A doctorate (from Latin doctor , meaning "teacher") or doctoral degree is a postgraduate academic degree awarded by universities and some other educational institutions, derived from the ancient formalism licentia docendi ("licence to teach").
110-540: In most countries, a research degree qualifies the holder to teach at university level in the degree's field or work in a specific profession . There are a number of doctoral degrees; the most common is the Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), awarded in many different fields, ranging from the humanities to scientific disciplines. Many universities also award honorary doctorates to individuals deemed worthy of special recognition, either for scholarly work or other contributions to
220-460: A Dr. rer. nat. to doctorate of natural sciences or Doctor of Science . To start a PhD in Germany, students must typically possess a master's degree in the related field. PhD programs in the natural sciences are often designed to allow graduation in three to five years, with an average graduation time of 4.3 years. The exact requirements for graduation differ by university but usually include
330-911: A Postgraduate Diploma in Education ("PGDE") or a bachelor's degree in Education ("BEd") at an approved tertiary educational institution or university. This requirement is set out by the Educational Department Bureau of Hong Kong, which is the governmental department that governs the Hong Kong education sector. Professions tend to be autonomous, which means they have a high degree of control of their own affairs: "professionals are autonomous insofar as they can make independent judgments about their work". This usually means "the freedom to exercise their professional judgement." However, it also has other meanings. "Professional autonomy
440-614: A peer-reviewed academic journal . The best-known research degree title in the English-speaking world , is Doctor of Philosophy (abbreviated Ph.D., PhD or, at some British universities, DPhil) awarded in many countries throughout the world. In the U.S., for instance, although the most typical research doctorate is the PhD, accounting for about 98% of the research doctorates awarded, there are more than 15 other names for research doctorates. Other research-oriented doctorates (some having
550-842: A DPhil) was awarded at the University of Oxford . Following the MD, the next professional doctorate in the US, the Juris Doctor (JD), was established by the University of Chicago in 1902. However, it took a long time to be accepted, not replacing the Bachelor of Laws (LLB) until the 1960s, by which time the LLB was generally taken as a graduate degree. Notably, the JD and LLB curriculum were identical, with
660-455: A bachelor's degree in the U.S. and the U.K. However, elsewhere, e.g. in Finland and many other European countries, a master's degree is required. The time required to complete a research doctorate varies from three years, excluding undergraduate study, to six years or more. Licentiate degrees vary widely in their meaning, and in a few countries are doctoral-level qualifications. Sweden awards
770-432: A body of abstract knowledge, and a collectivity or service orientation...a vocational sub-culture which comprises implicit codes of behavior, generates an esprit de corps among members of the same profession, and ensures them certain occupational advantages...(also) bureaucratic structures and monopolistic privileges to perform certain types of work...professional literature, legislation, etc." A critical characteristic of
880-534: A civil servant). In many Central and Eastern Europe countries, the degree gives venia legendi , Latin for "the permission to lecture", or ius docendi , "the right to teach", a specific academic subject at universities for a lifetime. The French academic system used to have a higher doctorate, called the "state doctorate" ( doctorat d'État ), but, in 1984, it was superseded by the habilitation ( Habilitation à diriger des recherches , "habilitation to supervise (doctoral and post-doctoral) research", abbreviated HDR) which
990-465: A corporate defense lawyer working on an hourly basis may earn several times what a prosecutor or public defender earns. The term "profession" is a truncation of the term "liberal profession", which is, in turn, an Anglicization of the French term profession libérale . Originally borrowed by English users in the 19th century, it has been re-borrowed by international users from the late 20th, though
1100-510: A defined industry. Usually they will have two general tasks: Originally, any regulation of the professions was self-regulation through bodies such as the College of Physicians or the Inns of Court . With the growing role of government, statutory bodies have increasingly taken on this role, their members being appointed either by the profession or (increasingly) by the government. Proposals for
1210-437: A direct and definite compensation, wholly apart from expectation of other business gain. Medieval and early modern tradition recognized only three professions: divinity , medicine , and law , which were called the learned professions . In some legal definitions, profession is not a trade nor an industry. Some professions change slightly in status and power, but their prestige generally remains stable over time, even if
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#17327721345391320-528: A doctoral program is available only for holders of a master's degree; there is no honors procedure for recruiting Bachelors. Entrance is not as controlled as in undergraduate studies, where a strict numerus clausus is applied. Usually, a prospective student discusses their plans with a professor. If the professor agrees to accept the student, the student applies for admission. The professor may recruit students to their group. Formal acceptance does not imply funding. The student must obtain funding either by working in
1430-428: A doctorate in canon law in 1608 have been discredited), Elena Cornaro Piscopia in 1678 at the University of Padua , Laura Bassi in 1732 at Bologna University , Dorothea Erxleben in 1754 at Halle University and María Isidra de Guzmán y de la Cerda in 1785 at Complutense University , Madrid. The use and meaning of the doctorate have changed over time and are subject to regional variations. For instance, until
1540-654: A full dissertation. In the Philippines, the University of the Philippines Open University offers a Doctor of Communication (DComm) professional doctorate. All doctorates in the UK and Ireland are third cycle qualifications in the Bologna Process , comparable to US research doctorates. Although all doctorates are research degrees, professional doctorates normally include taught components, while
1650-413: A high social status , regarded by society as highly important. This high esteem arises primarily from the higher social function of their work. The typical profession involves technical, specialized, and highly skilled work. This skill and experience is often referred to as "professional expertise ." In the modern era, training for a profession involves obtaining degrees and certifications. Often, entry to
1760-406: A higher doctorate a student must have completed a research doctorate at least seven to ten years prior to submitting the research portfolio used to award them a higher doctorate. Doctoral candidates are normally required to have a master's degree in a related field. Exceptions are based on their individual academic merit. A second and a third foreign language are other common requirements, although
1870-494: A minimum of six years of university-level study (including any pre-professional bachelor's or associate degree) and meet the academic requirements for professional licensure in the discipline. The definition for a professional doctorate does not include a requirement for either a dissertation or study beyond master's level, in contrast to the definition for research doctorates ("doctor's degree – research/scholarship"). However, individual programs may have different requirements. There
1980-409: A monograph or it an edited collection of 3 to 7 journal articles. Students unable or unwilling to write a dissertation may qualify for a licentiate degree by completing the coursework requirement and writing a shorter thesis, usually summarizing one year of research. When the dissertation is ready, the faculty names two expert pre-examiners with doctoral degrees from the outside the university. During
2090-458: A portfolio of research publications. The habilitation (highest available degree) demonstrates independent and thorough research, experience in teaching and lecturing, and, more recently, the ability to generate supportive funding. The habilitation follows the research doctorate, and in Germany, it can be a requirement for appointment as a Privatdozent or professor. Since the Middle Ages ,
2200-402: A profession can derive financial benefits is limiting the supply of services. Theories based on discourse, following Mead and applying ideas of Sartre and Heidegger look at how the individual's understanding of reality influence the role of professions. These viewpoints were espoused by Berger and Luckmann ( The Social Construction of Reality , 1966). Andrew Abbott constructed
2310-517: A profession have also been defined as "workers whose qualities of detachment, autonomy, and group allegiance are more extensive than those found among other groups...their attributes include a high degree of systematic knowledge; strong community orientation and loyalty ; self-regulation; and a system of rewards defined and administered by the community of workers." A profession has been further defined as: "a special type of occupation...(possessing) corporate solidarity...prolonged specialized training in
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#17327721345392420-781: A profession is the need to cultivate and exercise professional discretion - that is, the ability to make case by case judgements that cannot be determined by an absolute rule or instruction. Cruess, S. R., Johnston, S. & Cruess R. L. (2004). "Profession": a working definition for medical educators. Teaching and learning in Medicine,16(1): 74–76. Freidson, E. (1994). Professionalism reborn: Theory, prophecyand policy. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Gailmard, S. & Patty, J. W. (2007). Slackers and zealots: Civil service, policy discretion, and bureaucratic expertise. American Journal of Political Science, 51(4), 873–889. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-5907.2007.00286.x Gulick, L. (1937). Notes on
2530-427: A profession's adaptability to the changing conditions of the world. Émile Durkheim argued that professions created a stable society by providing structure separate from the state and the military that was less inclined to create authoritarianism or anomie and could create altruism and encourage social responsibility and altruism. This functionalist perspective was extended by Talcott Parsons who considered how
2640-470: A profession. They have a "professional association, cognitive base, institutionalized training, licensing, work autonomy , colleague control... (and) code of ethics", to which Larson then also adds, "high standards of professional and intellectual excellence," (Larson, p. 221) that "professions are occupations with special power and prestige", (Larson, p.x) and that they comprise "an exclusive elite group," (Larson, p. 20) in all societies. Members of
2750-425: A professional body). In such cases, qualification by the professional bodies is effectively still considered a prerequisite to practice as most employers and clients stipulate that the individual hold such qualifications before hiring their services. For example, in order to become a fully qualified teaching professional in Hong Kong working in a state or government-funded school, one needs to have successfully completed
2860-488: A professional practice focus) include the Doctor of Education (Ed.D. or EdD), the Doctor of Science (D.Sc. or Sc.D.), Doctor of Arts (D.A.), Doctor of Juridical Science (J.S.D. or S.J.D.), Doctor of Musical Arts (D.M.A.), Doctor of Professional Studies /Professional Doctorate (ProfDoc or DProf), Doctor of Public Health (Dr.P.H.), Doctor of Social Science (D.S.Sc. or DSocSci), Doctor of Management (D.M. or D.Mgt.), Doctor of Business Administration (D.B.A. or DBA),
2970-401: A public lecture before a panel of experts (including external members from other universities), and a written exam. In recent years some initiatives as jointly supervised doctorates (e.g. "cotutelles") have become increasingly common in the country, as part of the country's efforts to open its universities to international students. Denmark offers two types of "doctorate"-like degrees: For
3080-473: A research unit or through private scholarships. Funding is more available for natural and engineering sciences than in letters. Sometimes, normal work and research activity are combined. Prior to introduction of the Bologna process, Finland required at least 42 credit weeks (1,800 hours) of formal coursework. The requirement was removed in 2005, leaving the decision to individual universities, which may delegate
3190-503: A science specialty, one must have a master's degree (M.Sc.) (or two diplomas before the introduction of M.Sc. degree in Egypt) before applying. The M.D. degree involves courses in the field and defending a dissertation. It takes on average three to five years. Many postgraduate medical and surgical specialties students earn a doctorate. After finishing a 6-year medical school and one-year internship (house officer), physicians and surgeons earn
3300-401: A sociological model of professions in his book The System of Professions . Abbott views professions as having jurisdiction over the right to carry out tasks with different possession vying for control of jurisdiction over tasks. A profession often possesses an expert knowledge system which is distinct from the profession itself. This abstract system is often not of direct practical use but
3410-734: A thesis that must represent an original and relevant contribution to existing knowledge. The thesis is examined in a final public oral exam administered by at least five faculty members, two of whom must be external. After completion, which normally consumes 4 years, the candidate is commonly awarded the degree of Doutor (Doctor) followed by the main area of specialization, e.g. Doutor em Direito (Doctor of Laws), Doutor em Ciências da Computação (Doctor of Computer Sciences), Doutor em Filosofia (Doctor of Philosophy), Doutor em Economia (Doctor of Economics), Doutor em Engenharia (Doctor of Engineering) or Doutor em Medicina (Doctor of Medicine). The generic title of Doutor em Ciências (Doctor of Sciences)
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3520-461: Is a master's degree or equivalent. All universities have the right to award doctorates. The ammattikorkeakoulu institutes (institutes of higher vocational education that are not universities but often called "Universities of Applied Sciences" in English) do not award doctoral or other academic degrees. The student must: The way to show that these general requirements have been met is: Entrance to
3630-472: Is a research degree. When a university wishes to formally recognize an individual's contributions to a particular field or philanthropic efforts, it may choose to grant a doctoral degree honoris causa ('for the sake of the honor'), waiving the usual requirements for granting the degree. Some universities do not award honorary degrees, for example, Cornell University , the University of Virginia , and Massachusetts Institute of Technology . In Argentina
3740-431: Is a resemblance between the ijazah and the licentia docendi . However, Toby Huff and others reject Makdisi's theory. Devin J. Stewart notes a difference in the granting authority (individual professor for the ijzazah and a corporate entity in the case of the university doctorate). The doctorate of philosophy developed in Germany in the 17th century (likely c. 1652). The term "philosophy" does not refer here to
3850-934: Is also a category of "doctor's degree – other" for doctorates that do not fall into either the "professional practice" or "research/scholarship" categories. All of these are considered doctoral degrees. In contrast to the US, many countries reserve the term "doctorate" for research degrees. If, as in Canada and Australia, professional degrees bear the name "Doctor of ...", etc., it is made clear that these are not doctorates. Examples of this include Doctor of Pharmacy (PharmD), Doctor of Medicine (MD), Doctor of Dental Surgery (DDS), Doctor of Nursing Practice (DNP), and Juris Doctor (JD). Contrariwise, for example, research doctorates like Doctor of Business Administration (DBA), Doctor of Education (EdD) and Doctor of Social Science (DSS) qualify as full academic doctorates in Canada though they normally incorporate aspects of professional practice in addition to
3960-458: Is between US$ 500 and $ 1000. A degree of Doutor usually enables an individual to apply for a junior faculty position equivalent to a US assistant professor . Progression to full professorship, known as Professor Titular requires that the candidate be successful in a competitive public exam and normally takes additional years. In the federal university system, doctors who are admitted as junior faculty members may progress (usually by seniority) to
4070-797: Is conferred after a successful dissertation defence. In 2006, there were approximately 2,151 postgraduate careers in the country, of which 14% were doctoral degrees. Doctoral programs in Argentina are overseen by the National Commission for University Evaluation and Accreditation , an agency in Argentina's Ministry of Education, Science and Technology. The Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF) categorizes tertiary qualifications into ten levels that are numbered from one to ten in ascending order of complexity and depth. Of these qualification levels, six are for higher education qualifications and are numbered from five to ten. Doctoral degrees occupy
4180-678: Is normally used to refer collectively to doctorates in the natural sciences (i.e. Physics, Chemistry, Biological and Life Sciences, etc.) All graduate programs in Brazilian public universities are tuition-free (mandated by the Brazilian constitution ). Some graduate students are additionally supported by institutional scholarships granted by federal government agencies like CNPq ( Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico ) and CAPES ( Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento do Pessoal de Ensino Superior ). Personal scholarships are provided by
4290-496: Is not regulated. Typically, individuals are required by law to be qualified by a local professional body before they are permitted to practice in that profession. However, in some countries, individuals may not be required by law to be qualified by such a professional body in order to practice, as is the case for accountancy in the United Kingdom (except for auditing and insolvency work which legally require qualification by
4400-462: Is often described as a claim of professionals that has to serve primarily their own interests...this professional autonomy can only be maintained if members of the profession subject their activities and decisions to a critical evaluation by other members of the profession." The concept of autonomy can therefore be seen to embrace not only judgement, but also self-interest and a continuous process of critical evaluation of ethics and procedures from within
4510-417: Is rather optimized for logical consistency and rationality, and to some degree acts to increase the status of the entire profession. One profession may seek control of another profession's jurisdiction by challenging it at this academic level. Abbott argues that in the 1920s the psychiatric profession tried to challenge the legal profession for control over society's response to criminal behavior. Abbott argues
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4620-423: Is required to have a master's degree, but not necessarily a ph.d. The ph.d. was introduced as a separate title from the higher doctorate in 1992 as part of the transition to a new degree structure, since the changes in the degree system would otherwise leave a significant amount of academics without immediately recognizable qualifications in international settings. The original vision was purported to be to phase out
4730-422: Is that all equity owners of the professional business entity must be professionals themselves. This avoids the possibility of a non-professional owner of the firm telling a professional how to do his or her job and thereby protects professional autonomy. The idea is that the only non-professional person who should be telling the professional what to do is the client ; in other words, professional autonomy preserves
4840-467: Is the prerequisite to supervise PhDs and to apply to Full Professorships. In many countries of the previous Soviet Union ( USSR ), for example the Russian Federation or Ukraine there is the higher doctorate (above the title of "Candidate of Sciences"/PhD) under the title " Doctor of Sciences ". While this section has focused on earned qualifications conferred in virtue of published work or
4950-489: Is then typically defended by the candidate during an oral examination (called viva (voce) in the UK and India) by the committee, which then awards the degree unconditionally, awards the degree conditionally (ranging from corrections in grammar to additional research), or denies the degree. Candidates may also be required to complete graduate-level courses in their field and study research methodology. Criteria for admission to doctoral programs vary. Students may be admitted with
5060-482: The Association of Business Psychologists resisting the statutory regulation of "business psychologists" – descriptions of professional activity which it may not be easy to distinguish. Besides regulating access to a profession, professional bodies may set examinations of competence and enforce adherence to an ethical code . There may be several such bodies for one profession in a single country, an example being
5170-447: The Doctor of Sacred Theology (S.T.D., or D.S.Th.) are research doctorates in theology. Criteria for research doctorates vary but typically require completion of a substantial body of original research, which may be presented as a single thesis or dissertation , or as a portfolio of shorter project reports ( thesis by publication ). The submitted dissertation is assessed by a committee of, typically, internal, and external examiners. It
5280-525: The accountancy bodies of the United Kingdom ( ACCA , CAI , CIMA , CIPFA , ICAEW and ICAS ), all of which have been given a Royal Charter , although their members are not necessarily considered to hold equivalent qualifications, and which operate alongside further bodies ( AAPA , IFA , CPAA ). Another example of a regulatory body that governs a profession is the Hong Kong Professional Teachers Union, which governs
5390-428: The auditorium (ex auditorio) . For the higher doctorate, the candidate (referred to as præses ) is required to submit a thesis of major scientific significance, and to proceed to defend it orally against two official opponents, as well as against any and all opponents from the auditorium ( ex auditorio ) – no matter how long the proceedings take. The official opponents are required to be full professors. The candidate
5500-659: The "faculty of philosophy". The Doctorate of Philosophy adheres to this historic convention, even though most degrees are not for the study of philosophy. Chris Park explains that it was not until formal education and degree programs were standardized in the early 19th century that the Doctorate of Philosophy was reintroduced in Germany as a research degree, abbreviated as Dr. phil. (similar to Ph.D. in Anglo-American countries). Germany, however, differentiated then in more detail between doctorates in philosophy and doctorates in
5610-477: The (upper-middle) class overtones of the term do not seem to survive re-translation: "liberal professions" are, according to the European Union 's Directive on Recognition of Professional Qualifications (2005/36/EC), "those practised on the basis of relevant professional qualifications in a personal, responsible and professionally independent capacity by those providing intellectual and conceptual services in
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#17327721345395720-499: The 19th century "when holding a doctorate seemed no longer sufficient to guarantee a proficient transfer of knowledge to the next generation". In many federal states of Germany, the habilitation results in an award of a formal "Dr. habil." degree or the holder of the degree may add "habil." to their research doctorate such as "Dr. phil. habil." or "Dr. rer. nat. habil." In some European universities, especially in German -speaking countries,
5830-596: The Bible . The right to grant a licentia docendi (i.e. the doctorate) was originally reserved to the Catholic Church , which required the applicant to pass a test, take an oath of allegiance , and pay a fee. The Third Council of the Lateran of 1179 guaranteed access—at that time essentially free of charge—to all able applicants. Applicants were tested for aptitude. This right remained a bone of contention between
5940-594: The British government proposed wide statutory regulation of psychologists. The inspiration for the change was a number of problems in the psychotherapy field, but there are various kinds of psychologists including many who have no clinical role, and where the case for regulation was not so clear. Work psychology brought especial disagreement, with the British Psychological Society favoring statutory regulation of "occupational psychologists" and
6050-606: The Department of Studies in the Professions was created at the Russell Sage Foundation with Brown as its head. Theories based on conflict theories following Marx and Weber consider how professions can act in the interest of their own group to secure social and financial benefits were espoused by Johnson ( Professions and Powers, 1972) and Larson ( The Rise of Professionalism , 1977). One way that
6160-535: The M.B. B.Ch. degree, which is equivalent to a US MD degree. They can then apply to earn a master's degree or a speciality diploma, then an MD degree in a specialty. The Egyptian M.D. degree is written using the name of one's specialty. For example, M.D. (Geriatrics) means a doctorate in Geriatrics , which is equivalent to a Ph.D. in Geriatrics. The Finnish requirement for the entrance into doctoral studies
6270-661: The Swedish/Finnish licentiate degree). While other licences (such as the Licence in Canon Law) are at the level of master's degrees. A higher tier of research doctorates may be awarded based on a formally submitted portfolio of published research of an exceptionally high standard. Examples include the Doctor of Science (DSc or ScD), Doctor of Divinity (DD), Doctor of Letters (DLitt or LittD), Doctor of Law or Laws (LLD), and Doctor of Civil Law (DCL) degrees found in
6380-954: The UK Doctor of Management (DMan), various doctorates in engineering, such as the US Doctor of Engineering (D.Eng., D.E.Sc. or D.E.S., also awarded in Japan and South Korea), the UK Engineering Doctorate (EngD), the German engineering doctorate Doktoringenieur ( Dr.-Ing. ) the German natural science doctorate Doctor rerum naturalium ( Dr. rer. nat. ) and the economics and social science doctorate Doctor rerum politicarum ( Dr. rer. pol. ). The UK Doctor of Medicine (MD or MD (Res)) and Doctor of Dental Surgery (DDS) are research doctorates. The Doctor of Theology (Th.D., D.Th. or ThD), Doctor of Practical Theology (DPT) and
6490-625: The UK, Ireland and some Commonwealth countries, and the traditional doctorates in Scandinavia like the Doctor Medicinae (Dr. Med.). The habilitation teaching qualification ( facultas docendi or "faculty to teach") under a university procedure with a thesis and an exam is commonly regarded as belonging to this category in Germany , Austria , France , Liechtenstein , Switzerland , Poland , etc. The degree developed in Germany in
6600-527: The United Kingdom, the older-style doctorates take much longer to complete since candidates must show themselves to be leading experts in their subjects. These doctorates are less common than the PhD in some countries and are often awarded honoris causa . The habilitation is still used for academic recruitment purposes in many countries within the EU. It involves either a long new thesis (a second book) or
6710-458: The apprenticeship term for other occupations. Originally the terms "master" and "doctor" were synonymous, but over time the doctorate came to be regarded as a higher qualification than the master's degree . University degrees, including doctorates, were originally restricted to men. The first women to be granted doctorates were Juliana Morell in 1608 at Lyons or maybe Avignon (she "defended theses" in 1606 or 1607, although claims that she received
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#17327721345396820-420: The authority to faculties or individual professors. In Engineering and Science, required coursework varies between 40 and 70 ECTS . The duration of graduate studies varies. It is possible to graduate three years after the master's degree, while much longer periods are not uncommon. The study ends with a dissertation, which must present substantial new scientific/scholarly knowledge. The dissertation can either be
6930-442: The basis of an original and significant contribution to professional practice. Higher doctorates are typically titled similarly to professional doctorates and are awarded based on a submitted portfolio of research that follows a consistent theme and is internationally recognized as an original and substantive contribution to knowledge beyond that required for the awarding of a research doctorate. Typically, to be eligible to be awarded
7040-465: The church authorities and the universities, slowly distancing themselves from the Church. In 1213 the right was granted by the pope to the University of Paris , where it became a universal license to teach ( licentia ubique docendi ). However, while the licentia continued to hold a higher prestige than the bachelor's degree ( baccalaureus ), the latter was ultimately reduced to an intermediate step to
7150-471: The conduct, rights, obligations, and duties of salaried teachers working in educational institutions in Hong Kong. The engineering profession is highly regulated in some countries (Canada and the United States) with a strict licensing system for Professional Engineer that controls the practice but not in others (UK) where titles and qualifications are regulated Chartered Engineer but the practice
7260-439: The country, professional doctorates may also be research degrees at the same level as PhDs . The relationship between research and practice is considered important and professional degrees with little or no research content are typically aimed at professional performance. Many professional doctorates are named "Doctor of [subject name] and abbreviated using the form "D[subject abbreviation]" or "[subject abbreviation]D", or may use
7370-511: The degree being renamed as a doctorate, and it (like the MD) was not equivalent to the PhD, raising criticism that it was "not a 'true Doctorate ' ". When professional doctorates were established in the UK in the late 1980s and early 1990s, they did not follow the US model. Still, they were set up as research degrees at the same level as PhDs but with some taught components and a professional focus for research work. Now usually called higher doctorates in
7480-412: The degree is insufficient to have teaching duties without professor supervision (or teaching and supervising PhD students independently) without an additional teaching title such as Privatdozent . In Austria, the habilitation bestows the graduate with the facultas docendi , venia legendi. Since 2004, the honorary title of "Privatdozent" (before this, completing the habilitation resulted in appointment as
7590-424: The doctorate ( doctorado ) is the highest academic degree. The intention is that candidates produce original contributions in their field knowledge within a frame of academic excellence. A dissertation or thesis is prepared under the supervision of a tutor or director. It is reviewed by a Doctoral Committee composed of examiners external to the program and at least one examiner external to the institution. The degree
7700-591: The doctorate's importance. Today, a research doctorate (PhD) or its equivalent (as defined in the US by the NSF ) is generally a prerequisite for an academic career. However, many recipients do not work in academia. Professional doctorates developed in the United States from the 19th century onward. The first professional doctorate offered in the United States was the MD at Kings College (now Columbia University ) after
7810-399: The early 20th century, few academic staff or professors in English-speaking universities held doctorates, except for very senior scholars and those in holy orders . After that time, the German practice of requiring lecturers to have completed a research doctorate spread. Universities' shift to research-oriented education (based upon the scientific method, inquiry, and observation) increased
7920-701: The early history of mankind and the development of civilization. Boston: Estes and Lauriat. Dr. rer. nat. Doctor rerum naturalium ( Latin for 'Doctor of Natural Sciences', lit. ' Doctor of the Things of Nature ' ), abbreviated Dr. rer. nat. , is a doctoral academic degree awarded by universities in some European countries (e.g. Germany , Austria and Czech Republic ) to graduates in physics , chemistry , biology , geology , computer science , pharmacy , psychology , other natural sciences and similar areas. Universities might also award different titles for these fields, depending on
8030-610: The emergence of regulatory bodies with powers to admit and discipline members, and some degree of monopoly rights. Major milestones which may mark an occupation being identified as a profession include: Applying these milestones to the historical sequence of development in the United States shows surveying achieving professional status first (George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and Abraham Lincoln all worked as land surveyors before entering politics ), followed by medicine , actuarial science , law , dentistry , civil engineering , logistics , architecture and accounting . With
8140-456: The equivalent, a higher doctorate may also be presented on an honorary basis by a university — at its own initiative or after a nomination — in recognition of public prestige, institutional service, philanthropy, or professional achievement. In a formal listing of qualifications, and often in other contexts, an honorary higher doctorate will be identified using language like " DCL , honoris causa ", "Hon LLD ", or " LittD h.c. ". Depending on
8250-453: The field or academic discipline of philosophy ; it is used in a broader sense under its original Greek meaning of "love of wisdom". In most of Europe , all fields ( history , philosophy, social sciences , mathematics , and natural philosophy / natural sciences ) were traditionally known as philosophy, and in Germany and elsewhere in Europe the basic faculty of liberal arts was known as
8360-428: The formalization of a profession often serves to make a jurisdiction easier or harder to protect from other jurisdictions: general principles making it harder for other professions to gain jurisdiction over one area, clear boundaries preventing encroachment, fuzzy boundaries making it easier for one profession to take jurisdiction over other tasks. Professions may expand their jurisdiction by other means. Lay education on
8470-478: The function of a profession could change in responses to changes in society. Esther Lucile Brown , an anthropologist, studied various professions starting the 1930s while working with Ralph Hurlin at the Russell Sage Foundation . She published Social Work as a Profession in 1935, and following this publications studying the work of engineers, nurses, medical physicians and lawyers. In 1944,
8580-456: The higher doctorate in favor of the ph.d. (or merge the two), but so far, there are no signs of this happening. Many Danish academics with permanent positions wrote ph.d. dissertations in the 90s when the system was new, since at that time, a ph.d. degree or equivalent qualifications began to be required for certain academic positions in Denmark . Until the late 20th century, the higher doctorate
8690-469: The highest of these levels: level ten. All doctoral degrees involve research and this is a defining characteristic of them. There are three categories of doctoral degrees recognized by the AQF: research doctorates, professional doctorates and higher doctorates. Research doctorates and professional doctorates are both completed as part of a programme of study and supervised research. Both have entry requirements of
8800-418: The integrity of the two-party professional-client relationship. Above this client-professional relationship the profession requires the professional to use their autonomy to follow the rules of ethics that the profession requires. But because professional business entities are effectively locked out of the stock market, they tend to grow relatively slowly compared to public corporations. Professions tend to have
8910-521: The interest of the client and the public". Under the European Commission , liberal professions are professions that require specialized training and that are regulated by "national governments or professional bodies". A profession arises through the process of professionalization when any trade or occupation transforms itself: "... [through] the development of formal qualifications based upon education, apprenticeship, and examinations,
9020-405: The introduction or enhancement of statutory regulation may be welcomed by a profession as protecting clients and enhancing its quality and reputation, or as restricting access to the profession and hence enabling higher fees to be charged. It may be resisted as limiting the members' freedom to innovate or to practice as in their professional judgement they consider best. An example was in 2008, when
9130-473: The licentiate degree as a two-year qualification at the doctoral level and the doctoral degree (PhD) as a four-year qualification. Sweden originally abolished the Licentiate in 1969 but reintroduced it in response to demands from business. Finland also has a two-year doctoral level licentiate degree, similar to Sweden's. Outside of Scandinavia, the licentiate is usually a lower-level qualification. In Belgium,
9240-550: The licentiate was the basic university degree prior to the Bologna Process and was equivalent to a bachelor's degree. In France and other countries, it is the bachelor's-level qualification in the Bologna process. In the Pontifical system, the Licentiate in Sacred Theology (STL) is equivalent to an advanced master's degree, or the post-master's coursework required in preparation for a doctorate (i.e. similar in level to
9350-474: The master's degree ( magister ) and doctorate, both of which now became the accepted teaching qualifications. According to Keith Allan Noble (1994), the first doctoral degree was awarded in medieval Paris around 1150 by the University of Paris. George Makdisi theorizes that the ijazah issued in early Islamic madrasahs was the origin of the doctorate later issued in medieval European universities . Alfred Guillaume and Syed Farid al-Attas agree that there
9460-423: The medical school's founding in 1767. However, this was not a professional doctorate in the modern American sense. It was awarded for further study after the qualifying Bachelor of Medicine (MB) rather than a qualifying degree. The MD became the standard first degree in medicine in the US during the 19th century, but as a three-year undergraduate degree. It did not become established as a graduate degree until 1930. As
9570-468: The more generic titles "Professional Doctorate", abbreviated "ProfDoc" or "DProf", " Doctor of Professional Studies " (DPS) or "Doctor of Professional Practice" (DPP). In the US, professional doctorates (formally "doctor's degree – professional practice" in government classifications) are defined by the US Department of Education 's National Center for Educational Statistics as degrees that require
9680-479: The name PhD/DPhil is normally used for doctorates purely by thesis. Professional, practitioner, or practice-based doctorates such as the DClinPsy, MD, DHSc, EdD, DBA, EngD and DAg are full academic doctorates. They are at the same level as the PhD in the national qualifications frameworks; they are not first professional degrees but are "often post-experience qualifications" in which practice is considered important in
9790-423: The natural sciences, abbreviated as Dr. rer. nat. and also doctorates in the social/political sciences, abbreviated as Dr. rer. pol., similar to the other traditional doctorates in medicine (Dr. med.) and law (Dr. jur.). University doctoral training was a form of apprenticeship to a guild . The traditional term of study before new teachers were admitted to the guild of "Masters of Arts" was seven years, matching
9900-413: The number and types of doctorates awarded by universities have proliferated throughout the world. Practice varies from one country to another. While a doctorate usually entitles a person to be addressed as "doctor", the use of the title varies widely depending on the type and the associated occupation. Research doctorates are awarded in recognition of publishable academic research, at least in principle, in
10010-407: The part of professions as in part an attempt to expand jurisdiction by imposing a particular understanding on the world (one in which the profession has expertise). He terms this sort of jurisdiction public jurisdiction . Legal jurisdiction is a monopoly created by the state legislation, as applies to law in many nations. There is considerable agreement about defining the characteristic features of
10120-437: The ph.d. degree, the candidates (ph.d. students or fellows) – who are required to have a master's degree – enroll at a ph.d. school at a university and participate in a research training program, at the end of which they each submit a thesis and defend it orally at a formal disputation . In the disputation, the candidates defend their theses against three official opponents, and may take opponents or questions from those present in
10230-426: The pre-examination process, the student may receive comments on the work and respond with modifications. After the pre-examiners approve, the doctoral candidate applies the faculty for permission to print the thesis. When granting this permission, the faculty names the opponent for the thesis defence, who must also be an outside expert, with at least a doctorate. In all Finnish universities, long tradition requires that
10340-403: The printed dissertation hang on a cord by a public university noticeboard for at least ten days prior to for the dissertation defence. Profession A profession is a field of work that has been successfully professionalized . It can be defined as a disciplined group of individuals, professionals , who adhere to ethical standards and who hold themselves out as, and are accepted by
10450-418: The profession begins to have more required study and formal education. Disciplines formalized more recently, such as architecture, now have equally long periods of study associated with them. Although professions may enjoy relatively high status and public prestige, not all professionals earn high salaries, and even within specific professions there exist significant differences in salary. In law, for example,
10560-636: The profession is barred without licensure . Learning new skills that are required as a profession evolves is called continuing education . Standards are set by states and associations. Leading professionals tend to police and protect their area of expertise and monitor the conduct of their fellow professionals through associations, national or otherwise. Professionals often exercise a dominating influence over related trades, setting guidelines and standards. Socially powerful professionals consolidate their power in organizations for specific goals. Working together, they can reduce bureaucratic entanglements and increase
10670-742: The profession itself. One major implication of professional autonomy is the traditional ban on corporate practice of the professions, especially accounting, architecture, engineering, medicine, and law. This means that in many jurisdictions, these professionals cannot do business through regular for-profit corporations and raise capital rapidly through initial public offerings or flotations . Instead, if they wish to practice collectively they must form special business entities such as partnerships or professional corporations , which feature (1) reduced protection against liability for professional negligence and (2) severe limitations or outright prohibitions on ownership by non-professionals. The obvious implication of this
10780-431: The public as possessing special knowledge and skills in a widely recognised body of learning derived from research, education and training at a high level, and who are prepared to apply this knowledge and exercise these skills in the interest of others. Professional occupations are founded upon specialized educational training , the purpose of which is to supply disinterested objective counsel and service to others, for
10890-402: The rank of associate professor, then become eligible to take the competitive exam for vacant full professorships. In São Paulo state universities, associate professorships and subsequent eligibility to apply for a full professorship are conditioned on the qualification of Livre-docente and requires, in addition to a doctorate, a second thesis or cumulative portfolio of peer-reviewed publications,
11000-466: The requirements regarding proficiency commonly are not strict. The admissions process varies by institution. Some require candidates to take tests while others base admissions on a research proposal application and interview only. In both instances however, a faculty member must agree prior to admission to supervise the applicant. Requirements usually include satisfactory performance in advanced graduate courses, passing an oral qualifying exam and submitting
11110-593: The research context. In 2009 there were 308 professional doctorate programs in the UK, up from 109 in 1998, with the most popular being the EdD (38 institutions), DBA (33), EngD/DEng (22), MD/DM (21), and DClinPsy/DClinPsych/ClinPsyD (17). Similarly, in Australia, the term "professional doctorate" is sometimes applied to the Scientiae Juridicae Doctor (SJD), which, like the UK professional doctorates,
11220-423: The rise of technology and occupational specialization in the 19th century, other bodies began to claim professional status: mechanical engineering , pharmacy , veterinary medicine , psychology , nursing , teaching , librarianship , optometry and social work , each of which could claim, using these milestones, to have become professions by 1900. Regulatory organisations are typically charged with overseeing
11330-550: The standard qualifying degree in medicine, the MD gave that profession the ability (through the American Medical Association , established in 1847 for this purpose) to set and raise standards for entry into professional practice. In the shape of the German-style PhD, the modern research degree was first awarded in the US in 1861, at Yale University . This differed from the MD in that the latter
11440-480: The student having a supervisor that has agreed to supervise their research, along with the student possessing an honours degree with upper second-class honours or better or a master's degree with a substantial research component. Research doctorates are typically titled Doctor of Philosophy and they are awarded on the basis of an original and significant contribution to knowledge. Professional doctorates are typically titled Doctor of (field of study) and they are awarded on
11550-978: The theory of organization. In J. Shafritz & A. Hyde (Eds.), Classics of public administration, eighth edition (pp. 105–114). Boston, Massachusetts: Cengage Learning. Howlett, M., McConnell, A., and Pearl, A. (2014). Streams and stages: Reconciling Kingdon and policy process theory. European Journal of Political Research, 54(3) 419–434. doi: 10.1111/1475-6765.12064 Lindblom, C. E. (1959). The science of "muddling through". In J. Shafritz and A. Hyde (Eds.), Classics of public administration, eighth edition, (pp. 172–182). Boston, Massachusetts: Cengage Learning. Niskanen, Jr. (1971). Bureaucracy and Representative Government. New York: Imprint Routledge. doi: 10.4324/9781315081878 Sinek, S. (2019). The Infinite Game. New York: Random House Surowiecki, J. (2005). The wisdom of crowds. New York: Random House. Taylor, F. W. (1912). The principles of scientific management. New York: Harper and Brothers. Taylor, E. B. (1878). Researches into
11660-584: The topic of a PhD thesis and which titles a university can award. In German-speaking Switzerland the equivalent of Dr. rer. nat. is Dr. phil. nat. The Karlsruhe Institute of Technology for example might award a Dr. rer. nat. or a Dr.-Ing for computer science graduates, differentiating between degrees in theoretical and practical topics. These doctoral degrees are equivalent to the PhD awarded in English-speaking countries. German universities often translate
11770-471: The university or society. The term doctor derives from Latin, meaning "teacher" or "instructor". The doctorate (Latin: doctoratus ) appeared in medieval Europe as a license to teach Latin ( licentia docendi ) at a university . Its roots can be traced to the early church in which the term doctor referred to the Apostles , church fathers , and other Christian authorities who taught and interpreted
11880-464: The various FAP's ( Fundações de Amparo à Pesquisa ) at the state level, especially FAPESP in the state of São Paulo , FAPERJ in the state of Rio de Janeiro and FAPEMIG in the state of Minas Gerais . Competition for graduate financial aid is intense and most scholarships support at most 2 years of Master's studies and 4 years of doctoral studies. The normal monthly stipend for doctoral students in Brazil
11990-475: Was a condition for attaining full professorship; it is no longer required per se for any positions, but is considered amply equivalent to the ph.d. when applying for academic positions. In Egypt, the highest degree doctorate is awarded by Al-Azhar University est. 970, which grants ( العالمية Ālimiyya\ Habilitation ). The Medical doctorate (abbreviated as M.D.) is equivalent to the Ph.D. degree. To earn an M.D. in
12100-497: Was a vocational " professional degree " that trained students to apply or practice knowledge rather than generate it, similar to other students in vocational schools or institutes. In the UK, research doctorates initially took higher doctorates in Science and Letters, first introduced at Durham University in 1882. The PhD spread to the UK from the US via Canada and was instituted at all British universities from 1917. The first (titled
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