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38-676: The type site in Bali District , New Taipei City in northwest Taiwan, was discovered in 1958. Other major sites excavated before 1980 are the lowest layer of the Fengbitou Archaeological Site in Linyuan District , Kaohsiung and Bajiacun in Gueiren District , Tainan , both in the southwest of the island. Dapenkeng sites have since been found in coastal areas all around the island, and on

76-485: A single phoneme s. While accepting Dyen's c, he was hesitant about T and D (more recently, Blust appears to have accepted D but rejected T, and also rejected Z). Ross likewise attempted to reduce the number of phonemes, but in a different way: As Proto-Austronesian transitioned to Proto-Malayo-Polynesian, Proto-Oceanic , and Proto-Polynesian , the phonemic inventories were continually reduced by merging formerly distinct sounds into one sound. Three mergers were observed in

114-415: A total of 19 consonants, 4 vowels (*i, *u, *a, *e, where *e = /ə/ ), 4 diphthongs (*ay, *aw, *iw, *uy), and syllabic stress. The following table shows how Wolff's Proto-Austronesian phonemic system differs from Blust's system. According to Malcolm Ross, the following aspects of Blust's system are uncontroversial: the labials (p b m w); the velars k ŋ; y; R; the vowels; and the above four diphthongs. There

152-516: Is a suburban district in northwestern New Taipei , Taiwan . In Taiwanese Hokkien , it was known as Pat-lí-hun (八里坌) during the rule of the Qing dynasty . Based on examinations of grave goods it is believed that the ancient settlement of Shihsanhang was one of the wealthiest in Taiwan, it was only one of two communities in prehistoric Taiwan to master iron smelting . The ironware they produced

190-512: Is assumed to have begun to diversify c.  4000 BCE  – c.  3500 BCE in Taiwan . Lower-level reconstructions have also been made, and include Proto-Malayo-Polynesian , Proto-Oceanic , and Proto-Polynesian . Recently, linguists such as Malcolm Ross and Andrew Pawley have built large lexicons for Proto-Oceanic and Proto-Polynesian. Proto-Austronesian is reconstructed by constructing sets of correspondences among consonants in

228-1007: Is because the Ilocano homeland is the west coast of northern Luzon, while the Puyuma homeland is on the eastern coast of southern Taiwan. Among the Bontok, Kankanaey, and Ifugaw languages of northern Luzon, the reflexes of *daya mean "sky" because they already live in some of the highest elevations in the Philippines (Blust 2009:301). Also, the Malay reflex of *lahud is laut , which means "sea", used as directions timur laut (means "northeast", timur = "east") and barat laut (means "northwest", barat = "west"). Meanwhile, *daya only performs in barat daya , which means "southwest". Below are reconstructed Proto-Austronesian, Proto-Malayo-Polynesian, Proto-Oceanic, and Proto-Polynesian numbers from

266-666: Is from Ross' 2002 proposal of the Proto-Austronesian pronominal system, which contains five categories, including the free (i.e., independent or unattached), free polite, and three genitive categories. Proto-Austronesian vocabulary relating to agriculture and other technological innovations include: Proto-Malayo-Polynesian innovations include: Proto-Malayo-Polynesian also has several words for house: Below are colors in reconstructed Proto-Austronesian, Proto-Malayo-Polynesian, Proto-Oceanic, and Proto-Polynesian. The first three have been reconstructed by Robert Blust , while

304-534: Is particularly developed in Oceanic languages . CV (consonant + vowel) reduplication is very common among the Austronesian languages. In Proto-Austronesian, Ca-reduplicated (consonant + /a/) numbers were used to count humans, while the non-reduplicated sets were used to count non-human and inanimate objects. CV-reduplication was also used to nominalize verbs in Proto-Austronesian. In Ilocano, CV-reduplication

342-525: Is problematic, pointing out the genetic and linguistic inconsistencies between different Taiwanese Austronesian groups. Blench considers the Austronesians in Taiwan to have been a melting pot of immigrants from various parts of the coast of East China that had been migrating to Taiwan by 4000 BP. These immigrants included people from the foxtail millet -cultivating Longshan culture of Shandong (with Longshan-type cultures found in southern Taiwan),

380-421: Is some disagreement about the postvelars (q ʔ h) and the velars g j, and about whether there are any more diphthongs; however, in these respects, Ross and Blust are in agreement. The major disagreement concerns the system of coronal consonants . The following discussion is based on Ross (1992). Otto Dempwolff 's reconstruction of Proto-Malayo-Polynesian from the 1930s included: Dyen (1963), including data from

418-457: Is used to pluralize nouns. Reduplication patterns include (Blust 2009): Other less common patterns are (Blust 2009): The Proto-Austronesian and Proto-Malayo-Polynesian personal pronouns below were reconstructed by Robert Blust . In 2006, Malcolm Ross also proposed seven different pronominal categories for persons. The categories are listed below, with the Proto-Austronesian first person singular ("I") given as examples. The following

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456-589: Is why modern-day Polynesian languages have some of the most restricted consonant inventories in the world. Unusual sound changes that occurred within the Austronesian language family include: Proto-Austronesian is a verb-initial language (including VSO and VOS word orders), as most Formosan languages , all Philippine languages , some Bornean languages , all Austronesian dialects of Madagascar , and all Polynesian languages are verb-initial. However, most Austronesian (many of which are Oceanic ) languages of Indonesia , New Guinea , New Caledonia , Vanuatu ,

494-732: The Penghu islands in the Taiwan Strait . Dapenkeng pottery is thick and gritty, and light to dark brown in colour. The main types are large globular jars and bowls. The outsides of the jars are covered with impressed cord marks, except for the flared rims, which are decorated with incised linear designs. Dapenkeng sites have also yielded a number of types of stone tools: Reaping knives made from oyster shells and some tools and ornaments made from bones and antlers have also been found. The inhabitants engaged in horticulture and hunting, but were also heavily reliant on marine shells and fish. Later in

532-607: The Philippines are also well known for their unusual morphosyntactic alignment , which is known as the symmetrical voice (also known as the Austronesian alignment). This alignment was also present in the Proto-Austronesian language. Unlike Proto-Austronesian, however, Proto-Oceanic syntax does not make use of the focus morphology present in Austronesian-aligned languages such as the Philippine languages . In

570-591: The Polynesian languages , verbal morphology is relatively simple, while the main unit in a sentence is the phrase rather than the word. Below is a table of John Wolff's Proto-Austronesian voice system from Blust (2009:433). Wolff's "four-voice" system was derived from evidence in various Formosan and Philippine languages. However, Ross (2009) notes that what may be the most divergent languages, Tsou , Rukai , and Puyuma , are not addressed by this reconstruction, which therefore cannot claim to be alignment system of

608-524: The Solomon Islands , and Micronesia are SVO , or verb-medial, languages. SOV , or verb-final, word order is considered to be typologically unusual for Austronesian languages, and is only found in various Austronesian languages of New Guinea and to a more limited extent, the Solomon Islands . This is because SOV word order is very common in the non-Austronesian Papuan languages . The Austronesian languages of Taiwan , Borneo , Madagascar and

646-411: The bidu cognate with PMP *pitu; xaseb-a-turu 'eight' ('five-and-three'), with the baturu cognate with PMP *walu; xaseb-i-supat 'nine' ('five-and-four'), with the supa (< PAn *Sepat 'four') cognate with PMP *Siwa. The Proto-Austronesian language had different sets of numerals for non-humans ("set A") and humans ("set B") (Blust 2009:279). Cardinal numerals for counting humans are derived from

684-428: The 19–25 consonants of the Proto-Austronesian language that was originally spoken on Taiwan or Kinmen . Blust also observed the following mergers and sound changes between Proto-Austronesian and Proto-Malayo-Polynesian. However, according to Wolff (2010:241), Proto-Malayo-Polynesian's development from Proto-Austronesian only included the following three sound changes. Proto-Oceanic merged even more phonemes. This

722-592: The Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database. Note that *lima 'five', ultimately the root for 'hand', is not found for 'five' in some Formosan languages, such as Pazeh, Saisiat, Luilang, Favorlang and Taokas; numerals cognate with Proto-Malayo-Polynesian 6–10 are found in Amis, Basay, Bunun, Kanakanabu, Kavalan, Paiwan, Puyuma, Saaroa and Tsou. Pazeh, Favorlang, Saisiat and Taokas reflect *RaCep 'five'. Laurent Sagart suggests that this

760-510: The Formosan languages, expanded Dempwolff's set of coronal consonants: Tsuchida (1976), building on Dyen's system: Dahl reduced Tsuchida's consonants into: Blust based his system on a combination of Dyen, Tsuchida and Dahl, and attempted to reduce the total number of phonemes. He accepted Dahl's reduction of Dyen's S X x into S but did not accept either Tsuchida's or Dahl's split of Dyen's d; in addition, he reduced Dyen's s 1 s 2 to

798-574: The New Taipei Municipal DaKan Elementary School. 25°09′N 121°24′E  /  25.150°N 121.400°E  / 25.150; 121.400 Proto-Austronesian language Proto-Austronesian (commonly abbreviated as PAN or PAn ) is a proto-language . It is the reconstructed ancestor of the Austronesian languages , one of the world's major language families . Proto-Austronesian

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836-520: The Proto-Austronesian to Proto-Malayo-Polynesian transition, while nine were observed for the Proto-Oceanic to Proto-Polynesian transition. Thus, Proto-Austronesian has the most elaborate sound system, while Proto-Polynesian has the fewest phonemes. For instance, the Hawaiian language is famous for having only eight consonants, while Māori has only ten consonants. This is a sharp reduction from

874-532: The Proto-Polynesian words given below were reconstructed by Andrew Pawley . Proto-Polynesian displays many innovations not found in the other proto-languages. The Proto-Austronesians used two types of directions, which are the land-sea axis and the monsoon axis. The cardinal directions of north, south, east, and west developed among the Austronesian languages only after contact with the Europeans. For

912-627: The currently remaining disagreements, however, scholars generally accept the validity of the correspondence sets but disagree on the extent to which the distinctions in these sets can be projected back to proto-Austronesian or represent innovations in particular sets of daughter languages. Below are Proto-Austronesian phonemes reconstructed by Robert Blust , a professor of linguistics at the University of Hawaii at Manoa . A total of 25 Proto-Austronesian consonants, 4 vowels, and 4 diphthongs were reconstructed. However, Blust acknowledges that some of

950-527: The fishing-based Dapenkeng culture of coastal Fujian, and the Yuanshan culture of northernmost Taiwan, which Blench suggests may have originated from the coast of Guangdong . Based on geography and cultural vocabulary, Blench believes that the Yuanshan people may have spoken Northeast Formosan languages . Thus, Blench believes that there is in fact no "apical" ancestor of Austronesian in the sense that there

988-520: The influence of the Hemudu and Majiabang cultures of the lower Yangtze area, though they are unsure whether this was the result of migration or trade. Peter Bellwood agrees that the Austronesian cultural package came from this area, but confirming archaeological evidence has not yet been found. Roger Blench (2014) suggests that the single migration model for the spread of the Neolithic into Taiwan

1026-611: The island during the Late Pleistocene glaciation, when sea levels were lower and the Taiwan Strait was a land bridge. Although the Paleolithic Changbin culture overlaps with the earliest Dapenkeng sites, archeologists have found no evidence of evolutionary development, and assume that the Dapenkeng culture must have arrived from elsewhere. The most likely candidate is the coast of what is now Fujian on

1064-661: The land-sea axis, upstream/uphill and inland, as well as downstream/downhill and seaward, are synonym pairs. This has been proposed as evidence that Proto-Austronesians used to live on a mainland, since the sea would be visible from all angles on small islands. In Kavalan, Amis, and Tagalog, the reflexes of *timuR mean "south" or "south wind," while in the languages of the southern Philippines and Indonesia it means "east" or "east wind." In Ilocano , dáya and láud respectively mean "east" and "west," while in Puyuma , ɖaya and ɭauɖ respectively mean "west" and "east." This

1102-434: The ligature *na and locative *i. Morphology and syntax are often hard to separate in the Austronesian languages, particularly the Philippine languages . This is because the morphology of the verbs often affects how the rest of the sentence would be constructed (i.e., syntax). Below are some Proto-Austronesian affixes (including prefixes , infixes , and suffixes ) reconstructed by Robert Blust . For instance, *pa-

1140-587: The other side of the Taiwan Strait , which is 130 km wide at its narrowest point. However, archaeological data from that area is quite limited. Three principal sites from the early Neolithic have been excavated: K.C. Chang argued that Fuguodun and Dapenkeng were regional variants of the same culture. Other scholars consider them distinct cultures, pointing to differences in pottery styles. These coastal mainland cultures seem to have appeared abruptly without local precursors, and their origins are unclear. Chang and Ward Goodenough argue that these cultures reflect

1178-410: The period they cultivated foxtail millet and rice . Around 2500 BC, the Dapenkeng culture developed into locally differentiated cultures throughout Taiwan. Because of the continuity with later cultures, most scholars believe that the Dapenkeng people were the ancestors of today's Taiwanese aborigines , and spoke Austronesian languages . Taiwan was first settled by Paleolithic people, who reached

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1216-440: The protolanguage of the entire family. He calls the unit to which this reconstruction applies Nuclear Austronesian . The following table compares Proto-Austronesian and Proto-Malayo-Polynesian question words. Currently, the most complete reconstruction of the Proto-Austronesian case marker system is offered by Malcolm Ross . The reconstructed case markers are as follows: Important Proto-Austronesian grammatical words include

1254-621: The reconstructed consonants are still controversial and debated. The symbols below are frequently used in reconstructed Proto-Austronesian words. *D only appears in final position, *z/*c/*ñ only in initial and medial position, while *j is restricted to medial and final position. The Proto-Austronesian vowels are a, i, u, and ə. The diphthongs , which are diachronic sources of individual vowels, are: In 2010, John Wolff published his Proto-Austronesian reconstruction in Proto-Austronesian phonology with glossary . Wolff reconstructs

1292-471: The various Austronesian languages, according to the comparative method . Although in theory the result should be unambiguous, in practice given the large number of languages there are numerous disagreements, with various scholars differing significantly on the number and nature of the phonemes in Proto-Austronesian. In the past, some disagreements concerned whether certain correspondence sets were real or represent sporadic developments in particular languages. For

1330-505: Was no true single Proto-Austronesian language that gave rise to present-day Austronesian languages. Instead, multiple migrations of various pre-Austronesian peoples and languages from the Chinese mainland that were related but distinct came together to form what we now know as Austronesian in Taiwan. Works cited Bali District Bali District ( Chinese : 八里 區 ; pinyin : Bālǐ Qū ; Pe̍h-ōe-jī : Pat-lí-khu )

1368-470: Was the PAn root, replaced by *lima in a lineage that lead to the remaining languages, rather than the reverse, because it seems to be retained in proto-Malayo-Polynesian in the forms 7, 8, 9, which appear to be disyllabic contractions of additive phrases attested from some of the western Formosan languages, especially Pazeh: Pazeh xaseb-uza 'six' (literally 'five-one'); xaseb-i-dusa 'seven' ('five-and-two'), with

1406-584: Was traded throughout Taiwan. During the period of Japanese rule , Bali was called Hachiri village ( 八里庄 ) , and was governed under Tamsui District of Taihoku Prefecture . After the handover of Taiwan from Japan to the Republic of China in 1945, Bali became a rural township of Taipei County . On 25 December 2010, it became a district of New Taipei City . Bali District administers ten urban villages : Bali district has one high school, one municipal middle school, and five elementary schools, including

1444-505: Was used for non-stative (i.e., dynamic) causatives, while *pa-ka was used for stative causatives (Blust 2009:282). Blust also noted a p/m pairing phenomenon in which many affixes have both p- and m- forms. This system is especially elaborate in the Thao language of Taiwan. A verbal prefix *paRi- is also reconstructed (albeit at the lower level of PEMP Tooltip Proto-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian ), for “reciprocal or collective action”; it

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