladder" style: laces are done horizontally instead of crossed. In a few gangs, these laces must be "earned" through acts of racist violence against a "perceived enemy of the white race". In the early 2000s, the Lonsdale clothing brand became popular among some neo-Nazi skinheads in Europe, partly due to the association of the four middle letters of Lonsdale – NSDA,

8686-467: The takeover of Blood & Honour by Combat 18 , "a more extreme, semi-terrorist neo-Nazi splinter group", and eventually to bloody internal feuds between Combat 18 supporters and Blood & Honour loyalists in the mid- and late 1990s. In 1985, a French worker at the Brest Arsenal , Gaël Bodilis, created the label Rebelles Européens , which had an allegiance to neo-Nazism. It was associated with

8787-429: The temple on August 23, 2012. The gurdwara was preparing langar , a Sikh communal meal, for later in the day. Witnesses suggested that women and children would have been at the temple preparing for the meal at the time of the incident, as children's classes were scheduled to begin at 11:30 a.m. Wade Michael Page was armed with a 9mm Springfield XD(M) semi-automatic pistol . Page had legally purchased

8888-449: The temple, and three people, including Page, died outside. Page killed five men and one woman, ranging in age from 39 to 84. Three men were transported to Froedtert Hospital , including one of the responding officers. Initial reports said the gunman had died from being shot by police officers at the scene, but the FBI later clarified that Page, after being shot by an officer, died from

8989-548: The victims at Gurudwara Bangla Sahib in New Delhi. Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh said that the attack being at a Sikh temple added to the pain, and stated that India stood in support of all peace-loving Americans who condemned the shooting. Following the incident, there were vigils as well as some protests against the United States by Sikhs in India . On August 9, Indian members of parliament in New Delhi joined ranks in parliament to offer condolences to families of

9090-409: The victims. Jathedar Giani Gurbachan Singh , the highest-ranking Sikh Granthi in the faith, called the shooting a "security lapse" by the U.S. government, and recommended that Sikhs in the United States adopt all possible security measures at their temples. Oak Creek Sikh residents said the incident had shocked their community. Many Sikh Americans did not approve of the protests in India against

9191-604: The violence has been interpreted by Alexander Tarasov as a social conflict caused by the new presence of South Asian traders and shopkeepers within a community of white and West Indian poor factory workers. Clarke similarly notes that areas where skinheads became the most prominent were "typically either new council housing estates or old estates being either developed or experiencing an afflux of outsiders", either Commonwealth immigrants or middle-class whites in search of affordable housing. The leading politician Enoch Powell and his inflammatory 1968 "Rivers of Blood" speech gave

9292-430: The younger generation, while new racist skinhead groups are emerging only from the fragments of existing groups. No group is recruiting in significant numbers." Sarah Lawrence College journalist Chelsea Liu identified their fashion style as one possible reason for the decline, seeing it as "increasingly obsolete" and noting the alt-right 's preference for casual clothing. Since the emergence of white power skinheads in

9393-459: Was a self-declared reaffirmation of the traditional working class puritanism and gender roles – in fact "a stylized re-recreation of an image of the working class", which seemed threatened in their views with contamination by the permissive and hedonistic culture of the British middle-class in the 1960–1970s. For instance, the defining skinhead short haircut mostly emerged in reaction to

9494-423: Was adopted by young neo-Fascists in various European nations and became an essential marker of the fringe culture. Music played a key symbolic role in the political polarization of the skinhead subculture. Marchal recorded a French rock album named Science & Violence in 1979, and German students of the neo-Nazi party NPD formed the first German nationalist rock group in 1977. A new music genre , Oi! –

9595-566: Was created in 2009, for those who were unable to commit to full membership. In October 2019, the Southern Cross Hammerskins along with Blood & Honour Australia held the annual Ian Stuart Donaldson Memorial Concert in Melbourne. Various human rights , faith, trade union and anti-discrimination groups lobbied the Victorian Government to stop the concert, to no avail, and it went ahead as intended. The German chapter of

9696-474: Was firmly associated with right-wing politics and " white power music " in the public's opinion by 1982. According to Brown, some lyrical themes of Oi!, such as social frustrations, political repression and working-class pride, were common to other genres such as country music or blues, but others like violence ("Aggro", for 'aggressiveness') and football hooliganism "could be easily interpreted in extreme right-wing terms." The phrase " all cops are bastards "

9797-649: Was imprisoned for assault. Shortly thereafter in 1985, the American Front emerged in San Francisco. As other groups like the Hammerskins (1987) or Volksfront (1994) were growing in the country, racist skinheads gained acceptance among existing and organized US white power organizations like the Church of the Creator , White Aryan Resistance , National Alliance or KKK, which perceived the popularity of

9898-492: Was popularized among some skinheads by the Oi! band The 4-Skins ' 1982 song "A.C.A.B." From the late 1970s the National Front (NF), a British neo-fascist party which was losing ground in electoral politics, began to turn toward the skinhead movement to obtain grassroots supporters among the working class. The Rock against Communism (RAC) genre, relaunched in 1982 by Skrewdriver leader Ian Stuart Donaldson in association with

9999-542: Was soon taken, changed and redesigned for the white supremacist group in Dallas. The portrayal of the fictional group in the film was intended to show Nazism negatively and as a parody . Their logo and the motto "Hammerskins forever, forever hammerskins" ("H.F.F.H.") often appear in their paraphernalia and tattoos . Crew 38 and Hammerskins members also frequently identify themselves with the slogan "838", meaning "hail [the] crossed hammers" (the initialism H.C.H. translates into

10100-416: Was still active as of October 2018 but without online forums , but was inactive by April 2020. The Hammerskins logo and design, depicting two red and black crossed claw hammers , was taken from a fictitious neo-Nazi organization depicted in the 1982 film Pink Floyd – The Wall . The two crossed hammer was designed by Gerald Scarfe who made it for Pink Floyd 's 1979 album The Wall and its movie, it

10201-769: Was structured around Jeunesses Nationalistes-Révolutionnaires (JNR), founded in 1987 by Serge Ayoub . It was linked to the label Rebelles Européens and to the neo-fascist organization Troisième Voie , then to the French Nationalist Party . The JNR initially performed policing functions for the French Front National , but the latter eventually distanced itself from Ayoub and the JNR after mass skinhead attacks on immigrants in Rouen and Brest. The Russian white power skinhead subculture takes its roots in

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