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88-544: The unit opened in 1885. Its first brick building was in 1933. The unit was originally known as the Harlem II Unit , and at a later point it became the Jester II Unit . In 1963, before racial desegregation occurred, the facility housed Hispanic and Latino Americans over the age of 25. The unit was named after Governor of Texas Beauford H. Jester . Carol Vance , a former Harris County district attorney and

176-608: A sin instead of a disease . The program told prisoners that homosexuality , masturbation , and premarital sexual intercourse were sins. In order to graduate from IFI, one had to be employed for six months after he was released, as well as meet with a trained local mentor, and attend a pro-social group. Some IFI prisoners were involved in Habitat for Humanity projects. PFI paid the University of Pennsylvania 's Center for Research on Religion and Urban Civil Society to conduct

264-515: A 2015 survey, 71% of American Hispanics agreed that it "is not necessary for a person to speak Spanish to be considered Hispanic/Latino". Hispanic and Latino people may share some commonalities in their language, culture, history, and heritage. According to the Smithsonian Institution , the term Latino includes peoples with Portuguese roots, such as Brazilians , as well as those of Spanish-language origin. The difference between

352-570: A Cuban, Mexican, and Puerto Rican American. The United States Census Bureau defines being Hispanic as being a member of an ethnicity, rather than being a member of a particular race and thus, people who are members of this group may also be members of any race. In a 2015 national survey of self-identified Hispanics, 56% said that being Hispanic is part of both their racial and ethnic background, while smaller numbers considered it part of their ethnic background only (19%) or racial background only (11%). Hispanics may be of any linguistic background; in

440-611: A Houston prisoner who may be in a faraway prison would be attracted to Vance because of its proximity to the city. Nowell added that another possible motivation for going to Vance was the air conditioned classrooms. Some TDCJ prisoners believed that a person who declined the opportunity to volunteer for the InnerChange Freedom Initiative program would be denied parole. The 15-hour days of InnerChange Freedom Initiative participants are dominated by Christian beliefs. Many Bible study sessions are held. For instance

528-406: A big impact because it's additional pressure to pass an extra exam apart from their own original classes. Furthermore, if the exam is not passed before they attend high school, the student will fall behind in their courses due to the additional ELD courses instead of taking their normal classes in that year. However, the great majority of these programs are English Immersion, which arguably undermines

616-581: A chaplain in the program, said that most IFI graduates become Christians. Scott Nowell of the Houston Press said in 2003 that in the prison, "fights are virtually unheard of, the guards are friendly, and the living conditions are as good or better than any prison in Texas." Prisoners referred to Vance as a " Cadillac Unit." Jesse Hyde of the Dallas Observer said "Visitors have remarked that

704-480: A close proximity to the prison grounds. Many custom houses are adjacent to the unit; some are worth about one million dollars each. Jesse Hyde of the Dallas Observer said that Vance "looks like any other minimum-security prison in Texas—a cluster of brick buildings, a fence topped with razor wire, a group of inmates loitering in the yard." However the interior is decorated differently than in other prisons; for instance

792-450: A group of ex-inmates those who hold jobs is going to look like a miracle cure" and "The InnerChange cheerleaders simply ignored the other 102 participants who dropped out, were kicked out or got early parole and didn't finish. If you select out the winners, you leave mostly losers." Chuck Colson responded to Kleiman's article. Colson accused the article of being an attack against Bush and his promotion of faith-based programs. Scott Nowell of

880-628: A marked difference between the prisoners who have just arrived at InnerChange and those who are about to leave." The program was formerly available in Iowa . The Iowa program was held at the Newton Correctional Facility of the Iowa Department of Corrections . Three programs were closed during the summer of 2011; Arkansas, Missouri and Kansas. Budget cuts with the parent organization, Prison Fellowship, were cited as

968-721: A percentage of Americans had fled their jobs for the war, Hispanics had taken their jobs in the Industrial world. This can explain why there is such a high concentration of Hispanic Americans in Metro Areas such as the Chicago-Elgin-Naperville, Detroit-Warren-Dearborn, and Cleveland-Elyria areas. Hispanic and Latino Americans were actively involved in the broader civil rights movement of the 20th century, advocating for equal rights, social justice, and an end to discrimination and segregation. Organizations such as

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1056-533: A population boom and rapid economic growth in California, transforming the social and political landscape of the region. Many Hispanic natives lived in the areas that the United States acquired, and a new wave of Mexican, Central American, Caribbean, and South American immigrants had moved to the United States for new opportunities. This was the beginning of a demographic that would rise dramatically over

1144-449: A recidivism rate of 20%. The overall State of Texas recidivism rate was 30%. According to the study, as a whole the group who participated in IFI had a higher likelihood of being rearrested than the control group, with 36% arrested within two years, while 35% of the control group was arrested within two years. 24% of all of the IFI participants were reimprisoned, while 20% of the control group

1232-594: A result of their racial diversity, Hispanics form an ethnicity sharing a language ( Spanish ) and cultural heritage, rather than a race . Hispanic origin is independent of race and is termed "ethnicity" by the United States Census Bureau . On the 2020 United States census , 20.3% of Hispanics selected "White" as their race. This marked a large drop when compared to the 2010 United States census in which 53.0% of Hispanics identified as "White". These Hispanics make up 12,579,626 people or 3.8% of

1320-656: A single man joins this female group). A 2020 Pew Research Center survey found that about 3% of Hispanics use the term (mostly women), and only around 23% have even heard of the term. Of those, 65% said it should not be used to describe their ethnic group. Some have pointed out that the term "Hispanic" refers to a pan-ethnic identity, one that spans a range of races, national origins, and linguistic backgrounds. "Terms like Hispanic and Latino do not fully capture how we see ourselves", says Geraldo Cadava, an associate professor of history and Hispanic studies at Northwestern University . According to 2017 American Community Survey data,

1408-459: A small minority of immigrants from Brazil (2%), Portugal (2%), and the Philippines (1%) self-identified as Hispanic. Spanish explorers were pioneers in the territory of the present-day United States. The first confirmed European landing in the continental United States was by Juan Ponce de León , who landed in 1513 at a lush shore he christened La Florida . In the next three decades,

1496-634: A study on the effectiveness of the IFI program in the Carol Vance Unit in Fort Bend County, Texas . The study considered the IFI participants and a control group. 177 prisoners participated in the IFI program, and 75 of those prisoners graduated. In order to graduate, a prisoner was required to continue participating in the program after his release, including complying with the employment requirement. The 102 prisoners who did not graduate either received early parole and did not finish, left

1584-637: A week in mid-September as National Hispanic Heritage Week, with Congress 's authorization. In 1988, President Ronald Reagan extended the observance to a month, designated National Hispanic Heritage Month . Hispanic Americans became the largest minority group in 2004. Hispanic and Latino Americans increasingly sought political representation and empowerment during the 20th century. The election of individuals such as Edward Roybal , Henry B. González , and Dennis Chávez to Congress marked significant milestones in Hispanic political representation. Additionally,

1672-466: A yet more inclusive "x" to replace the "a" and "o", in a complete break with the gender binary . Among the advocates of the term LatinX , one of the most frequently cited complaints of gender bias in the Spanish language is that a group of mixed or unknown gender would be referred to as Latinos , whereas Latinas refers to a group of women only (but this is changed immediately to Latinos , if even

1760-542: Is a Hispanic "Education Crisis" due to failed school and social policies. To this end, scholars have further offered several potential reasons including language barriers, poverty, and immigrant/nativity status resulting in Hispanics not performing well academically. Currently, Hispanic students make up 80% of English-language learners in the United States. In 2008–2009, 5.3 million students were classified as English Language Learners (ELLs) in pre-K to 12th grade. This

1848-398: Is a large portion of Hispanics who trace their ancestry to settlers from New Spain (Mexico), and sometimes Spain itself, in the late 16th century through the 17th century. People from this background often self-identify as "Hispanos", "Spanish" or "Hispanic". Many of these settlers also intermarried with local Native Americans, creating a mestizo population. Likewise, southern Louisiana

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1936-645: Is a result of many students entering the education system at different ages, although the majority of ELLs are not foreign born. In order to provide English instruction for Hispanic students there have been a multitude of English Language programs. Schools make demands when it comes to English fluency. There are test requirements to certify students who are non-native English speakers in writing, speaking, reading, and listening, for example. They take an ELPAC test, which evaluates their English efficiency. This assessment determines whether they are considered ELL students or not. For Hispanic students, being an ELL student will have

2024-519: Is a term "simultaneous bilinguals" it is emerged on the research from Guadalupe Valdez she states that it is used by individuals who acquire two languages as a "first" language; that most American circumstantial bilinguals acquire their ethnic or immigrant language first and then acquire English. The period of acquisition of the second language is known as incipient bilingualism. Those with a bachelor's degree or higher ranges from 50% of Venezuelans compared to 18% for Ecuadorians 25 years and older. Amongst

2112-541: Is both a Hispanic and a Latino. A Brazilian American is also a Latino by this definition, which includes those of Portuguese-speaking origin from Latin America. In English, Italian Americans are not considered "Latino", as they are for the most part descended from immigrants from Europe rather than Latin America, unless they happen to have had recent history in a Latin American country. Preference of use between

2200-417: Is employed to coin compounded formations (similar as franc o- in franc o canadiense 'French-Canadian', or ibero- in iberorrománico , etc.). The term Latinx (and similar neologism Xicanx ) have gained some usage. The adoption of the X would be "[r]eflecting new consciousness inspired by more recent work by LGBTQI and feminist movements, some Spanish-speaking activists are increasingly using

2288-473: Is home to communities of people of Canary Islands descent, known as Isleños , in addition to other people of Spanish ancestry. Californios , Nuevomexicanos and Tejanos are Americans of Spanish and/or Mexican descent, with subgroups that sometimes call themselves Chicanos . Nuevomexicanos and Tejanos are distinct southwest Hispanic cultures with their own cuisines, dialects and musical traditions. Nuyoricans are Americans of Puerto Rican descent from

2376-502: Is released. Some IFI prisoners are involved in Habitat for Humanity projects. Hispanic and Latino Americans Hispanic and Latino Americans ( Spanish : Estadounidenses hispanos y latinos ; Portuguese : Americanos Hispânicos e latinos ) are Americans (in U.S.A.) of full or partial Spanish and/or Latin American background, culture, or family origin. These demographics include all Americans who identify as Hispanic or Latino regardless of race. As of 2020,

2464-680: Is today the American Southwest and West Coast , as well as Florida. Its holdings included present-day California, Texas, New Mexico, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, and Florida, all of which constituted part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain , based in Mexico City . Later, this vast territory became part of Mexico after its independence from Spain in 1821 and until the end of the Mexican–American War in 1848. Hispanic immigrants to

2552-432: The Houston Press said that "Colson didn't really address Kleiman's argument of selection bias." Jerry Bryan, a chaplain who participated in the program, said that it would not be fair to consider the people who did not graduate the program in determining whether or not the program is a success. Bryan said "There's a pool of people who don't get anything . That shouldn't count against us. Many offenders volunteer for all

2640-598: The Alcoholics Anonymous meetings directly refer to Jesus instead of using the phrase "higher power." The program considers drug addiction to be a sin instead of a disease . The program tells prisoners that homosexuality , masturbation , and premarital sexual intercourse are sins that will draw people back into criminal behavior. The program cautions prisoners against using Dungeons & Dragons , horoscopes , and Ouija boards . In order to graduate from IFI, one has to be employed for six months after he

2728-596: The Americans United for Separation of Church and State criticized the implementation of a state-funded IFI program in Iowa, accusing it of violating the United States Constitution 's separation of church and state provisions. The program was closed in 2016. A prisoner's participation in the IFI began 24 to 18 months before his or her scheduled release. Phases one and two occurred during

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2816-785: The Great Lakes states and the South Atlantic states , Mexicans and Puerto Ricans dominate. Mexicans dominate in the rest of the country, including the West , South Central and Great Plains states. As of 2022, approximately 60.1% of the nation's Hispanic population were of Mexican origin (see table). Another 9.6% were of Puerto Rican origin, and with about 3.9% each of Cuban and Salvadoran and about 3.7% Dominican origins. The remainder were of other Central American or of South American origin, or of origin directly from Spain. In 2017, Two thirds of all Hispanic Americans were born in

2904-801: The Gulf of California . In 1540, Hernando de Soto undertook an extensive exploration of the present United States. Also in 1540, Francisco Vásquez de Coronado led 2,000 Spaniards and Mexican natives across today's Arizona –Mexico border and traveled as far as central Kansas , close to the exact geographic center of what is now the continental United States. Other Spanish explorers of the US territory include, among others: Alonso Alvarez de Pineda , Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón , Pánfilo de Narváez , Sebastián Vizcaíno , Gaspar de Portolà , Pedro Menéndez de Avilés , Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca , Tristán de Luna y Arellano , and Juan de Oñate , and non-Spanish explorers working for

2992-671: The Houston area. The program was modeled after a Christian-based prison program in Brazil. The Texas Board of Criminal Justice voted to rename the Jester II Unit to the Carol Vance Unit. On Wednesday September 15, 1999, the Jester II Unit was officially renamed the Carol Vance Unit during ceremonies beginning at 10:30 AM that day. By 2010, due to the expansion of Greater Houston , housing developments have appeared within

3080-647: The League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC) and the United Farm Workers (UFW) fought for the rights of Hispanic and Latino workers and communities. Hispanic contributions in the historical past and present of the United States are addressed in more detail below (See Notables and their contributions ). To recognize the current and historic contributions of Hispanic Americans, on September 17, 1968, President Lyndon B. Johnson designated

3168-592: The New York / New Jersey metropolitan area derive from a broad spectrum of Hispanic countries. The terms Hispanic and Latino refer to an ethnicity . Hispanic first came into popular use to refer to individuals with origins in Spanish-speaking countries after the Office of Management and Budget created the classification in 1977, as proposed by a subcommittee composed of three government employees,

3256-588: The New York City area. There are close to two million Nuyoricans in the United States. Prominent Nuyoricans include Congresswoman Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez , US Supreme Court Judge Sonia Sotomayor , and singer Jennifer Lopez . Hispanics come from multi-racial and multi-ethnic countries with diversity of origins; therefore, a Hispanic can be from any race or mix of races. The most common ancestries are: Native American, European and African. Many also have colonial era New Christian Sephardic Jewish ancestry. As

3344-1001: The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo after the Mexican-American War , as well as Florida through the Adams-Onís treaty , and the U.S territory of Puerto Rico through the Spanish-American War in 1898. Many Latinos residing in those regions during that period gained U.S. citizenship. Nonetheless, many long-established Latino residents faced significant difficulties post-citizenship. With the arrival of Anglo-Americans in these newly incorporated areas, Latino inhabitants struggled to maintain their land holdings, political influence, and cultural traditions. The discovery of gold in California in 1848 attracted people from diverse backgrounds, including Hispanic and Latino miners, merchants, and settlers. The Gold Rush led to

3432-522: The West Coast and West South Central regions, where the Hispanic population is predominantly Mexican-American , had an average of 43% Native American ancestry. On the other hand, those from the Mid-Atlantic region, where the Hispanic population is predominantly of Puerto Rican or Dominican descent, averaged only 11% Native American ancestry. As of 2014, one third, or 17.9 million, of

3520-690: The "faith factor" often makes faith-based programs more effective than their purely secular counterparts." After the study, the Executive Branch of the Federal Government of the United States under President George W. Bush began to request federal funding for IFI programs from the United States Congress . Mark A. R. Kleiman , a University of California, Los Angeles professor who studied crime, decided to study IFI. According to Kleiman, when first encountering

3608-460: The 'intent to treat,' it's a loser." Kleiman stated that he was not opposed to the IFI program, but that he was opposed to the study. Kleiman posted an essay critical of the study and the pro-IFI interpretations from the study, "Faith-Based Fudging," at MSN.com . His study is also posted on the Slate website. Kleiman criticized the promoters of the program, saying "Anything that selects out from

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3696-442: The 2010 census, Hispanics are now the largest minority group in 191 out of 366 metropolitan areas in the United States. The projected Hispanic population of the United States for July 1, 2050 is 132.8 million people, or 30.2% of the nation's total projected population on that date. US Metropolitan Statistical Areas with over 1 million Hispanics (2014) States and territories with the highest proportion of Hispanics (2021) Of

3784-418: The 21st century, including initiatives to support bilingual education, celebrate cultural traditions and festivals, and recognize the contributions of Hispanic and Latino individuals and communities to American society. As of 2020, Hispanics accounted for 19–20% of the US population, or 62–65 million people. The US Census Bureau later estimated that Hispanics were under-counted by 5.0% or 3.3 million persons in

3872-485: The Americas were part of a broader network of trade routes that connected Europe, Africa, and the Americas. The Spanish established trade connections with indigenous peoples, exchanging goods such as furs , hides , agricultural products, and manufactured goods. These trade networks contributed to the economic development of Spanish colonies and facilitated cultural exchange between different groups. As late as 1783, at

3960-561: The Census Bureau estimated that there were almost 65.3 million Hispanics and Latinos living in the United States and its territories . "Origin" can be viewed as the ancestry, nationality group, lineage or country of birth of the person or the person's parents or ancestors before their arrival in the United States of America. People who identify as Hispanic or Latino may be of any race, because similarly to what occurred during

4048-525: The Hispanic population was younger than 18 and a quarter, 14.6 million, were Millennials . This makes them more than half of the Hispanic population within the United States. With the increasing Hispanic population in the United States, Hispanics have had a considerable impact on the K–12 system. In 2011–12, Hispanics comprised 24% of all enrollments in the United States, including 52% and 51% of enrollment in California and Texas, respectively. Further research shows

4136-491: The Hispanic population will continue to grow in the United States, implicating that more Hispanics will populate US schools. The state of Hispanic education shows some promise. First, Hispanic students attending pre-K or kindergarten were more likely to attend full-day programs. Second, Hispanics in elementary education were the second largest group represented in gifted and talented programs. Third, Hispanics' average NAEP math and reading scores have consistently increased over

4224-635: The IFI program had 179 participants, with the program occupying 200 of the 378 beds in the Vance Unit. Incoming inmates complete a 30-day self-study orientation. As of 2010 the eligible groups of inmates allowed to participate are those expected to be released in the Greater Houston and the Dallas/Fort Worth Metroplex areas, and the program has space for 300 men. As of 2004 the only group offenders that may participate in

4312-646: The IFI program were those who were expected to be released in Harris County or counties surrounding Harris County. Inmates who volunteer for the program must be classified at the minimum security custody level. Inmates are required to speak the English language , be within three years of release, and have a good behavior record. Sex offenders are not permitted to participate, as IFI program participants are required to do community work. Atheists , Christians , Jews , and Muslims have enrolled in IFI. Jerry Bryan,

4400-460: The Penn study. Phillips concluded that "Considering all participants, IFI does not reduce recidivism. Considering the graduates, IFI leads to a dramatic reduction in recidivism. Is it appropriate to just consider graduates? No." He added, "Even the most rigorous evaluation would probably conclude that IFI has real benefits for the small number of inmates who are both interested in the program and complete

4488-846: The Spanish Caribbean islands, including the Cuban, Dominican , Panamanian and Puerto Rican communities. In Puerto Rico, people have some Native Indigenous American ancestry as well as European and Canary Islander ancestry. There's also a population of predominantly African descent as well as populations of Native American descent as well as those with intermixed ancestries. Cubans are mostly of Iberian and Canary Islander ancestry, with some heritage from Native Indigenous Caribbean. There are also populations of Black Sub-Saharan ancestry and multi-racial people. The race and culture of each Hispanic country and their United States diaspora differs by history and geography. Welch and Sigelman found, as of

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4576-482: The Spanish Crown, such as Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo . In 1565, the Spanish created the first permanent European settlement in the continental United States, at St. Augustine, Florida . Spanish missionaries and colonists founded settlements including in the present-day Santa Fe, New Mexico , El Paso , San Antonio , Tucson , Albuquerque , San Diego , Los Angeles , and San Francisco . Spanish settlements in

4664-845: The Spanish became the first Europeans to reach the Appalachian Mountains , the Mississippi River , the Grand Canyon and the Great Plains . Spanish ships sailed along the Atlantic Coast , penetrating to present-day Bangor, Maine , and up the Pacific Coast as far as Oregon . From 1528 to 1536, Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca and three fellows (including an African named Estevanico ), from a Spanish expedition that foundered, journeyed from Florida to

4752-508: The US census, which explains the 3 million range in the number above. In contrast, Whites were over-counted by about 3 million. The Hispanic growth rate over the April 1, 2000 to July 1, 2007, period was 28.7%—about four times the rate of the nation's total population growth (at 7.2%). The growth rate from July 1, 2005, to July 1, 2006, alone was 3.4% —about three and a half times the rate of the nation's total population growth (at 1.0%). Based on

4840-452: The US, found that self-identified Hispanic Americans had a higher average amount of Native American ancestry compared to Black and non-Hispanic White Americans. On average, Hispanic Americans were found to be just over half European, around 38% Native American, and less than 10% African. However, these results, being an average of the entire Hispanic population, vary sharply between individuals and between regions. Hispanic participants from

4928-672: The United States , Hispanics and Latinos form a pan-ethnicity incorporating a diversity of inter-related cultural and linguistic heritages, the use of the Spanish and Portuguese languages being the most important of all. The largest national origin groups of Hispanic and Latino Americans in order of population size are: Mexican , Puerto Rican , Cuban , Salvadoran , Dominican , Brazilian , Colombian , Guatemalan , Honduran , Ecuadorian , Peruvian , Venezuelan , or Nicaraguan origin. The predominant origin of regional Hispanic and Latino populations varies widely in different locations across

5016-569: The United States, the student not only enters a new country, language or culture, but they also enter a testing culture to determine everything from their placements to advancement into the next grade level in their education. Moreover, Hispanics' immigration/nativity status plays a major role regarding their academic achievement. For instance, first- and second- generation Hispanics outperform their later generational counterparts. Additionally, their aspirations appear to decrease as well. This has major implications on their post-secondary futures. There

5104-522: The United States. There are few immigrants directly from Spain, since Spaniards have historically emigrated to Hispanic America rather than to English-speaking countries. Because of this, most Hispanics who identify themselves as Spaniard or Spanish also identify with Hispanic American national origin. In the 2017 Census estimate approximately 1.76 million Americans reported some form of " Spanish " as their ancestry, whether directly from Spain or not. In northern New Mexico and southern Colorado , there

5192-402: The United States. However, since the landmark Supreme Court case Plyler v. Doe in 1982, immigrants have received access to K-12 education. This significantly impacted all immigrant groups, including Hispanics. However, their academic achievement is dependent upon several factors including, but not limited to time of arrival and schooling in country of origin. When non-native speakers arrive to

5280-411: The Vance Unit feels more like a Bible college than a prison." Hyde added that inmates "carry Bibles as if they were prison-issue" and "talk incessantly of Jesus ." According to Hyde, many prisoners awaken in the early morning to pray and study scripture. Hyde added "it is not uncommon to see men of various races, marked with tattoos of rival prison gangs, circled together to pray." Nowell stated that

5368-412: The appointment of individuals like Lauro Cavazos and Bill Richardson to cabinet positions highlighted the growing influence of Hispanic and Latino leaders in government. Hispanic and Latino Americans became the largest minority group in the United States, contributing significantly to the country's population growth. Efforts to preserve and promote Hispanic and Latino culture and heritage continued in

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5456-600: The chairperson of the Texas Board of Criminal Justice, asked state officials to implement the first Christian faith-based prison program at Jester II. State officials began to implement the program in 1996. The InnerChange Freedom Initiative (IFI) program, which was operated by Prison Fellowship Ministries and was founded by Charles Colson , first came to Jester II in April 1997. The TDCJ selected Vance due to its location in Greater Houston as aftercare resources for released prisoners and volunteer recruitment were centered in

5544-425: The colonization and post-independence of the United States, Latin American countries had their populations made up of multiracial and monoracial descendants of white European colonizers , indigenous peoples of the Americas , descendants of black African slaves , and post-independence immigrants from Europe , Middle East , and East Asia . As one of the only two specifically designated categories of ethnicity in

5632-480: The country. In 2012, Hispanic Americans were the second fastest-growing ethnic group by percentage growth in the United States after Asian Americans . Multiracial Americans of Indigenous American descent and European (typically Spanish) descent are the second oldest racial group (after the Native Americans ) to inhabit much of what is today the United States. Spain colonized large areas of what

5720-546: The definition to "a person of Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Dominican, South or Central American, or other Spanish culture or origin, regardless of race". This is now the common formal and colloquial definition of the term within the United States, outside of New Mexico. This definition is consistent with the 21st century usage by the US Census Bureau and OMB , as the two agencies use both terms Hispanic and Latino interchangeably. The Pew Research Center believes that

5808-571: The end of the American Revolutionary War (a conflict in which Spain aided and fought alongside the rebels), Spain held claim to roughly half the territory of today's continental United States. From 1819 to 1848, the United States increased its area by roughly a third at Spanish and Mexican expense, acquiring the present-day U.S states of California , Texas , Nevada , Utah , most of Colorado , New Mexico and Arizona , and parts of Oklahoma , Kansas , and Wyoming through

5896-534: The largest Hispanic groups, those with a bachelor's or higher was 25% for Cubans, 16% of Puerto Ricans, 15% of Dominicans, and 11% for Mexicans. Over 21% of all second-generation Dominican Americans have college degrees, slightly below the national average (28%) but significantly higher than US-born Mexican Americans (13%) and US-born Puerto Rican Americans (12%). Hispanics make up the second or third largest ethnic group in Ivy League universities, considered to be

5984-542: The largest populations of Mexicans and Central American Hispanics in the United States. The Northeast region is dominated by Dominican Americans and Puerto Ricans , having the highest concentrations of both in the country. In the Mid Atlantic region, centered on the DC Metro Area , Salvadoran Americans are the largest of Hispanic groups. Florida is dominated by Cuban Americans and Puerto Ricans. In both

6072-506: The last 10 years. Finally, Hispanics were more likely than other groups, including White people, to go to college. However, their academic achievement in early childhood, elementary, and secondary education lag behind other groups. For instance, their average math and reading NAEP scores were lower than every other group, except African Americans, and have the highest dropout rate of any group, 13% despite decreasing from 24%. To explain these disparities, some scholars have suggested there

6160-481: The most prestigious in the United States. Hispanic enrollment at Ivy League universities has gradually increased over the years. Today, Hispanics make up between 8% of students at Yale University to 15% at Columbia University . For example, 18% of students in the Harvard University Class of 2018 are Hispanic. InnerChange Freedom Initiative The InnerChange Freedom Initiative ( IFI )

6248-569: The nation's total Hispanic population, 49% (21.5 million) live in California or Texas . In 2022, New York City and Washington, D.C. began receiving significant numbers of Latino migrants from the state of Texas, mostly originating from Venezuela , Ecuador , Colombia , and Honduras . Over half of the Hispanic population is concentrated in the Southwest region, mostly composed of Mexican Americans. California and Texas have some of

6336-445: The population. Over 42% of Hispanic Americans identify as " some other race ". Of all Americans who checked the box "Some Other Race", 97 percent were Hispanic. These Hispanics make up 26,225,882 people or 42.2% of the Hispanic population. Over half of the " two or more races " respondents were Hispanics. These Hispanics make up 20,299,960 people or 32.7% of the Hispanic population. The largest numbers of Black Hispanics are from

6424-419: The prisoner's incarceration; phase one concerned what the program referred to as the inmate's "personal values and thought processes and encourages the development of spiritual and moral filters." The program stated that the second phase "tests the inmate's value system in real-life settings and prepares him/her for life after prison. Inmates may spend much of the day in off-site prison work programs or involved in

6512-435: The program, or were expelled from the program. The members of the IFI group who had their recidivism rates tracked were released from prison before September 1, 2000. PFI intended for the study to have a favorable result so that the study would assist PFI's efforts to receive federal funding. The study concluded that the prisoners who graduated from the program had a recidivism rate of 8 percent. The study's control group had

6600-599: The program. But at this point it's impossible to be sure." Nowell stated that the Christians involved in the IFI program in the Vance Unit support the program and do not regard the results of the study. Kleiman stated that the participants were "not trying to achieve statistical significance, they're interested in individual salvation." Responding to the point, Nowell said "The men who have stuck with InnerChange exhibit an air of calmness and stability not often found in those who've done time in Texas. And there even seems to be

6688-470: The reentry portion of the IFI curriculum." After release, the prisoner participated in IFI programming for an additional 12 months, with volunteer mentors providing mentoring and support. The 15-hour days of the participants were dominated by Christian beliefs. Many Bible study sessions were held. For instance the Alcoholics Anonymous meetings directly referred to Jesus instead of using the phrase "higher power." The program considered drug addiction to be

6776-420: The students' culture and knowledge of their primary language. As such, there continues to be great debate within schools as to which program can address these language disparities. There are more than five million ELLs from all over the world attending public schools in the United States and speaking at least 460 different languages . Undocumented immigrants have not always had access to compulsory education in

6864-420: The study, he stated that he thought "This is interesting. Those look like good recidivism numbers, and good recidivism numbers are hard to find." Upon examining the study, Kleiman concluded that IFI selected prisoners who were already motivated and disciplined and more likely to succeed to participate in the program. Kleiman said that the study "gives you this happy horseshit about the graduates, but if you look at

6952-498: The term Hispanic is strictly limited to Spain , Puerto Rico , and all countries where Spanish is the only official language whereas "Latino" includes all countries in Latin America (even Brazil regardless of the fact that Portuguese is its only official language), but it does not include Spain and Portugal. The terms Latino and Latina are loan words from Italy and are ultimately from ancient Rome . In English,

7040-438: The term Latino is a condensed form of "latinoamericano" , the Spanish term for a Latin American, or someone who comes from Latin America. The term Latino has developed a number of definitions. This definition, as a "male Latin American inhabitant of the United States", is the oldest definition which is used in the United States, it was first used in 1946. Under this definition a Mexican American or Puerto Rican , for example,

7128-574: The terms Hispanic and Latino is ambiguous to some people. The US Census Bureau equates the two terms and defines them as referring to anyone from Spain or the Spanish- or Portuguese-speaking countries of the Americas. After the Mexican–American War concluded in 1848, term Hispanic or Spanish American was primarily used to describe the Hispanos of New Mexico within the American Southwest . The 1970 United States census controversially broadened

7216-562: The terms among Hispanics in the United States often depends on where users of the respective terms reside. Those in the Eastern United States tend to prefer the term Hispanic , whereas those in the West tend to prefer Latino . The US ethnic designation Latino is abstracted from the longer form latinoamericano . The element Latino- is actually an indeclinable, compositional form in -o (i.e. an elemento compositivo ) that

7304-769: The walls have murals depicting events in Christianity, including the Crucifixion of Jesus and an apocalyptic vision from the Book of Revelation . In the Vance Unit, the State of Texas operates services regarding to the safety and physical care of the prisoners, while the Innerchange Freedom Initiative operates all of the programming. The InnerChange Freedom Initiative (IFI) program is operated with no additional cost to Texas taxpayers. As of 2002

7392-466: The wrong reasons. The most prevalent is 'I'll get more visits.'" Nowell stated that "no one outside the Christian community is making much of an argument with Kleiman's position -- not even the study's author, Byron Johnson. Johnson has declined all media requests since Kleiman's story appeared." The Houston Press asked Scott Phillips, a Rice University assistant professor of sociology, to examine

7480-502: The year 2000, lower interaction between Latinos of different nationalities (such as between Cubans and Mexicans) than between Latinos and non-Latinos. This is a reminder that while they are often treated as such, Latinos in the United States are not a monolith, and often view their own ethnic or national identity as vastly different from that of other Latinos. An automosal DNA study published in 2019, focusing specifically on Native American ancestry in different ethnic/racial groups within

7568-523: The years. During the 20th and 21st centuries, Hispanic immigration to the United States increased markedly following changes to the immigration law in 1965. During the World Wars, Hispanic Americans and immigrants had helped stabilize the American economy from falling due to the industrial boom in the Midwest in states such as Michigan, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. While

7656-402: Was an American Christian prison program operated by Prison Fellowship International (PFI), a 501(c)(3) nonprofit established by Chuck Colson . The program was closed in 2016. In 1997 the IFI program was introduced to the Carol Vance Unit , a prison in unincorporated Fort Bend County, Texas . Since then, other IFI programs opened at other prisons throughout the United States. In 2003

7744-562: Was reimprisoned. The study did not track the employment statuses of members of the control group. After the study's release, many media outlets posted articles and editorials favorable to the program. A Wall Street Journal editorial criticized opponents of the program, saying that the critics were "turning a blind eye to science." The editorial stated "the positive findings about the InnerChange Freedom Initiative parallel more than 500 other studies showing that

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