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60-398: Settled on the bottom of a wide bay, its climate is wet and appealing. In the surrounding areas there are rice , cotton , sugarcane and different grain fields. This fact has allowed the rise of a rather important cotton industry, as well as cotton and oil factories. Within its natural landscape, its salt mines and its beaches (such as El Paraíso ) are of great interest. Huacho was one of

120-416: A sustainable way. Many varieties of rice have been bred to improve crop quality and productivity. Biotechnology has created Green Revolution rice able to produce high yields when supplied with nitrogen fertiliser and managed intensively. Other products are rice able to express human proteins for medicinal use; flood-tolerant or deepwater rice ; and drought-tolerant and salt-tolerant varieties. Rice

180-403: A branched inflorescence which arises from the last internode on the stem. There can be up to 350 spikelets in a panicle, each containing male and female flower parts ( anthers and ovule ). A fertilised ovule develops into the edible grain or caryopsis . Rice is a cereal belonging to the family Poaceae . As a tropical crop, it can be grown during the two distinct seasons (dry and wet) of

240-563: A hundred species, are marine. Insects such as snow scorpionflies flourish in cold habitats including the Arctic and at high altitude. Insects such as desert locusts , ants, beetles, and termites are adapted to some of the hottest and driest environments on earth, such as the Sonoran Desert . Insects form a clade , a natural group with a common ancestor, among the arthropods . A phylogenetic analysis by Kjer et al. (2016) places

300-421: A pair of antennae . Insects are the most diverse group of animals, with more than a million described species ; they represent more than half of all animal species. The insect nervous system consists of a brain and a ventral nerve cord . Most insects reproduce by laying eggs . Insects breathe air through a system of paired openings along their sides, connected to small tubes that take air directly to

360-411: A role in various religions and traditions, such as in weddings . The rice plant can grow to over 1 m (3 ft) tall; if in deep water, it can reach a length of 5 m (16 ft). A single plant may have several leafy stems or tillers . The upright stem is jointed with nodes along its length; a long slender leaf arises from each node. The self-fertile flowers are produced in a panicle ,

420-514: A single domestication event for O. sativa . Both indica and japonica forms of Asian rice sprang from a single domestication event in China from the wild rice Oryza rufipogon . Despite this evidence, it appears that indica rice arose when japonica arrived in India about 4,500 years ago and hybridised with another rice, whether an undomesticated proto- indica or wild O. nivara . Rice

480-440: A wide variety of pests including insects, nematodes, rodents such as rats, snails, and birds. Major rice insect pests include armyworms, rice bugs , black bugs , cutworms, field crickets, grasshoppers, leafhoppers, mealybugs, and planthoppers. High rates of nitrogen fertiliser application may worsen aphid outbreaks. Weather conditions can contribute to pest outbreaks: rice gall midge outbreaks are worsened by high rainfall in

540-436: Is rainfed like wheat or maize. Across Asia, unmilled rice or "paddy" (Indonesian and Malay padi ), was traditionally the product of smallholder agriculture, with manual harvesting . Larger farms make use of machines such as combine harvesters to reduce the input of labour. The grain is ready to harvest when the moisture content is 20–25%. Harvesting involves reaping , stacking the cut stalks, threshing to separate

600-678: Is 69% water, 29% carbohydrates , 2% protein , and contains negligible fat (table). In a reference serving of 100 grams (3.5 oz), cooked white rice provides 130 calories of food energy , and contains moderate levels of manganese (18% DV), with no other micronutrients in significant content (all less than 10% of the Daily Value ). In 2018, the World Health Organization strongly recommended fortifying rice with iron , and conditionally recommended fortifying it with vitamin A and with folic acid . Golden rice

660-744: Is a cereal grain and in its domesticated form is the staple food of over half of the world's population , particularly in Asia and Africa . Rice is the seed of the grass species Oryza sativa (Asian rice)—or, much less commonly, Oryza glaberrima (African rice). Asian rice was domesticated in China some 13,500 to 8,200 years ago; African rice was domesticated in Africa about 3,000 years ago. Rice has become commonplace in many cultures worldwide; in 2021, 787 million tons were produced, placing it fourth after sugarcane , maize , and wheat . Only some 8% of rice

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720-627: Is a major food staple in Asia, Latin America, and some parts of Africa, feeding over half the world's population. However, a substantial part of the crop can be lost post-harvest through inefficient transportation, storage, and milling. A quarter of the crop in Nigeria is lost after harvest. Storage losses include damage by mould fungi if the rice is not dried sufficiently. In China, losses in modern metal silos were just 0.2%, compared to 7–13% when rice

780-504: Is a variety produced through genetic engineering to synthesize beta-carotene , a precursor of vitamin A, in the endosperm of the rice grain. It is intended to be grown and eaten in parts of the world where Vitamin A deficiency is prevalent. Golden rice has been opposed by activists, such as in the Philippines . In 2016 more than 100 Nobel laureates encouraged the use of genetically modified organisms , such as golden rice, for

840-581: Is based on four principles: biodiversity, host plant resistance, landscape ecology, and hierarchies in a landscape—from biological to social. Farmers' pesticide applications are often unnecessary. Pesticides may actually induce resurgence of populations of rice pests such as the brown planthopper , both by destroying beneficial insects and by enhancing the pest's reproduction. The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) demonstrated in 1993 that an 87.5% reduction in pesticide use can lead to an overall drop in pest numbers. Farmers in China, Indonesia and

900-423: Is constrained by the inelastic exoskeleton, so development involves a series of molts . The immature stages often differ from the adults in structure, habit and habitat. Groups that undergo four-stage metamorphosis often have a nearly immobile pupa . Insects that undergo three-stage metamorphosis lack a pupa, developing through a series of increasingly adult-like nymphal stages. The higher level relationship of

960-508: Is from Asia. The average world yield for rice was 4.7 metric tons per hectare (2.1 short tons per acre), in 2022. Yuan Longping of China's National Hybrid Rice Research and Development Center set a world record for rice yield in 1999 at 17.1 metric tons per hectare (7.6 short tons per acre) on a demonstration plot. This employed specially developed hybrid rice and the System of Rice Intensification (SRI), an innovation in rice farming. Rice

1020-812: Is sister to the bamboos, Bambusoideae , and the cereal subfamily Pooideae . The rice genus Oryza is one of eleven in the Oryzeae; it is sister to the Phyllorachideae . The edible rice species O. sativa and O. glaberrima are among some 300 species or subspecies in the genus. other grasses (inc. the C4 grasses , maize , sorghum ) Streptogyneae Ehrharteae Phyllorachideae Wild rices inc. Zizania other rice species and subspecies O. sativa (Asian rice) O. glaberrima (African rice) Bambusoideae (bamboos) Pooideae (grasses and cereals inc. wheat , barley ) Oryza sativa rice

1080-694: Is stickier, and is used for sweet dishes, and in Italy for risotto ; and sticky short-grain rice is used in Japanese sushi as it keeps its shape when cooked. White rice when cooked contains 29% carbohydrate and 2% protein, with some manganese . Golden rice is a variety produced by genetic engineering to contain vitamin A . Production of rice is estimated to have caused over 1% of global greenhouse gas emissions in 2022. Predictions of how rice yields will be affected by climate change vary across geographies and socioeconomic contexts. In human culture, rice plays

1140-438: Is subjected to a steaming process before it is milled. This makes the grain harder, and moves some of the grain's vitamins and minerals into the white part of the rice so these are retained after milling. Rice does not contain gluten , so is suitable for people on a gluten-free diet . Rice is a good source of protein and a staple food in many parts of the world, but it is not a complete protein as it does not contain all of

1200-406: Is to flood the field to a depth of 5 cm (2 in), then to let the water level drop to 15 cm (6 in) below surface level, as measured by looking into a perforated field water tube sunk into the soil, and then repeating the cycle. Deepwater rice varieties tolerate flooding to a depth of over 50 centimetres for at least a month. Upland rice is grown without flooding, in hilly or mountainous regions; it

1260-509: Is traded internationally. China, India, and Indonesia are the largest consumers of rice. A substantial amount of the rice produced in developing nations is lost after harvest through factors such as poor transport and storage. Rice yields can be reduced by pests including insects , rodents , and birds , as well as by weeds , and by diseases such as rice blast . Traditional rice polycultures such as rice-duck farming , and modern integrated pest management seek to control damage from pests in

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1320-471: Is used as a model organism in biology. Dry rice grain is milled to remove the outer layers; depending on how much is removed, products range from brown rice to rice with germ and white rice. Some is parboiled to make it easy to cook. Rice contains no gluten ; it provides protein but not all the essential amino acids needed for good health. Rice of different types is eaten around the world. Long-grain rice tends to stay intact on cooking; medium-grain rice

1380-853: The Latin word insectum from in , "cut up", as insects appear to be cut into three parts. The Latin word was introduced by Pliny the Elder who calqued the Ancient Greek word ἔντομον éntomon "insect" (as in entomology ) from ἔντομος éntomos "cut in pieces"; this was Aristotle 's term for this class of life in his biology , also in reference to their notched bodies. The English word insect first appears in 1601 in Philemon Holland 's translation of Pliny. In common speech, insects and other terrestrial arthropods are often called bugs . Entomologists to some extent reserve

1440-440: The essential amino acids in sufficient amounts for good health. World trade figures are much smaller than those for production, as less than 8% of rice produced is traded internationally. China, an exporter of rice in the early 2000s, had become the world's largest importer of rice by 2013. Developing countries are the main players in the world rice trade; by 2012, India was the largest exporter of rice, with Thailand and Vietnam

1500-623: The insects is unclear. Fossilized insects of enormous size have been found from the Paleozoic Era, including giant dragonfly-like insects with wingspans of 55 to 70 cm (22 to 28 in). The most diverse insect groups appear to have coevolved with flowering plants . Adult insects typically move about by walking and flying; some can swim. Insects are the only invertebrates that can achieve sustained powered flight; insect flight evolved just once. Many insects are at least partly aquatic , and have larvae with gills; in some species,

1560-483: The pheromones of female moths over great distances. Other species communicate with sounds: crickets stridulate , or rub their wings together, to attract a mate and repel other males. Lampyrid beetles communicate with light. Humans regard many insects as pests , especially those that damage crops, and attempt to control them using insecticides and other techniques. Others are parasitic , and may act as vectors of diseases . Insect pollinators are essential to

1620-478: The 21st century as people in Asia and elsewhere ate less grain and more meat. An exception is Sub-Saharan Africa, where both per capita consumption of rice and population are increasing. Rice is a commonly-eaten food around the world. The varieties of rice are typically classified as short-, medium-, and long-grained. Oryza sativa indica varieties are usually long-grained; Oryza sativa japonica varieties are usually short- or medium-grained. Short-grain rice, with

1680-704: The Americas by the Spanish. In British North America by the time of the start of the American War of Independence , rice had become the fourth most valuable export commodity behind only tobacco, wheat, and fish. In 2021, world production of rice was 787 million tonnes , led by China and India with a combined 52% of the total. This placed rice fourth in the list of crops by production, after sugarcane , maize , and wheat . Other major producers were Bangladesh , Indonesia and Vietnam . 90% of world production

1740-623: The Hemiptera (true bugs), Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths), Diptera (true flies), Hymenoptera (wasps, ants, and bees), and Coleoptera (beetles), each with more than 100,000 described species. Insects are distributed over every continent and almost every terrestrial habitat. There are many more species in the tropics , especially in rainforests , than in temperate zones. The world's regions have received widely differing amounts of attention from entomologists. The British Isles have been thoroughly surveyed, so that Gullan and Cranston 2014 state that

1800-466: The Philippines have traditionally managed weeds and pests by the polycultural practice of raising ducks and sometimes fish in their rice paddies. These produce valuable additional crops, eat small pest animals, manure the rice, and in the case of ducks also control weeds. Rice plants produce their own chemical defences to protect themselves from pest attacks. Some synthetic chemicals, such as

1860-404: The adults too are aquatic. Some species, such as water striders , can walk on the surface of water. Insects are mostly solitary, but some, such as bees , ants and termites , are social and live in large, well-organized colonies . Others, such as earwigs , provide maternal care, guarding their eggs and young. Insects can communicate with each other in a variety of ways. Male moths can sense

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1920-465: The benefits these could bring. In 2022, greenhouse gas emissions from rice cultivation were estimated at 5.7 billion tonnes CO2eq, representing 1.2% of total emissions. Within the agriculture sector, rice produces almost half the greenhouse gas emissions from croplands , some 30% of agricultural methane emissions , and 11% of agricultural nitrous oxide emissions. Methane is released from rice fields subject to long-term flooding, as this inhibits

1980-511: The crop would be lost under these conditions. In the Po Valley in Italy, the arborio and carnaroli risotto rice varieties have suffered poor harvests through drought in the 21st century. The Ente Nazionale Risi  [ it ] is developing drought-resistant varieties; its nuovo prometeo variety has deep roots that enable it to tolerate drought, but is not suitable for risotto. Rice yield can be reduced by weed growth, and

2040-425: The exception of Spanish Bomba, is usually sticky when cooked, and is suitable for puddings. Thai Jasmine rice is aromatic, and unusually for a long-grain rice has some stickiness, with a soft texture. Indian Basmati rice is very long-grained and aromatic. Italian Arborio rice , used for risotto , is of medium length, oval, and quite sticky. Japanese sushi rice is a sticky short-grain variety. Cooked white rice

2100-425: The field where they will grow, or seedlings can be grown in a seedbed and transplanted into the field. Direct seeding needs some 60 to 80 kg of grain per hectare, while transplanting needs less, around 40 kg per hectare, but requires far more labour. Most rice in Asia is transplanted by hand. Mechanical transplanting takes less time but requires a carefully-prepared field and seedlings raised on mats or in trays to fit

2160-486: The first city after Lima to have its own electric tram system. Beginning in 1911, it was the main hub of the Ferrocarril Noroeste del Perú (Northwestern Train of Peru), which connected Huacho with Ancón , Sayan , and Barranca . On November 10, 1874, Huacho was elevated to the category of city and was made capital of the province even when it was separated from Chancay (today the province of Huaral), and

2220-511: The grain, and cleaning by winnowing or screening . The rice grain is dried as soon as possible to bring the moisture content down to a level that is safe from mould fungi. Traditional drying relies on the heat of the sun, with the grain spread out on mats or on pavements. The edible rice species are members of the BOP clade within the grass family, the Poaceae . The rice subfamily, Oryzoideae ,

2280-497: The great diversity and continuous evolution of pests. Resistance genes are being sought from wild species of rice, and genetic engineering techniques are being applied. Insect Insects (from Latin insectum ) are hexapod invertebrates of the class Insecta . They are the largest group within the arthropod phylum . Insects have a chitinous exoskeleton , a three-part body ( head , thorax and abdomen ), three pairs of jointed legs , compound eyes , and

2340-575: The herbicide 2,4-D , cause the plant to increase the production of certain defensive chemicals and thereby increase the plant's resistance to some types of pests. Conversely, other chemicals, such as the insecticide imidacloprid , appear to induce changes in the gene expression of the rice that make the plant more susceptible to certain pests. Plant breeders have created rice cultivars incorporating resistance to various insect pests . Conventional plant breeding of resistant varieties has been limited by challenges such as rearing insect pests for testing, and

2400-608: The insects among the Hexapoda , six-legged animals with segmented bodies; their closest relatives are the Diplura (bristletails). Collembola (springtails) [REDACTED] Protura (coneheads) [REDACTED] Diplura (two-pronged bristletails) [REDACTED] Insecta (=Ectognatha) [REDACTED] The internal phylogeny is based on the works of Wipfler et al. 2019 for the Polyneoptera , Johnson et al. 2018 for

2460-410: The later years of the 20th century decreased rice yield by between 10% and 20% across 200 farms in seven Asian countries. This may have been caused by increased night-time respiration. IRRI has predicted that Asian rice yields will fall by some 20% per 1°C rise in global mean temperature. Further, rice is unable to yield grain if the flowers experience a temperature of 35 °C or more for over one hour, so

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2520-417: The machine. Rice does not thrive if continuously submerged. Rice can be grown in different environments, depending upon water availability. The usual arrangement is for lowland fields to be surrounded by bunds and flooded to a depth of a few centimetres until around a week before harvest time; this requires a large amount of water. The "alternate wetting and drying" technique uses less water. One form of this

2580-516: The main trade centers of northern Lima . Under the viceroy of Francisco de Toledo , who decided to group the ayllus of the Indians who were established in that area into reductions . The site chosen was that of "Gaucho Bay." Consequently, on 25 August 1571, the reduction was named San Bartolomé de Guachu. During the Viceroyalty of Peru , the city belonged to the province of Huara and

2640-402: The name "bugs" for a narrow category of " true bugs ", insects of the order Hemiptera , such as cicadas and shield bugs . Other terrestrial arthropods, such as centipedes , millipedes , woodlice , spiders , mites and scorpions , are sometimes confused with insects, since they have a jointed exoskeleton. Adult insects are the only arthropods that ever have wings, with up to two pairs on

2700-428: The other largest exporters. As of 2016, the countries that consumed the most rice were China (29% of total), India, and Indonesia. By 2020, Bangladesh had taken third place from Indonesia. On an annual average from 2020-23, China consumed 154 million tonnes of rice, India consumed 109 million tonnes, and Bangladesh and Indonesia consumed about 36 million tonnes each. Across the world, rice consumption per capita fell in

2760-629: The province of Huaura was created. Next the city of Huacho was also the capital of the Prefecture of Lima, and now is the capital of the Governal Region of Lima . South of the city of Huacho is located a large archaeological site of Bandurria, Peru . Its history goes back to 4,000 BC. Huacho is home to the annual Guinea Pig Festival. Its gastronomy is represented by the Salchicha Huachana. Rice Rice

2820-535: The reproduction of many flowering plants and so to their ecosystems. Many insects are ecologically beneficial as predators of pest insects, while a few provide direct economic benefit. Two species in particular are economically important and were domesticated many centuries ago: silkworms for silk and honey bees for honey . Insects are consumed as food in 80% of the world's nations, by people in roughly 3000 ethnic groups. Human activities are having serious effects on insect biodiversity . The word insect comes from

2880-1011: The soil from absorbing atmospheric oxygen, resulting in anaerobic fermentation of organic matter in the soil. Emissions can be limited by planting new varieties, not flooding continuously, and removing straw. It is possible to cut methane emissions in rice cultivation by improved water management, combining dry seeding and one drawdown, or executing a sequence of wetting and drying . This results in emission reductions of up to 90% compared to full flooding and even increased yields. Predictions of climate change's effects on rice cultivation vary. Global rice yield has been projected to decrease by around 3.2% with each 1°C increase in global average temperature while another study predicts global rice cultivation will increase initially, plateauing at about 3°C warming (2091–2100 relative to 1850–1900). The impacts of climate change on rice cultivation vary across geographic location and socioeconomic context. For example, rising temperatures and decreasing solar radiation during

2940-423: The subject of historical verification. On 12 February 1821, Huacho was elevated to district, belonging to the province of Chancay, in the department of Lima. The Congress conceded the title of Fidelísima Villa (most faithful) on 11 April 1828, under the presidency of Don José de La Mar. On 24 January 1830, the province of Chancay was unified with the province of Lima and Santa in the department of Ancash. Huaura

3000-527: The thorax. Whether winged or not, adult insects can be distinguished by their three-part body plan, with head, thorax, and abdomen; they have three pairs of legs on the thorax. Estimates of the total number of insect species vary considerably, suggesting that there are perhaps some 5.5 million insect species in existence, of which about one million have been described and named. These constitute around half of all eukaryote species, including animals , plants , and fungi . The most diverse insect orders are

3060-466: The tissues. The blood therefore does not carry oxygen; it is only partly contained in vessels, and some circulates in an open hemocoel . Insect vision is mainly through their compound eyes , with additional small ocelli . Many insects can hear, using tympanal organs , which may be on the legs or other parts of the body. Their sense of smell is via receptors, usually on the antennae and the mouthparts. Nearly all insects hatch from eggs . Insect growth

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3120-525: The total of around 22,500 species is probably within 5% of the actual number there; they comment that Canada's list of 30,000 described species is surely over half of the actual total. They add that the 3000 species of the American Arctic must be broadly accurate. In contrast, a large majority of the insect species of the tropics and the southern hemisphere are probably undescribed. Some 30–40,000 species inhabit freshwater ; very few insects, perhaps

3180-648: The voyage to the rest of the Pacific. It reached Austroasiatic and Kra-Dai -speakers in Mainland Southeast Asia and southern China by 5000 years ago. Rice spread around the rest of the world through cultivation, migration and trade, eventually to the Americas as part of the Columbian exchange after 1492. The now less common Oryza glaberrima (African rice) was independently domesticated in Africa around 3,000 years ago, and introduced to

3240-785: The wet season, while thrips outbreaks are associated with drought. Rice blast , caused by the fungus Magnaporthe grisea , is the most serious disease of growing rice. It and bacterial leaf streak (caused by Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae ) are perennially the two worst rice diseases worldwide; they are both among the ten most important diseases of all crop plants. Other major rice diseases include sheath blight (caused by Rhizoctonia solani ), false smut ( Ustilaginoidea virens ), and bacterial panicle blight ( Burkholderia glumae ). Viral diseases include rice bunchy stunt, rice dwarf, rice tungro , and rice yellow mottle. Crop protection scientists are developing sustainable techniques for managing rice pests. Sustainable pest management

3300-539: The year provided that sufficient water is made available. It is normally an annual, but in the tropics it can survive as a perennial , producing a ratoon crop. Like all crops, rice depends for its growth on both biotic and abiotic environmental factors. The principal biotic factors are crop variety, pests , and plant diseases . Abiotic factors include the soil type, whether lowland or upland, amount of rain or irrigation water, temperature, day length , and intensity of sunlight. Rice grains can be planted directly into

3360-524: Was established as a trading and fishing port. In 1774 the Viceroy José Antonio de Mendoza granted Huacho the category of "pueblo" and with it, allowed it to build its main plaza. Huacho was, like Huaura, a pueblo that received and hosted the members of the liberation expedition led by José de San Martín , participating on 26 November 1820 of the Grito libertador en el balcéon de Huaura , on

3420-429: Was established as the capital of the province of Chancay. Thirty years before, on January 23, 1866, Huacho was established as the capital of Chancay. Due to its technological advances, in 1892, the city began a city tram service, an animal transportation service called "tranvías de sangre" (blood tram), which was said to have used mules or horses. This service extended to Huara, and was electrified in 1920, making Huacho

3480-469: Was first domesticated in China 9,000 years ago, by people of Neolithic cultures in the Upper and Lower Yangtze , associated with Hmong-Mien -speakers and pre-Austronesians , respectively. The functional allele for nonshattering , the critical indicator of domestication in grains, as well as five other single-nucleotide polymorphisms , is identical in both indica and japonica . This implies

3540-574: Was introduced early into Sino-Tibetan cultures in northern China by around 6000 to 5600 years ago, and to the Korean peninsula and Japan by around 5500 to 3200 years ago. It was also carried into Taiwan by the Dapenkeng culture by 5500 to 4000 years ago, before spreading southwards via the Austronesian migrations to Island Southeast Asia , Madagascar , and Guam , but did not survive

3600-439: Was stored by rural households. The dry grain is milled to remove the outer layers, namely the husk and bran . These can be removed in a single step, in two steps, or as in commercial milling in a multi-step process of cleaning, dehusking, separation, polishing, grading, and weighing. Brown rice only has the inedible husk removed. Further milling removes bran and the germ to create successively whiter products. Parboiled rice

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