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39-600: Henry Kater FRS, FRAS (16 April 1777 – 26 April 1835) was a British physicist of German descent. He was born at Bristol . At first he intended to study law ; but he gave up the idea on his father's death in 1794. He entered the army, obtaining a commission in the 12th Regiment of Foot , then stationed in India , where he assisted William Lambton in the Great Trigonometric Survey . Failing health obliged him to return to England; and in 1808, then

78-472: A camera obscura to demonstrate that light and color from different candles can be passed through a single aperture in straight lines, without intermingling at the aperture. His theories were transmitted to the West. His work influenced Roger Bacon , John Peckham and Vitello , who built upon his work and ultimately transmitted it to Kepler . Taqī al-Dīn tried to disprove the widely held belief that light

117-700: A master's degree like MSc, MPhil, MPhys or MSci. For research-oriented careers, students work toward a doctoral degree specializing in a particular field. Fields of specialization include experimental and theoretical astrophysics , atomic physics , biological physics , chemical physics , condensed matter physics , cosmology , geophysics , gravitational physics , material science , medical physics , microelectronics , molecular physics , nuclear physics , optics , particle physics , plasma physics , quantum information science , and radiophysics . The three major employers of career physicists are academic institutions, laboratories, and private industries, with

156-509: A different sort of absurdity involving the infinite; Al-Kindi asserted that the cosmos must have a temporal origin because traversing an infinite was impossible. One of the first commentaries of Aristotle's Metaphysics is by Al-Farabi . In "'The Aims of Aristotle's Metaphysics", Al-Farabi argues that metaphysics is not specific to natural beings, but at the same time, metaphysics is higher in universality than natural beings. One field in physics, optics , developed rapidly in this period. By

195-775: A fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society . He won the Copley Medal in 1817 and the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1831. He is considered as the inventor of the prismatic compass , patented a year later by Charles Schmalcalder. He also studied compass needles , his Bakerian lecture containing the results of many experiments. The treatise on "Mechanics" in Dionysius Lardner 's Cabinet Cyclopedia

234-546: A lieutenant, he entered on a student career at the Senior Division of the new Royal Military College at High Wycombe . Shortly afterwards he was promoted to the rank of captain. In 1814 he retired on half-pay, and devoted the remainder of his life to scientific research. His first major contribution to science was the comparison of the merits of the Cassegrainian and Gregorian telescopes ; Kater determined

273-452: A minimum, the owner must possess a three-year bachelors or equivalent degree in physics or a related field and an additional minimum of six years' experience in a physics-related activity; or an Honor or equivalent degree in physics or a related field and an additional minimum of five years' experience in a physics-related activity; or master or equivalent degree in physics or a related field and an additional minimum of three years' experience in

312-565: A physics-related activity; a Doctorate or equivalent degree in Physics or a related field; or training or experience which, in the opinion of the Council, is equivalent to any of the above. Physicists may be a member of a physical society of a country or region. Physical societies commonly publish scientific journals, organize physics conferences and award prizes for contributions to the field of physics. Some examples of physical societies are

351-416: A professional practice examination must also be passed. An exemption can be granted to a candidate that has practiced physics for at least seven years and provide a detailed description of their professional accomplishments which clearly demonstrate that the exam is not necessary. Work experience will be considered physics-related if it uses physics directly or significantly uses the modes of thought (such as

390-499: Is acted on by an external force. This idea which dissented from the Aristotelian view was basically abandoned until it was described as "impetus" by John Buridan , who may have been influenced by Ibn Sina. In Abū Rayḥān al-Bīrūnī text Shadows , he recognizes that non-uniform motion is the result of acceleration. Ibn-Sina's theory of mayl tried to relate the velocity and weight of a moving object, this idea closely resembled

429-705: Is based on an intellectual ladder of discoveries and insights from ancient times to the present. Many mathematical and physical ideas used today found their earliest expression in the work of ancient civilizations, such as the Babylonian astronomers and Egyptian engineers , the Greek philosophers of science and mathematicians such as Thales of Miletus , Euclid in Ptolemaic Egypt , Archimedes of Syracuse and Aristarchus of Samos . Roots also emerged in ancient Asian cultures such as India and China, and particularly

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468-590: Is credited with discovering the law of refraction , now usually called Snell's law . He used this law to work out the shapes of lenses that focus light with no geometric aberrations, known as anaclastic lenses . Ibn al-Haytham (known in Western Europe as Alhacen or Alhazen ) ( 965 - 1040 ), often regarded as the "father of optics" and a pioneer of the scientific method, formulated "the first comprehensive and systematic alternative to Greek optical theories." He postulated in his "Book of Optics" that light

507-409: Is emitted by the eye and not the object that is being observed. He explained that, if light came from our eyes at a constant velocity it would take much too long to illuminate the stars for us to see them while we are still looking at them, because they are so far away. Therefore, the illumination must be coming from the stars so we can see them as soon as we open our eyes. The Islamic understanding of

546-615: Is the Nobel Prize in Physics , awarded since 1901 by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences . National physical societies have many prizes and awards for professional recognition. In the case of the American Physical Society , as of 2023, there are 25 separate prizes and 33 separate awards in the field. Chartered Physicist (CPhys) is a chartered status and a professional qualification awarded by

585-787: The American Physical Society , the Institute of Physics , with the oldest physical society being the German Physical Society . Physics in the medieval Islamic world The natural sciences saw various advancements during the Golden Age of Islam (from roughly the mid 8th to the mid 13th centuries), adding a number of innovations to the Transmission of the Classics (such as Aristotle , Ptolemy , Euclid , Neoplatonism ). During this period, Islamic theology

624-697: The Institute of Physics . It is denoted by the postnominals "CPhys". Achieving chartered status in any profession denotes to the wider community a high level of specialised subject knowledge and professional competence. According to the Institute of Physics, holders of the award of the Chartered Physicist (CPhys) demonstrate the "highest standards of professionalism, up-to-date expertise, quality and safety" along with "the capacity to undertake independent practice and exercise leadership" as well as "commitment to keep pace with advancing knowledge and with

663-548: The Islamic medieval period , which saw the development of scientific methodology emphasising experimentation , such as the work of Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) in the 11th century. The modern scientific worldview and the bulk of physics education can be said to flow from the scientific revolution in Europe, starting with the work of astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus leading to the physics of Galileo Galilei and Johannes Kepler in

702-579: The 19th century. Many physicists contributed to the development of quantum mechanics in the early-to-mid 20th century. New knowledge in the early 21st century includes a large increase in understanding physical cosmology . The broad and general study of nature, natural philosophy , was divided into several fields in the 19th century, when the concept of "science" received its modern shape. Specific categories emerged, such as "biology" and "biologist", "physics" and "physicist", "chemistry" and "chemist", among other technical fields and titles. The term physicist

741-850: The Greeks and during the Islamic Golden Age developed it further. However the Islamic world had a greater respect for knowledge gained from empirical observation, and believed that the universe is governed by a single set of laws. Their use of empirical observation led to the formation of crude forms of the scientific method . The study of physics in the Islamic world started in Iraq and Egypt . Fields of physics studied in this period include optics , mechanics (including statics , dynamics , kinematics and motion ), and astronomy . Islamic scholarship had inherited Aristotelian physics from

780-554: The Greeks and during the Islamic Golden Age developed it further, especially placing emphasis on observation and a priori reasoning, developing early forms of the scientific method . With Aristotelian physics, physics was seen as lower than demonstrative mathematical sciences, but in terms of a larger theory of knowledge, physics was higher than astronomy; many of whose principles derive from physics and metaphysics. The primary subject of physics, according to Aristotle ,

819-485: The Ptolemaic paradigm. This book encouraged other astronomers to develop new models to explain celestial movement better than Ptolemy. In al-Haytham's Book of Optics he argues that the celestial spheres were not made of solid matter, and that the heavens are less dense than air. Some astronomers theorized about gravity too, al-Khazini suggests that the gravity an object contains varies depending on its distance from

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858-584: The Russian standards of length. For these services to Russia he received in 1814 the decoration of the order of St. Anne ; and the same year he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society . In 1826, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences . Kater was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1832. In 1833 he was elected

897-399: The approach to problem-solving) developed in your education or experience as a physicist, in all cases regardless of whether the experience is in academia, industry, government, or elsewhere. Management of physics-related work qualifies, and so does appropriate graduate student work. The South African Institute of Physics also delivers a certification of Professional Physicist (Pr.Phys). At

936-474: The astronomical model was based on the Greek Ptolemaic system. However, many early astronomers had started to question the model. It was not always accurate in its predictions and was over complicated because astronomers were trying to mathematically describe the movement of the heavenly bodies. Ibn al-Haytham published Al-Shukuk ala Batiamyus ("Doubts on Ptolemy"), which outlined his many criticisms of

975-615: The center of the universe. The center of the universe in this case refers to the center of the Earth. John Philoponus had rejected the Aristotelian view of motion, and argued that an object acquires an inclination to move when it has a motive power impressed on it. In the eleventh century Ibn Sina had roughly adopted this idea, believing that a moving object has force which is dissipated by external agents like air resistance. Ibn Sina made distinction between 'force' and 'inclination' (called " mayl "), he claimed that an object gained mayl when

1014-520: The designation of Professional Engineer (P. Eng.). This designation was unveiled at the CAP congress in 1999 and already more than 200 people carry this distinction. To get the certification, at minimum proof of honours bachelor or higher degree in physics or a closely related discipline must be provided. Also, the physicist must have completed, or be about to complete, three years of recent physics-related work experience after graduation. And, unless exempted,

1053-459: The early 1600s. The work on mechanics , along with a mathematical treatment of physical systems, was further developed by Christiaan Huygens and culminated in Newton's laws of motion and Newton's law of universal gravitation by the end of the 17th century. The experimental discoveries of Faraday and the theory of Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism were developmental high points during

1092-756: The increasing expectations and requirements for which any profession must take responsibility". Chartered Physicist is considered to be equal in status to Chartered Engineer, which the IoP also awards as a member of the Engineering Council UK, and other chartered statuses in the UK. It is also considered a "regulated profession" under the European professional qualification directives. The Canadian Association of Physicists can appoint an official designation called Professional Physicist ( P. Phys. ), similar to

1131-1180: The largest employer being the last. Physicists in academia or government labs tend to have titles such as Assistants, Professors , Sr./Jr. Scientist, or postdocs . As per the American Institute of Physics , some 20% of new physics Ph.D.s holds jobs in engineering development programs, while 14% turn to computer software and about 11% are in business/education. A majority of physicists employed apply their skills and training to interdisciplinary sectors (e.g. finance ). Job titles for graduate physicists include Agricultural Scientist , Air Traffic Controller , Biophysicist , Computer Programmer , Electrical Engineer , Environmental Analyst , Geophysicist , Medical Physicist , Meteorologist , Oceanographer , Physics Teacher / Professor / Researcher , Research Scientist , Reactor Physicist , Engineering Physicist , Satellite Missions Analyst, Science Writer , Stratigrapher , Software Engineer , Systems Engineer , Microelectronics Engineer , Radar Developer, Technical Consultant, etc. The majority of Physics terminal bachelor's degree holders are employed in

1170-462: The latter to be an inferior design. His most substantial work was the invention of Kater's pendulum , enabling the strength of gravity to be determined, first at London and subsequently at various stations throughout the country. As the inventor of the floating collimator , Kater rendered a service to practical astronomy . He also published memoirs on British standards of length and mass ; and in 1832 he published an account of his work on verifying

1209-509: The ninth century, there were works on physiological optics as well as mirror reflections, and geometrical and physical optics. In the eleventh century, Ibn al-Haytham not only rejected the Greek idea about vision, he came up with a new theory. Ibn Sahl (c. 940–1000), a mathematician and physicist connected with the court of Baghdad , wrote a treatise On Burning Mirrors and Lenses in 984 in which he set out his understanding of how curved mirrors and lenses bend and focus light . Ibn Sahl

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1248-459: The object is in opposition to its natural motion. So he concluded that continuation of motion is attributed to the inclination that is transferred to the object, and that object will be in motion until the mayl is spent. He also claimed that projectile in a vacuum would not stop unless it is acted upon. This conception of motion is consistent with Newton's first law of motion, inertia, which states that an object in motion will stay in motion unless it

1287-433: The private sector. Other fields are academia, government and military service, nonprofit entities, labs and teaching. Typical duties of physicists with master's and doctoral degrees working in their domain involve research, observation and analysis, data preparation, instrumentation, design and development of industrial or medical equipment, computing and software development, etc. The highest honor awarded to physicists

1326-489: The visual cone theories without explaining the physiology of perception. Also in his Book of Optics, Ibn al-Haytham used mechanics to try and understand optics. Using projectiles, he observed that objects that hit a target perpendicularly exert much more force than projectiles that hit at an angle. Al-Haytham applied this discovery to optics and tried to explain why direct light hurts the eye, because direct light approaches perpendicularly and not at an oblique angle. He developed

1365-746: Was coined by William Whewell (also the originator of the term "scientist") in his 1840 book The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences . A standard undergraduate physics curriculum consists of classical mechanics , electricity and magnetism , non-relativistic quantum mechanics , optics , statistical mechanics and thermodynamics , and laboratory experience. Physics students also need training in mathematics ( calculus , differential equations , linear algebra , complex analysis , etc.), and in computer science . Any physics-oriented career position requires at least an undergraduate degree in physics or applied physics, while career options widen with

1404-440: Was encouraging of thinkers to find knowledge. Thinkers from this period included Al-Farabi , Abu Bishr Matta , Ibn Sina , al-Hassan Ibn al-Haytham and Ibn Bajjah . These works and the important commentaries on them were the wellspring of science during the medieval period. They were translated into Arabic , the lingua franca of this period. Islamic scholarship in the sciences had inherited Aristotelian physics from

1443-478: Was motion or change; there were three factors involved with this change, underlying thing, privation, and form. In his Metaphysics , Aristotle believed that the Unmoved Mover was responsible for the movement of the cosmos, which Neoplatonists later generalized as the cosmos were eternal. Al-Kindi argued against the idea of the cosmos being eternal by claiming that the eternality of the world lands one in

1482-593: Was partly written by him; and his interest in more purely astronomical questions was shown by two papers in the Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society for 1831–1833 — one on an observation of Saturn 's outer ring, the other on a method of determining longitude by means of lunar eclipses . Physicist Physicists can apply their knowledge towards solving practical problems or to developing new technologies (also known as applied physics or engineering physics ). The study and practice of physics

1521-418: Was reflected upon different surfaces in different directions, thus causing different light signatures for a certain object that we see. It was a different approach than that which was previously thought by Greek scientists, such as Euclid or Ptolemy , who believed rays were emitted from the eye to an object and back again. Al-Haytham, with this new theory of optics, was able to study the geometric aspects of

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