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140-524: Heraclius ( ‹See Tfd› Greek : Ἡράκλειος , translit.   Hērákleios ; c.  575 – 11 February 641) was Byzantine emperor from 610 to 641. His rise to power began in 608, when he and his father, Heraclius the Elder , the Exarch of Africa , led a revolt against the unpopular emperor Phocas . Heraclius's reign was marked by several military campaigns. The year Heraclius came to power,

280-461: A carrot and stick attitude, and wrote a message to Bahram, stressing his rightful claim to the Sasanian kingship: "Khosrow, kings of kings, ruler over the ruling, lord of the peoples, prince of peace, salvation of men, among gods the good and eternally living man, among men the most esteemed god, the highly illustrious, the victor, the one who rises with the sun and who lends the night his eyesight,

420-521: A retinue of 30 nobles, thereafter fled to Byzantine territory, while Ctesiphon fell to Bahram. Bahram declared himself king of kings in the summer of 590, asserting that the first Sasanian king Ardashir I ( r.  224–242 ) had usurped the throne of the Arsacids , and that he now was restoring their rule. Bahram tried to support his cause with the Zoroastrian apocalyptic belief that by

560-585: A Parthian dynast challenged the legitimacy of the Sasanian family by rebelling. Azen Gushnasp was sent to suppress to the rebellion, but was murdered in Hamadan by one of his own men, Zadespras. Another force under Sarames the Elder was also sent to stop Bahram, who defeated him and had him trampled to death by elephants . Meanwhile, Hormizd tried to come to terms with his brothers-in-law Vistahm and Vinduyih , "who equally hated Hormizd". Hormizd shortly had Vinduyih imprisoned, while Vistahm managed to flee from

700-513: A Parthian dynastic family if he accepted his proposal to betray Khosrow II. Mushegh, however, rejected the offer. Bahram was then defeated at the Battle of Blarathon , forcing him to flee with 4,000 men eastwards. He marched towards Nishapur , where he defeated a pursuing army as well as an army led by a Karenid nobleman at Qumis . Constantly troubled, he finally arrived in Fergana where he

840-494: A Persian client state , even permitting Khosrow II to choose the emperor. In a letter delivered by his ambassadors, Heraclius acknowledged the Persian empire as superior, described himself as Khosrow II's "obedient son, one who is eager to perform the services of your serenity in all things", and even called Khosrow II the "supreme emperor". Khosrow II nevertheless rejected the peace offer, and arrested Heraclius' ambassadors. With

980-469: A Persian army commanded by Shahrbaraz, besieged Constantinople , but the siege ended in failure (the victory was attributed to the icons of the Virgin which were led in procession by Sergius about the walls of the city), while a second Persian army under Shahin suffered another crushing defeat at the hands of Heraclius's brother Theodore. With the Persian war effort disintegrating, Heraclius was able to bring

1120-761: A bad ruler by some later religious writers. After the Monophysite provinces were finally lost to the Muslims, Monotheletism rather lost its raison d'être and was eventually abandoned. The Croats and Serbs of Byzantine Dalmatia initiated diplomatic relations and dependencies with Heraclius. The Serbs, who briefly lived in Macedonia, became foederati and were baptized at the request of Heraclius (before 626). At his request, Pope John IV (640–642) sent Christian teachers and missionaries to Duke Porga and his Croats , who practiced Slavic paganism . He also created

1260-577: A basis for coinages: anthropology , photography , telephony , isomer , biomechanics , cinematography , etc. Together with Latin words , they form the foundation of international scientific and technical vocabulary ; for example, all words ending in -logy ('discourse'). There are many English words of Greek origin . Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European language family. The ancient language most closely related to it may be ancient Macedonian , which, by most accounts,

1400-487: A campaign that ended in a decisive Iranian victory. Bahram earned an elevated position in Iran due to his noble descent, character, skills, and accomplishments. The Sasanian king ( shah ) Hormizd IV ( r.  579–590 ) was already distrustful of Bahram and stripped the increasingly popular general of his commands. Bahram began a rebellion aiming to reestablish the "more rightful" Arsacid Empire , identifying himself with

1540-527: A certain religious official in Rome to confirm if Muhammad's claim of prophethood was legitimate, and, after receiving the reply to his letter, called the Roman assembly saying, "If you desire salvation and the orthodox way so that your empire remain firmly established, then follow this prophet," to the rejection of the council.. Heraclius eventually decided against conversion but the envoy was returned to Medina with

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1680-558: A fairly stable set of consonantal contrasts . The main phonological changes occurred during the Hellenistic and Roman period (see Koine Greek phonology for details): In all its stages, the morphology of Greek shows an extensive set of productive derivational affixes , a limited but productive system of compounding and a rich inflectional system. Although its morphological categories have been fairly stable over time, morphological changes are present throughout, particularly in

1820-560: A faster, more convenient cursive writing style with the use of ink and quill . The Greek alphabet consists of 24 letters, each with an uppercase ( majuscule ) and lowercase ( minuscule ) form. The letter sigma has an additional lowercase form (ς) used in the final position of a word: In addition to the letters, the Greek alphabet features a number of diacritical signs : three different accent marks ( acute , grave , and circumflex ), originally denoting different shapes of pitch accent on

1960-540: A foreign language. It is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, " Homeric Greek is probably closer to Demotic than 12-century Middle English is to modern spoken English ". Greek is spoken today by at least 13 million people, principally in Greece and Cyprus along with a sizable Greek-speaking minority in Albania near

2100-545: A general who had replaced Heraclius the Elder, wrote to him "to leave the army and return to his own city in Armenia". Kaldellis interprets it as the command headquarters of Heraclius the Elder, and not his hometown. Beyond that, there is little specific information known about his origin. His father was a general during Emperor Maurice's war with Shah Bahram Chobin , usurper of the Sasanian Empire , during 590. After

2240-583: A grandson of Khosrow II, succeeded to the throne in 632 was there stability. But by then the Sasanid Empire was severely disorganised, having been weakened by years of war and civil strife over the succession to the throne. The war had been devastating, and left the Byzantines in a much-weakened state. Within a few years both empires were overwhelmed by the onslaught of the Arabs, ultimately leading to

2380-505: A mutiny. Khosrow II (Chosroes) of the Sasanian Empire had been restored to his throne by Maurice, and they had remained allies until the latter's death. Thereafter, Khosrow seized the opportunity to attack the Byzantine Empire and reconquer Mesopotamia . Khosrow had at his court a man who claimed to be Maurice's son Theodosius , and Khosrow demanded that the Byzantines accept this Theodosius as emperor. The war initially went

2520-634: A new counter-offensive, which took on the character of a holy war; an acheiropoietos image of Christ was carried as a military standard. The Roman army proceeded to Armenia, inflicted a defeat on an army led by a Persian-allied Arab chief, and then won a victory over the Persians under Shahrbaraz. Heraclius would stay on campaign for several years. On 25 March 624, he again left Constantinople with his wife, Martina , and his two children; after he celebrated Easter in Nicomedia on 15 April, he campaigned in

2660-416: A source found ten years later confirmed Bahram's rebellion took in fact place while he was still in the east. Bahram, infuriated by Hormizd's actions, responded by rebelling , and due to his noble status and great military knowledge, was joined by his soldiers and many others. He then appointed a new governor for Khorasan, and afterwards set for Ctesiphon. This marked the first time in Sasanian history that

2800-461: A struggle was taking place between Heraclius Constantine and Martina, who was trying to position her son Heraclonas to assume the throne. When Heraclius died, he devised the empire to both Heraclius Constantine and Heraclonas to rule jointly with Martina as empress. Greek language Greek ( Modern Greek : Ελληνικά , romanized :  Elliniká , [eliniˈka] ; Ancient Greek : Ἑλληνική , romanized :  Hellēnikḗ )

2940-745: A thousand virgins to the Persian King. The peace allowed him to rebuild the Empire's army by slashing non-military expenditure, devaluing the currency, and melting down, with the backing of Patriarch Sergius, Church treasures to raise the necessary funds to continue the war. On 4 April 622, Heraclius left Constantinople, entrusting the city to Sergius and general Bonus as regents of his son. He assembled his forces in Asia Minor, probably in Bithynia , and, after he revived their broken morale, he launched

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3080-804: Is also found in Bulgaria near the Greek-Bulgarian border. Greek is also spoken worldwide by the sizable Greek diaspora which has notable communities in the United States , Australia , Canada , South Africa , Chile , Brazil , Argentina , Russia , Ukraine , the United Kingdom , and throughout the European Union , especially in Germany . Historically, significant Greek-speaking communities and regions were found throughout

3220-773: Is an Indo-European language, constituting an independent Hellenic branch within the Indo-European language family. It is native to Greece , Cyprus , Italy (in Calabria and Salento ), southern Albania , and other regions of the Balkans , Caucasus , the Black Sea coast, Asia Minor , and the Eastern Mediterranean . It has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning at least 3,400 years of written records. Its writing system

3360-479: Is an Indo-European language, but also includes a number of borrowings from the languages of the populations that inhabited Greece before the arrival of Proto-Greeks, some documented in Mycenaean texts ; they include a large number of Greek toponyms . The form and meaning of many words have changed. Loanwords (words of foreign origin) have entered the language, mainly from Latin, Venetian , and Turkish . During

3500-639: Is composed in the Pahlavi romance Bahrām Chōbīn Nāma ("Book of Bahram Chobin"), which was later translated by Jabalah bin Sālim, and found its way—mixed with a pro-Khosrow II account—into the works of Dinawari , Ferdowsi , and Bal'ami . There are many fables attributed to Bahram VI, as is the norm for many heroes in Persian literature . The chapters in Volume VIII of Ferdowsi 's 11th-century Shahnameh on

3640-582: Is fully convinced of this fulfilled prophecy, that he tried previously to convince the Romans and invite them to salvation (Islam), but none listened to him, and soon the Romans would be expelled from Syria. Heraclius was married twice: first to Fabia Eudokia , a daughter of Rogatus, and then to his niece Martina . He had two children with Fabia ( Eudoxia Epiphania and Emperor Constantine III ) and at least nine with Martina, many of whom were sickly children. Of Martina's children at least two were disabled , which

3780-654: Is no evidence outside of Islamic sources to suggest Heraclius ever heard of Islam, and it is possible that he and his advisors actually viewed the Muslims as some special sect of Jews. Al-Waqidi recorded a story about a trader acting as a spy in Medina from the Lakhmid kingdom who reported the coming of the Muslim forces before The Battle of the Yarmuk. He described the caliph Abu Bakr to him as an ordinary-looking man who roams

3920-464: Is protected and promoted officially as a regional and minority language in Armenia, Hungary , Romania, and Ukraine. It is recognized as a minority language and protected in Turkey by the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne . The phonology , morphology , syntax , and vocabulary of the language show both conservative and innovative tendencies across the entire attestation of the language from the ancient to

4060-868: Is sometimes called aljamiado , as when Romance languages are written in the Arabic alphabet. Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Greek: Transcription of the example text into Latin alphabet : Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in English: Proto-Greek Mycenaean Ancient Koine Medieval Modern Bahram Chobin Son of general Bahram Gushnasp and hailing from

4200-526: Is spoken by at least 13.5 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey , and the many other countries of the Greek diaspora . Greek roots have been widely used for centuries and continue to be widely used to coin new words in other languages; Greek and Latin are the predominant sources of international scientific vocabulary . Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around

4340-763: Is still used internationally for the writing of Ancient Greek . In Greek, the question mark is written as the English semicolon, while the functions of the colon and semicolon are performed by a raised point (•), known as the ano teleia ( άνω τελεία ). In Greek the comma also functions as a silent letter in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing ό,τι ( ó,ti , 'whatever') from ότι ( óti , 'that'). Ancient Greek texts often used scriptio continua ('continuous writing'), which means that ancient authors and scribes would write word after word with no spaces or punctuation between words to differentiate or mark boundaries. Boustrophedon , or bi-directional text,

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4480-650: Is the Greek alphabet , which has been used for approximately 2,800 years; previously, Greek was recorded in writing systems such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary . The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin , Cyrillic , Coptic , Gothic , and many other writing systems. The Greek language holds a very important place in the history of the Western world. Beginning with

4620-467: Is to be done." Bahram, however, ignored his warning—a few days later, he reached the Nahrawan Canal near Ctesiphon, where he fought Khosrow's men, who were heavily outnumbered, but managed to hold Bahram's men back in several clashes. However, Khosrow's men eventually began losing their morale, and were in the end defeated by Bahram's forces. Khosrow, together with his two uncles, his wives, and

4760-516: Is uncertain". According to the 7th century Armenian historian Sebeos , Heraclius was related to the Arsacid dynasty of Armenia . Elizabeth Redgate considers his Armenian origin likely. Anthony Kaldellis argues that there is no primary source that says that Heraclius [the Elder] was an Armenian and that the assertion is based on an erroneous reading of Theophylact Simocatta . In a letter, Priscus ,

4900-418: The marzban (general of a frontier province, " margrave ") of Armenia from 572 to 574. Bahram Chobin had three siblings whom were named: Gordiya , Gorduya and Mardansina . Bahram Chobin originally started his career as marzban of Ray, but in 572 he commanded a cavalry force and took part in the siege and capture of the key Byzantine stronghold of Dara and was promoted to army chief ( spahbed ) of

5040-634: The Arabah south of Lake Tiberias , taking al-Karak . Other raids penetrated into the Negev , reaching as far as Gaza . The Battle of Yarmouk in 636 resulted in a crushing defeat for the larger Byzantine army; within three years, the Levant had been lost again. Heraclius died of an illness on 11 February 641; and most of Egypt had fallen by that time as well. Looking back at the reign of Heraclius, scholars have credited him with many accomplishments. He enlarged

5180-506: The Arsacid Empire and commenced a new millennium of dynastic rule. He started minting coins, where he is on the front imitated as an exalted figure, bearded and wearing a crenellation -shaped crown with two crescents of the moon, whilst the reverse shows the traditional fire altar flanked by two attendants. Regardless, many nobles and priests still chose to side with the inexperienced and less dominant Khosrow II. In order to get

5320-546: The Battle of Nineveh . Continuing south along the Tigris he sacked Khosrow's great palace at Dastagird and was only prevented from attacking Ctesiphon by the destruction of the bridges on the Nahrawan Canal. Discredited by this series of disasters, Khosrow was overthrown and killed in a coup led by his son Kavad II , who at once sued for peace, agreeing to withdraw from all occupied territories. In 629 Heraclius restored

5460-495: The Eastern Mediterranean , in what are today Southern Italy , Turkey , Cyprus , Syria , Lebanon , Israel , Palestine , Egypt , and Libya ; in the area of the Black Sea , in what are today Turkey, Bulgaria , Romania , Ukraine , Russia , Georgia , Armenia , and Azerbaijan ; and, to a lesser extent, in the Western Mediterranean in and around colonies such as Massalia , Monoikos , and Mainake . It

5600-626: The Gokturks of the Western Turkic Khaganate , under Ziebel , who invaded Persian Transcaucasia . Heraclius exploited divisions within the Persian Empire, keeping Shahrbaraz neutral by convincing him that Khosrow had grown jealous of him and had ordered his execution. Late in 627 he launched a winter offensive into Mesopotamia, where, despite the desertion of his Turkish allies, he defeated the Persians under Rhahzadh at

5740-516: The Indo-Iranian languages (see Graeco-Aryan ), but little definitive evidence has been found. In addition, Albanian has also been considered somewhat related to Greek and Armenian, and it has been proposed that they all form a higher-order subgroup along with other extinct languages of the ancient Balkans; this higher-order subgroup is usually termed Palaeo-Balkan , and Greek has a central position in it. Linear B , attested as early as

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5880-599: The Khazars , where he was victorious. He was later made commander of the Sasanian forces against the Byzantines once again, and successfully defeated a Byzantine force in Georgia . However, he afterwards suffered a minor defeat by a Byzantine army on the banks of the Aras . Hormizd, who was jealous of Bahram, used this defeat as an excuse to dismiss him from his office, and had him humiliated. According to another source, Bahram

6020-623: The Late Antique Colossus of Barletta depicts Heraclius. Some scholars disagree with this narrative, Professor Constantin Zuckerman going as far as to suggest that the True Cross was actually lost, and that the wood contained in the allegedly-still-sealed reliquary brought to Jerusalem by Heraclius in 629 was a fake. In his analysis, the hoax was designed to serve the political purposes of both Heraclius and his former foe,

6160-615: The Middle Persian Warahrān (also spelled Wahrām ), which is derived from the Old Iranian *[Vṛθragna] Error: {{Lang}}: Non-latn text/Latn script subtag mismatch ( help ) . The Avestan equivalent is Verethragna , the name of the god of victory, whilst the Parthian version is *[Warθagn] Error: {{Lang}}: Non-latn text/Latn script subtag mismatch ( help ) . Bahram's surname, Chobin ("Wooden Shaft", "Javelin-like"),

6300-599: The Muslim conquest of Persia and the fall of the Sasanian dynasty in 651. By 630, the Arabs had unified all the tribes of the Hijaz , previously too divided to pose a serious military challenge to the Byzantines or the Persians. They composed one of the most powerful states in the region. The first conflict between the Byzantines and the Arabs was the Battle of Mu'tah in September 629. A small Arabs skirmishing force attacked

6440-551: The Rashidun Caliphate . Emerging from the Arabian Peninsula , the Muslims quickly conquered the Sasanian Empire . In 636, the Muslims marched into Roman Syria , defeating Heraclius's brother Theodore . Within a short period of time, the Arabs conquered Mesopotamia , Armenia and Egypt . Heraclius responded with reforms which allowed his successors to combat the Arabs and avoid total destruction. One of

6580-606: The True Cross to Jerusalem in a majestic ceremony. Heraclius took for himself the ancient Persian title of " King of Kings " after his victory. Later on, starting in 629, he styled himself as Basileus , the Greek word for "sovereign", and that title was used by the Byzantine emperors for the next 800 years. The reason Heraclius chose this title over previous Roman terms such as Augustus has been attributed by some scholars to his Armenian origins. Heraclius's defeat of

6720-492: The nominal and verbal systems. The major change in the nominal morphology since the classical stage was the disuse of the dative case (its functions being largely taken over by the genitive ). The verbal system has lost the infinitive , the synthetically -formed future, and perfect tenses and the optative mood . Many have been replaced by periphrastic ( analytical ) forms. Pronouns show distinctions in person (1st, 2nd, and 3rd), number (singular, dual , and plural in

6860-515: The rebellion of Vistahm (590/1–596 or 594/5–600). After Bahram's death, his sister Gordiya travelled to Khorasan, where she married Vistahm , who during that time was also rebelling against Khosrow II. Bahram had three sons: Shapur, Mihran Bahram-i Chobin and Noshrad. Shapur continued to oppose the Sasanians and later joined the Rebellion of Vistahm . After the end of the rebellion, Shapur

7000-643: The "North" ( Adurbadagan and Greater Media ). After being promoted he fought a long, indecisive campaign in 572–591 against the Byzantines in northern Mesopotamia . In 588, the Turkic Khagan Bagha Qaghan (known as Sabeh/Saba in Persian sources), together with his Hephthalite subjects, invaded the Sasanian territories south of the Oxus , where they attacked and routed the Sasanian soldiers stationed in Balkh , and then proceeded to conquer

7140-415: The 3rd millennium BC, or possibly earlier. The earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the world's oldest recorded living language . Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now-extinct Anatolian languages . The Greek language is conventionally divided into

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7280-436: The Byzantine commander John Mystacon , who was also raising an army in Armenia. After some time, Khosrow, along with the Byzantine commander of the south, Comentiolus , invaded Mesopotamia. During this invasion, Nisibis and Martyropolis quickly defected to them, and Bahram's commander Zatsparham was defeated and killed. One of Bahram's other commanders, Bryzacius, was captured in Mosil and had his nose and ears cut off, and

7420-410: The Caucasus, winning a series of victories in Armenia against Khosrow and his generals Shahrbaraz, Shahin, and Shahraplakan . In the same year the Visigoths succeeded in recapturing Cartagena , capital of the western Byzantine province of Spania , resulting in the loss of one of the few minor provinces that had been conquered by the armies of Justinian I . In 626 the Avars and Slavs supported by

7560-417: The Empire, and his reorganization of the government and military were great successes. His attempts at religious harmony failed, but he succeeded in returning the True Cross , one of the holiest Christian relics, to Jerusalem. Although the territories recovered by his defeat of the Persians were annulled again by the Early Muslim conquests , Heraclius still ranks among the great Roman emperors. His reforms of

7700-486: The Greek alphabet since approximately the 9th century BC. It was created by modifying the Phoenician alphabet , with the innovation of adopting certain letters to represent the vowels. The variant of the alphabet in use today is essentially the late Ionic variant, introduced for writing classical Attic in 403 BC. In classical Greek, as in classical Latin, only upper-case letters existed. The lower-case Greek letters were developed much later by medieval scribes to permit

7840-425: The Greek language are often emphasized. Although Greek has undergone morphological and phonological changes comparable to those seen in other languages, never since classical antiquity has its cultural, literary, and orthographic tradition been interrupted to the extent that one can speak of a new language emerging. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than

7980-442: The Greek language was the Cypriot syllabary (also a descendant of Linear A via the intermediate Cypro-Minoan syllabary ), which is closely related to Linear B but uses somewhat different syllabic conventions to represent phoneme sequences. The Cypriot syllabary is attested in Cyprus from the 11th century BC until its gradual abandonment in the late Classical period, in favor of the standard Greek alphabet. Greek has been written in

8120-629: The Greek verb have likewise remained largely the same over the course of the language's history but with significant changes in the number of distinctions within each category and their morphological expression. Greek verbs have synthetic inflectional forms for: Many aspects of the syntax of Greek have remained constant: verbs agree with their subject only, the use of the surviving cases is largely intact (nominative for subjects and predicates, accusative for objects of most verbs and many prepositions, genitive for possessors), articles precede nouns, adpositions are largely prepositional, relative clauses follow

8260-446: The Greek-Albanian border. A significant percentage of Albania's population has knowledge of the Greek language due in part to the Albanian wave of immigration to Greece in the 1980s and '90s and the Greek community in the country. Prior to the Greco-Turkish War and the resulting population exchange in 1923 a very large population of Greek-speakers also existed in Turkey , though very few remain today. A small Greek-speaking community

8400-404: The Persian army took Damascus with the help of the Jews , seized Jerusalem in 614, damaging the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and capturing the True Cross , and afterwards capturing Egypt in 617 or 618. When the Sasanians reached Chalcedon in 615, it was at this point, according to Sebeos , that Heraclius had agreed to stand down and was about ready to allow the Byzantine Empire to become

8540-404: The Persian general Shahrbaraz . In early Islamic and Arab histories, Heraclius is the most popular Roman emperor, who is discussed at length. Owing to his role as Roman emperor at the time Islam emerged, he is remembered in Arabic literature , such as the Islamic hadith and sira . He is also indirectly mentioned in Sura Ar-Rum and his victory against Sassanid empire was prophesied here. In

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8680-417: The Persians at the very gate of Constantinople, Heraclius thought of abandoning the city and moving the capital to Carthage, but the powerful church figure Patriarch Sergius convinced him to stay. Safe behind the walls of Constantinople, Heraclius was able to sue for peace in exchange for an annual tribute of a thousand talents of gold, a thousand talents of silver, a thousand silk robes, a thousand horses, and

8820-422: The Persians devastated parts of Asia Minor and captured Chalcedon across from Constantinople on the Bosporus . Over the following decade the Persians were able to conquer Palestine and Egypt (by mid-621, the whole province was in their hands) and to devastate Anatolia, while the Avars and Slavs took advantage of the situation to overrun the Balkans , bringing the Empire to the brink of destruction. In 613,

8960-435: The Persians ended a war that had been going on intermittently for almost 400 years and led to instability in the Persian Empire. Kavad II died only months after assuming the throne, plunging Persia into several years of dynastic turmoil and civil war. Ardashir III , Heraclius's ally Shahrbaraz , and Khosrow's daughters Boran and Azarmidokht all succeeded to the throne within months of each other. Only when Yazdegerd III ,

9100-421: The Persians' way, partly because of Phocas's brutal repression and the succession crisis that ensued as the general Heraclius sent his nephew Nicetas to attack Egypt , enabling his son Heraclius the younger to claim the throne in 610. Phocas, an unpopular ruler who is invariably described in historical sources as a " tyrant " (in its original meaning of the word, i.e. illegitimate king by the rules of succession),

9240-408: The Romans. Even the Strategicon of Maurice , a manual of war praised for the variety of enemies it covers, does not mention warfare against Arabs at any length. The religious zeal of the Arab army, which was a recent development following the rise of Islam , ultimately contributed to the latter's success in its campaigns against the Romans. The following year, the Arabs launched an offensive into

9380-401: The Sasanian office for supposedly having kept some of the booty for himself. Furthermore, Hormizd also sent him a chain and a spindle to show that he considered him as a lowly slave "as ungrateful as a woman". Enraged, Bahram, who was still in the east, rebelled against Hormizd. The version of Bahram rebelling after his defeat against the Byzantines was supported by Nöldeke in 1879. However,

9520-430: The True Cross with a negotiator in 628. After a tour of the Empire, Heraclius returned the cross to Jerusalem on 21 March 629 or 630. For Christians of Western Medieval Europe, Heraclius was the "first crusader". The iconography of the emperor appeared in the sanctuary at Mont Saint-Michel ( c.  1060 ), and then it became popular, especially in France, the Italian Peninsula, and the Holy Roman Empire. The story

9660-402: The Turkic treasury and the golden throne of the Khagan. He then proceeded to cross the Oxus river and won a decisive victory over Turks, personally killing Bagha Qaghan with an arrowshot. He managed to reach as far as Baykand, near Bukhara , and also contain an attack by the son of the deceased Khagan, Birmudha, whom Bahram had captured and sent to the Sasanian capital of Ctesiphon . Birmudha

9800-404: The acute during the late 20th century, and it has only been retained in typography . After the writing reform of 1982, most diacritics are no longer used. Since then, Greek has been written mostly in the simplified monotonic orthography (or monotonic system), which employs only the acute accent and the diaeresis. The traditional system, now called the polytonic orthography (or polytonic system),

9940-402: The ancient language; singular and plural alone in later stages), and gender (masculine, feminine, and neuter), and decline for case (from six cases in the earliest forms attested to four in the modern language). Nouns, articles, and adjectives show all the distinctions except for a person. Both attributive and predicative adjectives agree with the noun. The inflectional categories of

10080-413: The attention of the Byzantine emperor Maurice (r. 582–602), Khosrow II went to Syria , and sent a message to the Sasanian occupied city of Martyropolis to stop their resistance against the Byzantines, but with no avail. He then sent a message to Maurice, and requested his help to regain the Sasanian throne, which the Byzantine emperor agreed with; in return, the Byzantines would re-gain sovereignty over

10220-402: The authenticity of Heraclius' letter due to the documentation of such letters in the majority of both early and later sources. Furthermore, she notes that the formulation and the wordings of different sources are very close and the differences are ones of detail: They concern the date on which the letter was sent and its exact phrasing. Muhammad Hamidullah , an Islamic research scholar, argues for

10360-786: The authenticity of the letter sent to Heraclius, and in a later work reproduces what is claimed to be the original letter. The account as transmitted by Muslim historians is translated as follows: In the name of God, the Gracious One, the Merciful From Muhammad, servant of God and His apostle to Heraclius, premier of the Romans: Peace unto whoever follows the guided path! Thereafter, verily I call you to submit your will to God. Submit your will to God and you will be safe. God shall compensate your reward two-folds. But if you turn away, then upon you will sins of

10500-523: The cities of Amida , Carrhae , Dara and Martyropolis . Furthermore, Iran was required to stop intervening in the affairs of Iberia and Armenia , effectively ceding control of Lazistan to the Byzantines. In 591, Khosrow moved to Constantia and prepared to invade Bahram's territories in Mesopotamia, while Vistahm and Vinduyih were raising an army in Adurbadagan under the observation of

10640-458: The city along with Talaqan , Badghis , and Herat . In a council of war, Bahram was chosen to lead an army against them and was given the governorship of Khorasan . Bahram's army supposedly consisted of 12,000 hand-picked horsemen. His army ambushed a large army of Turks and Hephthalites in April 588, at the battle of Hyrcanian rock, and again in 589, re-conquering Balkh, where Bahram captured

10780-481: The court. After a short period of time, a palace coup under the two brothers occurred in Ctesiphon, which resulted in the blinding of Hormizd and the accession of the latter's oldest son Khosrow II (who was their nephew through his mother's side). The two brothers shortly had Hormizd killed. Nevertheless, Bahram continued his march to Ctesiphon, now with the pretext of claiming to avenge Hormizd. Khosrow then took

10920-404: The early 19th century that was used for literary and official purposes in the newly formed Greek state. In 1976, Dimotiki was declared the official language of Greece, after having incorporated features of Katharevousa and thus giving birth to Standard Modern Greek , used today for all official purposes and in education . The historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of

11060-423: The emerging Islamic forces. The 14th-century scholar Ibn Kathir (d. 1373) went even further, stating that "Heraclius was one of the wisest men and among the most resolute, shrewd, deep and opinionated of kings. He ruled the Romans with great leadership and splendor." Historians such as Nadia Maria El-Cheikh and Lawrence Conrad note that Islamic histories even go so far as claiming that Heraclius recognized Islam as

11200-552: The empire was threatened on multiple frontiers. Heraclius immediately took charge of the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 . The first battles of the campaign ended in defeat for the Byzantines; the Persian army fought their way to the Bosphorus but Constantinople was protected by impenetrable walls and a strong navy, and Heraclius was able to avoid total defeat. Soon after, he initiated reforms to rebuild and strengthen

11340-537: The end of Zoroaster 's millennium, chaos and destructive wars with the Hephthalites/Huns and the Romans occurs and then a savior would appear. Indeed, the Sasanians had misidentified Zoroaster's era with that of the Seleucids (312 BC), which put Bahram's life almost at the end of Zoroaster's millennium, he was therefore hailed by many as the promised savior Kay Bahram Varjavand. Bahram was to re-establish

11480-567: The epics of Homer , ancient Greek literature includes many works of lasting importance in the European canon . Greek is also the language in which many of the foundational texts in science and philosophy were originally composed. The New Testament of the Christian Bible was also originally written in Greek. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world , the Greek texts and Greek societies of antiquity constitute

11620-561: The excavation of the cross. The scene usually shown is Heraclius carrying the cross; according to the Golden Legend , he insisted on doing this as he entered Jerusalem, against the advice of the Patriarch. At first, when he was on horseback (shown above), the burden was too heavy, but after he dismounted and removed his crown it became miraculously light, and the barred city gate opened of its own accord. Local tradition suggests that

11760-413: The exploits and trophies of six adventurous campaigns. [...] Since the days of Scipio and Hannibal , no bolder enterprise has been attempted than that which Heraclius achieved for the deliverance of the empire. Heraclius was long remembered favourably by the Western church for his reputed recovery of the True Cross from the Persians. As Heraclius approached the Persian capital during the final stages of

11900-501: The felicitations of the emperor. Scholarly historians disagree with this account, arguing that any such messengers would have received neither an imperial audience or recognition, and that there is no evidence outside of Islamic sources suggesting that Heraclius had any knowledge of Islam. This letter is mentioned in Sahih Al Bukhari. The Swahili Utendi wa Tambuka , an epic poem composed in 1728 at Pate Island (off

12040-514: The first and last years of a long reign, the emperor appears to be the slave of sloth, of pleasure, or of superstition, the careless and impotent spectator of the public calamities. But the languid mists of the morning and evening are separated by the brightness of the meridian sun; the Arcadius of the palace arose the Caesar of the camp; and the honor of Rome and Heraclius was gloriously retrieved by

12180-452: The following periods: In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of diglossia : the coexistence of vernacular and archaizing written forms of the language. What came to be known as the Greek language question was a polarization between two competing varieties of Modern Greek: Dimotiki , the vernacular form of Modern Greek proper, and Katharevousa , meaning 'purified', a compromise between Dimotiki and Ancient Greek developed in

12320-475: The force by writing a letter to Mushegh II, the letter said: "As for you Armenians who demonstrate an unseasonable loyalty, did not the house of Sasan destroy your land and sovereignty? Why otherwise did your fathers rebel and extricate themselves from their service, fighting up until today for your country?" Bahram in his letter promised that the Armenians would become partners of the new Iranian empire ruled by

12460-459: The government of Bosra after the Byzantine defeat of the Persians and reconquest of Jerusalem . Islamic sources say that after the letter was read to him, he was so impressed by it that he gifted the messenger of the epistle with robes and coinage. Alternatively, he also put it on his lap. He then summoned Abu Sufyan ibn Harb to his court, at the time an adversary to Muhammad but a signatory to

12600-580: The government reduced the corruption which had taken hold in Phocas's reign, and he reorganized the military with great success. Ultimately, the reformed Imperial army halted the Muslims in Asia Minor and held on to Carthage for another 60 years, saving a core from which the empire's strength could be rebuilt. The recovery of the eastern areas of the Roman Empire from the Persians once again raised

12740-532: The help of God. He helps whom He wills. And He is The Almighty, The Compassionate." According to Islamic traditions, a letter was sent from Muhammad to Heraclius, through the Muslim envoy Dihyah bin Khalifah al-Kalbi , although Shahid suggests that Heraclius may never have received it. He also advances that more positive sub-narratives surrounding the letter contain little credence. According to Nadia El Cheikh, Arab historians and chroniclers generally did not doubt

12880-439: The infinitive entirely (employing a raft of new periphrastic constructions instead) and uses participles more restrictively. The loss of the dative led to a rise of prepositional indirect objects (and the use of the genitive to directly mark these as well). Ancient Greek tended to be verb-final, but neutral word order in the modern language is VSO or SVO. Modern Greek inherits most of its vocabulary from Ancient Greek, which in turn

13020-467: The late 15th century BC, was the first script used to write Greek. It is basically a syllabary , which was finally deciphered by Michael Ventris and John Chadwick in the 1950s (its precursor, Linear A , has not been deciphered and most likely encodes a non-Greek language). The language of the Linear B texts, Mycenaean Greek , is the earliest known form of Greek. Another similar system used to write

13160-472: The latter's brother Byghu (conceivably an incorrect translation of yabghu ). Khosrow II, however, could not feel safe as long as Bahram lived, and succeeded in having him assassinated. The assassination was reportedly achieved through distribution of presents and bribes between the members of the Turkic royal family, notably the queen. What remained of Bahram's supporters went back to northern Iran and joined

13300-544: The magister Theodorus, and the Armenian noble David Saharuni . When Heraclius discovered the plot, he had Athalarichos's nose and hands cut off , and he was exiled to Prinkipo , one of the Princes' Islands . Theodorus received the same treatment, but was sent to Gaudomelete (possibly modern-day Gozo Island ) with additional instructions to cut off one leg. During the last years of Heraclius's life, it became evident that

13440-458: The market ensuring the strong fulfill the rights of the weak, and that he treats the strong and the weak equally. He then describes his physical features, and Heraclius states that there is a successor to the prophet Muhammad who is described as black-eyed, tall, wheat-colored like a lion, and would expel his enemies from their lands. The Lakhmid spy responds that he has a companion (the second caliph, Umar ) like this. Heraclius then responded that he

13580-640: The membership of Greece and Cyprus in the European Union, Greek is one of the organization's 24 official languages . Greek is recognized as a minority language in Albania, and used co-officially in some of its municipalities, in the districts of Gjirokastër and Sarandë . It is also an official minority language in the regions of Apulia and Calabria in Italy. In the framework of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages , Greek

13720-464: The military. Heraclius drove the Persians out of Asia Minor and pushed deep into their territory, defeating them decisively in 627 at the Battle of Nineveh . The Persian Shah Khosrow II was overthrown and executed by his son Kavad II , who soon sued for a peace treaty, agreeing to withdraw from all occupied territory. This way peaceful relations were restored to the two deeply strained empires. Heraclius soon lost many of his newly regained lands to

13860-441: The modern period. The division into conventional periods is, as with all such periodizations, relatively arbitrary, especially because, in all periods, Ancient Greek has enjoyed high prestige, and the literate borrowed heavily from it. Across its history, the syllabic structure of Greek has varied little: Greek shows a mixed syllable structure, permitting complex syllabic onsets but very restricted codas. It has only oral vowels and

14000-639: The most important legacies of Heraclius was changing the official language of the Empire from Latin to Greek. Heraclius entered diplomatic relations with the Croats and Serbs in the Balkans . He tried to repair the schism in the Christian church in regard to the Monophysites , by promoting a compromise doctrine called monothelitism . The Church of the East (commonly called Nestorian) was also involved in

14140-458: The noble House of Mihran , Bahram began his career as the governor of Ray , and was promoted to the army chief ( spahbed ) of the northwestern portions of the empire after capturing the Byzantine stronghold of Dara , fighting in the war of 572–591 . After a massive Hephthalite-Turkic invasion of the eastern Sasanian domains in 588, he was appointed as the spahbed in Khorasan , beginning

14280-399: The noun they modify and relative pronouns are clause-initial. However, the morphological changes also have their counterparts in the syntax, and there are also significant differences between the syntax of the ancient and that of the modern form of the language . Ancient Greek made great use of participial constructions and of constructions involving the infinitive, and the modern variety lacks

14420-536: The objects of study of the discipline of Classics . During antiquity , Greek was by far the most widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world . It eventually became the official language of the Byzantine Empire and developed into Medieval Greek . In its modern form , Greek is the official language of Greece and Cyprus and one of the 24 official languages of the European Union . It

14560-587: The office of sakellarios , a comptroller of the treasury. Up to the 20th century he was credited with establishing the Thematic system but modern scholarship now points more to the 660s, under Constans II . Edward Gibbon , in The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire , wrote: Of the characters conspicuous in history, that of Heraclius is one of the most extraordinary and inconsistent. In

14700-706: The older periods of Greek, loanwords into Greek acquired Greek inflections, thus leaving only a foreign root word. Modern borrowings (from the 20th century on), especially from French and English, are typically not inflected; other modern borrowings are derived from Albanian , South Slavic ( Macedonian / Bulgarian ) and Eastern Romance languages ( Aromanian and Megleno-Romanian ). Greek words have been widely borrowed into other languages, including English. Example words include: mathematics , physics , astronomy , democracy , philosophy , athletics , theatre, rhetoric , baptism , evangelist , etc. Moreover, Greek words and word elements continue to be productive as

14840-515: The one famed through his ancestors, the king who hates, the benefactor who engaged the Sasanians and saved the Iranians their kingship—to Bahram, the general of the Iranians, our friend.... We have also taken over the royal throne in a lawful manner and have upset no Iranian customs.... We have so firmly decided not to take off the diadem that we even expected to rule over other worlds, if this were possible.... If you wish your welfare, think about what

14980-481: The peasants. Then "O People of the Scripture , come to a term equitable between us and you that we worship none but God and associate with Him nothing, and we take not one another as Lords apart from God. But if they turn away, then say: Bear witness that we peace makers." Seal : Muhammad, Apostle of God According to Islamic reports, Muhammad dispatched Dihyah al-Kalbi to carry the epistle to " Caesar " through

15120-456: The problem of religious unity centering on the understanding of the true nature of Christ . Most of the inhabitants of these provinces were Monophysites who rejected the Council of Chalcedon . Heraclius tried to promote a compromise doctrine called Monothelitism but this philosophy was rejected as heretical by both sides of the dispute. For this reason, Heraclius was viewed as a heretic and

15260-440: The process. Eventually, this project of unity was rejected by all sides of the dispute. Heraclius was the eldest son of Heraclius the Elder , who is almost universally recognized as being of Armenian origin. His mother, Epiphania, was probably of Cappadocian origin. Walter Kaegi considers Heraclius' Armenian origin "probable" and speculates that he was presumably "bilingual (Armenian and Greek) from an early age, but even this

15400-410: The promised savior of the Zoroastrian faith. Before he had reached the Sasanian capital of Ctesiphon , Hormizd was assassinated in support of his son, Khosrow II , by another anti-Hormizd faction led by the two Ispahbudhan brothers, Vistahm and Vinduyih . As Bahram captured Ctesiphon, Khosrow II fled to the Byzantine Empire , with the assistance of which he launched a campaign against Bahram, who

15540-605: The province of Arabia in response to the Arab ambassador's death at the hands of the Ghassanid Roman governor, but were repulsed. Since the engagement was a Byzantine victory, there was no apparent reason to make changes to the military organization of the region. The Roman military wasn't accustomed to fighting Arab armies at scale, much like the Islamic forces of Hijaz who had no prior experience in their engagements against

15680-667: The province. Meanwhile, the younger Heraclius sailed eastward with another force via Sicily and Cyprus . As he approached Constantinople , he made contact with prominent leaders and planned an attack to overthrow aristocrats in the city. When he reached the capital, the Excubitors , an elite Imperial Guard unit led by Phocas's son-in-law Priscus , deserted to Heraclius, and he entered the city without serious resistance. When Heraclius captured Phocas, he asked him "Is this how you have ruled, wretch?" Phocas's reply—"And will you rule better?"—so enraged Heraclius that he beheaded Phocas on

15820-467: The reigns of "Hormizd, Son of Khosrow I", and "Khosrow Parviz", both of which are almost as much about Bahram Chobin as about Hormizd or his son. In his catalogue Kitab al-Fihrist , Ibn al-Nadim has credited Bahram Chobin with a manual of archery. Long after his death in the 8th century, Sunpadh claimed that Abu Muslim had not died but he is with " al-Mahdi " (the Savior) in a "Brazen Hold" (that is,

15960-710: The ruling class of the Empire, but they resisted so strongly that he reversed course and claimed that he was just testing their faith in Christianity. El-Cheikh notes that these accounts of Heraclius add "little to our historical knowledge" of the emperor; rather, they are an important part of "Islamic kerygma ," attempting to legitimize Muhammad's status as a prophet. Most Western academic historians view such traditions as biased and proclamatory and of little historical value. Furthermore, they argue that any messengers sent by Muhammad to Heraclius would not have received an imperial audience or recognition. According to Kaegi, there

16100-557: The shore of present-day Kenya ) and depicting the wars between the Muslims and Byzantines from the former's point of view, is also known as Kyuo kya Hereḳali ("The Book of Heraclius"). In that work, Heraclius is portrayed as declining the Prophet's request to renounce his belief in Christianity: he is therefore defeated by the Muslim forces. In Muslim tradition, he is seen as a just ruler of great piety, who had direct contact with

16240-520: The spot. He later had the genitalia removed from the body because Phocas had raped the wife of Photius, a powerful politician in the city. On 5 October 610, Heraclius was crowned in the Chapel of St. Stephen within the Great Palace . He then married Fabia, who took the name Eudokia . After her death in 612, he married his niece Martina in 613; this second marriage was considered incestuous and

16380-437: The stressed vowel; the so-called breathing marks ( rough and smooth breathing ), originally used to signal presence or absence of word-initial /h/; and the diaeresis , used to mark the full syllabic value of a vowel that would otherwise be read as part of a diphthong. These marks were introduced during the course of the Hellenistic period. Actual usage of the grave in handwriting saw a rapid decline in favor of uniform usage of

16520-424: The then-recent Treaty of Hudaybiyyah , who was trading in the region of Syria at the time. Asked by Heraclius about the man claiming to be a prophet, Abu Sufyan responded, speaking favorably of Muhammad's character and lineage and outlining some directives of Islam. Heraclius was seemingly impressed by what he was told of Muhammad, and felt that Muhammad's claim to prophethood was valid.. Later reportedly he wrote to

16660-410: The third and fourth verses, the Muslim community is promised that the Byzantines will reverse their defeat into a victory and retake Jerusalem "in a few years' time". "The Romans were vanquished in the closer region, and they, after being vanquished, will prevail within a certain number of (from 3 to 9) years. To God belongs the command before and after. And that day, ones who believe will be glad with

16800-408: The true faith and Muhammad as its prophet, by comparing Islam to Christianity. Islamic historians often cite a letter in which they claim Heraclius wrote to Muhammad: "I have received your letter with your ambassador and I testify that you are the messenger of God found in our New Testament. Jesus, son of Mary, announced you." According to the Muslim sources reported by El-Cheikh, he tried to convert

16940-422: The war, Khosrow fled from his favourite residence—Dastagird near Baghdad —without offering resistance. Meanwhile, some of the Persian grandees freed Khosrow's eldest son Kavad II , who had been imprisoned by his father, and proclaimed him King on the night of 23–24 February, 628. Kavad, however, was mortally ill and was anxious that Heraclius should protect his infant son Ardeshir. So, as a goodwill gesture, he sent

17080-613: The war, Maurice appointed Heraclius the Elder to the position of Exarch of Africa . In 608, Heraclius the Elder renounced his loyalty to the Emperor Phocas , who had overthrown Maurice six years earlier. The rebels issued coins showing both Heraclii dressed as hypatos , though neither of them explicitly claimed the imperial title at this time. Heraclius's younger cousin Nicetas launched an overland invasion of Egypt ; by 609, he had defeated Phocas's general Bonosus and secured

17220-440: Was crowned co-emperor ( augustus ) on 22 January 613, at the age of 8 months. Heraclonas was made caesar on 1 January 632, aged 6, and was later crowned augustus on 4 July 638. They ruled for a few months in 641, but were eventually succeeded by Constans II , the son of Constantine III, by the end of the year. Heraclius had at least one illegitimate son, John Athalarichos , who conspired against Heraclius with his cousin,

17360-574: Was a distinct dialect of Greek itself. Aside from the Macedonian question, current consensus regards Phrygian as the closest relative of Greek, since they share a number of phonological, morphological and lexical isoglosses , with some being exclusive between them. Scholars have proposed a Graeco-Phrygian subgroup out of which Greek and Phrygian originated. Among living languages, some Indo-Europeanists suggest that Greek may be most closely related to Armenian (see Graeco-Armenian ) or

17500-615: Was a member of the House of Mihran , one of the seven Great Houses of Iran . The family was of Parthian origin, and was centered in Ray , south of Tehran , the capital of present-day Iran. Bahram's father was Bahram Gushnasp , a military officer who had fought the Byzantines and campaigned in Yemen during the reign of Khosrow I ( r.  531–579 ). His grandfather Gurgin Milad had served as

17640-596: Was a nickname given to him due to his tall and slender appearance. His appearance was also emphasized by the Persian poet Ferdowsi , who in his Shahnameh , described Bahram as a towering and dark-complexioned warrior with black curly hair. The name Bahram Chobin is attested in Georgian as Baram Č‛ubin[i] and in Armenian as Vahram Ch’obin . His first name also appears as Vararanes in Latin and Baram ( Βαράμ ; Theophylact Simocatta ) and Baramos ( Βάραμος ; Joannes Zonaras ) in Greek . Bahram

17780-568: Was also used as the official language of government and religion in the Christian Nubian kingdoms , for most of their history. Greek, in its modern form, is the official language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population. It is also the official language of Cyprus (nominally alongside Turkish ) and the British Overseas Territory of Akrotiri and Dhekelia (alongside English ). Because of

17920-557: Was also used in Ancient Greek. Greek has occasionally been written in the Latin script , especially in areas under Venetian rule or by Greek Catholics . The term Frankolevantinika / Φραγκολεβαντίνικα applies when the Latin script is used to write Greek in the cultural ambit of Catholicism (because Frankos / Φράγκος is an older Greek term for West-European dating to when most of (Roman Catholic Christian) West Europe

18060-527: Was defeated with his outnumbered forces, but managed to flee to the Western Turkic Khaganate where he was well received. He was assassinated shortly thereafter at the instigation of Khosrow II, who was then the shah. Bahram Chobin's legacy survived even after the Arab conquest of Iran among Iranian nationalists, as well as in Persian literature . His theophoric name Bahram is the New Persian form of

18200-523: Was eventually deposed by Heraclius, who sailed to Constantinople from Carthage with an icon affixed to the prow of his ship. By this time, the Persians had conquered Mesopotamia and the Caucasus , and in 611 they overran Syria and entered Anatolia. A major counter-attack led by Heraclius two years later was decisively defeated outside Antioch by Shahrbaraz and Shahin , and the Roman position collapsed;

18340-646: Was executed. Mihran is mentioned in 633 as a general in the Sasanian forces that fought against the Arabs at the Battle of Ayn al-Tamr during the Arab invasion of Iran . His son Siyavakhsh ruled Ray, and killed Vinduyih's son Farrukh Hormizd in retribution for the family's role in Bahram's downfall and death. Bahram's last son, Noshrad, was the ancestor of the Samanids , who ruled the eastern Iranian lands of Transoxiana and Khorasan during most of their existence, stressing their ancestry from Bahram. Bahram's life

18480-549: Was included in the Golden Legend , the famous 13th-century compendium of hagiography, and he is sometimes shown in art, as in The History of the True Cross sequence of frescoes painted by Piero della Francesca in Arezzo , and a similar sequence on a small altarpiece by Adam Elsheimer ( Städel , Frankfurt). Both of these show scenes of Heraclius and Constantine I 's mother Saint Helena , traditionally responsible for

18620-521: Was received honorably by the Khagan of the Turks, who was most likely Birmudha–the same Turkic prince that Bahram had defeated and captured a few years earlier during his wars against the Turks. Bahram entered his service, and was appointed as a commander in the army, achieving further military accomplishments there. Bahram became a highly popular figure after saving the Khagan from a conspiracy instigated by

18760-416: Was seen as punishment for the illegality of the marriage: Fabius had a paralyzed neck and Theodosius was a deaf-mute . The latter married Nike, daughter of the Persian general Shahrbaraz , or daughter of Niketas, cousin of Heraclius. Two of Heraclius's children would become emperor: Heraclius Constantine (Constantine III) , his son with Eudokia, and Martina's son Heraclius (Heraclonas) . Constantine

18900-461: Was the subject of jealousy after his victory against the Turks. Hormizd's minister Azen Gushnasp , who was reportedly jealous of Bahram, accused him of having kept the best part of the booty for himself and only sending a small part to Hormizd. According to other sources, however, it was Birmudha or the courtiers that raised Hormizd's suspicion. Regardless, Hormizd could not tolerate the rising fame of Bahram, and thus had him disgraced and removed from

19040-582: Was thereafter sent to Khosrow, where he was killed. Khosrow II and the Byzantine general Narses then penetrated deeper into Bahram's territory, seizing Dara and then Mardin in February, where Khosrow was re-proclaimed king. Shortly after this, Khosrow sent one of his Iranian supporters, Mahbodh, to capture Ctesiphon, which he managed to accomplish. At the same time a force of 8,000 Iranians under Vistahm and Vinduyih and 12,000 Armenians under Mushegh II Mamikonian invaded Adurbadagan. Bahram tried to disrupt

19180-580: Was under the control of the Frankish Empire ). Frankochiotika / Φραγκοχιώτικα (meaning 'Catholic Chiot') alludes to the significant presence of Catholic missionaries based on the island of Chios . Additionally, the term Greeklish is often used when the Greek language is written in a Latin script in online communications. The Latin script is nowadays used by the Greek-speaking communities of Southern Italy . The Yevanic dialect

19320-556: Was very unpopular. In the reign of Heraclius's two sons, the divisive Martina was to become the center of power and political intrigue. Despite widespread hatred for Martina in Constantinople, Heraclius took her on campaigns with him and refused attempts by Patriarch Sergius to prevent and later dissolve the marriage. During his Balkan campaigns , Emperor Maurice and his family were murdered by Phocas in November 602 after

19460-480: Was well received there by the Sasanian king ( shah ) Hormizd IV , who forty days later had him sent back to Bahram with the order that the Turkic prince should get sent back to Transoxiana. The Sasanians now held suzerainty over the Sogdian cities of Chach and Samarkand , where Hormizd minted coins. After Bahram's great victory against the Turks he was sent to Caucasus to repel an invasion of nomads, possibly

19600-621: Was written by Romaniote and Constantinopolitan Karaite Jews using the Hebrew Alphabet . In a tradition, that in modern time, has come to be known as Greek Aljamiado , some Greek Muslims from Crete wrote their Cretan Greek in the Arabic alphabet . The same happened among Epirote Muslims in Ioannina . This also happened among Arabic-speaking Byzantine rite Christians in the Levant ( Lebanon , Palestine, and Syria ). This usage

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