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128-402: Public opposition of the company's actions helped mobilize support for the early conservation movement , leading to the creation of Yosemite , Sequoia , and General Grant National Parks in the early 1880s. By the 1950s, almost all surviving sequoia groves were under public protection. Despite its efforts, the company never turned a profit and closed in 1924. In 1935, the land was purchased by

256-565: A planing mill , and a box, door and sash factory there. The facility turned rough-cut lumber into finished material ready for shipment. In 1889, the Kings River Lumber Company began construction on a 54 miles (87 km) log flume to transport lumber from mountain mills to Sanger . The flume had a drop of 4,200 feet (1,300 m) in elevation. A stone and concrete dam at Mill Flat Creek created Sequoia Lake, which served as an artificial reservoir to provide water for

384-478: A "felling bed" by clearing and leveling an area and cushioning it with branches and leaves to absorb some of the shock of the falling tree. When possible, sequoias were felled in the winter when deep snow could cushion the fall. Giant sequoias larger than 8 feet (2.4 m) in diameter were sectioned and then blasted apart by black powder, a process that yielded pieces that donkey engines and flatcars could move but also created enormous waste, with as much as 80% of

512-571: A commitment to preserving them. A study conducted by the University of Georgia reported that environmentalists should team up with ecotourists in order to have the best chance to preserve fragile ecosystems and lands. Tourism provides economic incentives to conserve lands, for if protected lands are seen as revenue-generating tourist destinations, there is monetary reason to ensure their conservation. Also, rather than simply relying on environmental messaging, ecotourism allows conservationists to pursue

640-413: A cut of 22 million board feet, but it was not enough to cover expenses. To try to recover their investment, the company decided to place a sawmill in the heart of the redwood forest and log the large trees. The commercial potential of the giant sequoia was attractive to the north woods lumbermen. A single mature sequoia contained more board footage than a whole acre of white pine . With the permission of

768-488: A dam that would create Hume Lake . Chinese American workers were hired to build the dam, which needed 2,207 cubic yards of concrete and eight miles of steel cable. The dam was finished in late November 1908 at a cost of around $ 35,000. When it was filled with water from Ten Mile Creek in June 1909, it created an 87-acre reservoir that served as a log dump for the mill and flume head for the flume. The 677-foot long dam, which

896-493: A deep and abiding passion for nature. The early evolution of the conservation movement began through both public and private recognition of the relationship between man and nature often reflected in the great literary and artistic works of the 19th century. Artists, such as Albert Bierstadt , painted powerful landscapes of the American West during the mid 19th century, which were incredibly popular ages representative of

1024-543: A higher priority than the economy-focused President Bill Clinton did, the Clinton administration responded to public demand for environmental protection. Clinton created 17 national monuments by executive order, prohibiting commercial activities such as logging, mining, and drilling for oil or gas. Clinton also imposed a permanent freeze on drilling in maritime sanctuaries. Other presidential and departmental orders protected various wetlands and coastal resources and extended

1152-466: A highly successful series of tests in the mid-1920s it was sent around the country to make the idea of "Super Power" known. The first forty-five were purchased by New York Central's subsidiary Boston & Albany following initial road testing across the summit of the Berkshire Hills, and so the 2-8-4 wheel arrangement came to be known as the " Berkshire " on most railroads. The prototype itself

1280-552: A hunt and that they ceremoniously prepared for utilizing and taking any resource the land was able to provide them. These observations, fraught with condemning language toward the way European hunters and sportsmen treated wildlife and resources such as timber, were published in widely circulated journals and magazines at the time. The conservation of natural resources is the fundamental problem. Unless we solve that problem, it will avail us little to solve all others. Theodore Roosevelt America had its own conservation movement in

1408-414: A leisurely and economic message. At a 2014 event held at UCLA centered upon environmental figures like John Muir, a few historians and writers noted that the movements for conservation and preservation of the environment maintained a foundation in "economic privilege and abundant leisure time of the upper class." Jon Christensen, a historian of UCLA's Institute of Environment and Sustainability, notes among

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1536-409: A positive balance between society and the finite natural resources of the nation. Ultimately, through dedicated research, eco-friendly practices of land management, and efforts to educate the public regarding the necessity of conservation, those individuals dedicated to American conservation seek to preserve the nation's natural resources. The increased consumption of many natural resources has sparked

1664-472: A saloon and a brothel. The land was converted into Hume Lake Christian Camps and serves as a summer camp and conference center for worship and religious studies. The forest has not recovered over a century after it was overlogged . Efforts to restore the forest by planting single-species conifer plantations (forests made up of only one type of tree) have been unsuccessful and have actually caused more harm. These plantations are prone to pests and have disrupted

1792-415: A train to reach the railhead at Sanger, a speed of commercial lumber transport that was unmatched at that time. Flume herders monitored the movement of the log trains and kept the flume clear of blockages, reporting any damage by telephone. The log flume was replenished by four feeder flumes along its route and had a daily capacity of 250,000 board feet, but typically shipped only 140,000 board feet. In 1891,

1920-552: Is permanently used for other purposes if it can be avoided. If the overuse of these resources is not mitigated, the eventual result would be the loss of another key resource for survival. That is, if either land for agriculture or water for the land and the people who inhabit it becomes insufficient, the population in the United States would begin to run out of food. Not only would cash crops of plants become insufficient to supply people, it would also become insufficient to feed

2048-493: Is the first multiple arch dam ever built, still stands today. In the fall of 1912, Bennett was bought out of his share in the company and replaced by Hume's son, George. On December 5, 1912, Bennett purchased a competitor, the Fresno Flume and Lumber Company, for nearly $ 950,000. However, by 1914 he was in financial trouble and left the logging industry. In February 1917, the company incorporated and changed its name back to

2176-636: Is the oldest National Forest in the U.S. But it was not until 1898 when German forester Dr. Carl A. Schenck , on the Biltmore Estate , and Cornell University founded the first two forestry schools, both run by Germans. Bernard Fernow , founder of the forestry schools at Cornell and the University of Toronto , was originally from Prussia (Germany), and he honed his knowledge from Germans who pioneered forestry in India. He introduced Gifford Pinchot ,

2304-568: Is used to grow the crops for farms. One fairly new United States government policy, the Farmland Protection Policy Act, is designed in order to protect this resource from being over consumed by the government. It does this by ensuring that any entity, both federal and non-federal, that uses government assistance such as acquiring or disposing of land, providing financing or loans, managing property, providing technical assistance, cannot convert agricultural land into land that

2432-1533: The California State Railroad Museum 's library in Sacramento, California . Many Lima-built steam locomotives are preserved across the United States. Numerous Lima-built engines are still operational, especially Shay-type locomotives. Shays are operated at the Colorado Railroad Museum , the Cass Scenic Railroad , the Georgetown Loop Railroad , the Mount Rainier Scenic Railroad , and the Roaring Camp and Big Trees Narrow Gauge Railroad . Other widely known preserved Lima-built steam locomotives include Southern Pacific 4449 , Nickel Plate Road 765 , Pere Marquette 1225 , Chesapeake and Ohio 614 , Texas and Pacific 610 , Atlanta and West Point 290 , Boston and Maine 3713 , Tioga Lumber Company Shay C/N 1568 in Harrod, Ohio , and Chesapeake & Ohio 1601 - an Allegheny locomotive displayed indoors at The Henry Ford Museum in Dearborn, Michigan . Lima-built USATC S160 Class 5197

2560-569: The National Landscape Conservation System , a collection of 15 U.S. National Monuments and 14 National Conservation Areas to be managed by the Bureau of Land Management in such a way as to keep them "healthy, open, and wild." A major issue involved low fees charged ranchers who grazed cattle on public lands. The "animal unit month" (AUM) fee was only $ 1.35 and was far below the 1983 market value. The argument

2688-822: The Shay geared logging steam locomotive , developed by Ephraim Shay , and for William E. Woodard 's "Super Power" advanced steam locomotive concept – exemplified by the prototype 2-8-4 Berkshire , Lima demonstrator A-1. In World War II the Lima plant produced the M4A1 version of the M4 Sherman tank. In 1878 James Alley contracted the Lima Machine Works to build a steam locomotive that Ephraim Shay had designed. In April 1880, Lima rebuilt Ephraim Shay's original design, using vertically side-mounted pistons mounted on

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2816-596: The Sierra Club started the modern movement, history shows that the Boone and Crockett Club , formed by Theodore Roosevelt , spearheaded conservation in the United States. While conservation and preservation both have similar definitions and broad categories, preservation in the natural and environmental scope refers to the action of keeping areas the way they are and trying to dissuade the use of its resources; conservation may employ similar methods but does not call for

2944-738: The local water cycle , resulting in an increase in dead trees and dense fuel loads that increase the risk of wildfire and loss of old-growth forest habitat for giant sequoias. In 2021, the United States Forest Service recommended habitat restoration in Hume Basin to reduce fuels and restore habitat in the Tenmile Creek drainage through various methods, including "thinning, sanitation, mastication, and prescribed burning ." After more than 100 years of fire exclusion (actively suppressing fires), controlled burning began in

3072-576: The "Super Power" concept had extended to other builders such as Alco (the Union Pacific Big Boy ) and Baldwin (the Santa Fe 5001- and 5011-class 2-10-4s ). The four-wheel trailing truck became the standard for large locomotives (i.e., 4-8-4 , 2-10-4 , 4-6-6-4 , 2-8-8-4 ), though the articulated main frame did not. Many railroads, particularly roads like the Santa Fe (which favored oil-burning locomotives and, therefore, did not need

3200-643: The "father of American forestry", to Brandis and Ribbentrop in Europe. From these men, Pinchot learned the skills and legislative patterns he would later apply to America. Pinchot, in his memoir history Breaking New Ground, credited Brandis especially with helping to form America's conservation laws. In 1891, Congress passed the Forest Reserve Act , which allowed the President of the United States to set aside forest lands on public domain. A decade after

3328-621: The 1870s, when Muir first arrived, until 1930 there was a mass removal of Native American people from their homeland in Yosemite National Park. The majority of these people were from the Miwok tribe, which according to author Robert Enberg of the John Muir Newsletter, Muir characterized as “poor, lazy, and dirty” and according to author Jedediah Purdy as “four legged animal people”.   In 1901, Muir published

3456-559: The 19th century, most often characterized by George Perkins Marsh , author of Man and Nature . The expedition into northwest Wyoming in 1871 led by F. V. Hayden and accompanied by photographer William Henry Jackson provided the imagery needed to substantiate rumors about the grandeur of the Yellowstone region, and resulted in the creation of Yellowstone National Park , the world's first, in 1872. In 1887, Theodore Roosevelt , George Bird Grinnell and other prominent sportsmen of

3584-620: The 6,700 foot summit of Hoist Ridge. The hoist lifted railroad cars loaded with lumber out of the Converse Basin and up to the summit. From there, the cable was transferred to the opposite end of the train. The lumber was then lowered down the incline on the Milwood side of the ridge to the railhead. From there, the Shay locomotive pulled the train to Millwood, where the lumber was sent down the flume to Sanger. The Hume-Bennett Lumber Company

3712-586: The A-1, and included Missouri Pacific 2-8-4s and Texas & Pacific 2-10-4s . These locomotives had conventional 63" driving wheels. In 1927, the Erie Railroad took delivery of a "second-phase" Berkshire with 70" driving wheels, capable not only of great power but higher speed; in turn, this design evolved into the Chesapeake & Ohio T-1 2-10-4s of 1930, with 69" driving wheels. The "third-phase" of

3840-713: The Brooks Range in Alaska, which would galvanize them to campaign for the protection of the area as a wildlife refuge. Celia Hunter, with Ginny Wood, founded the Alaska Conservation Society, the first statewide environmental organization, in 1960. Serving on the board, she worked tirelessly to get legislation passed to protect Alaskan wilderness. Celia was also the first female president of the Wilderness Society. The result of these efforts

3968-485: The Department of Forestry has developed a small reforestation program in which landowners can lease their land for one hundred years to grow trees. In turn, these trees offset carbon emissions from power companies. Moreover, reforestation projects have other benefits: reforested areas serve as a natural filter of agricultural fertilizers even as new wildlife habitats are created. Reforested land can also contribute to

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4096-471: The Forest Reserve Act, presidents Harrison, Cleveland, and McKinley had transferred approximately 50,000,000 acres (200,000 km ) into the forest reserve system. However, President Theodore Roosevelt is credited with the institutionalization of the conservation movement in the United States. John Muir was one of the founding fathers of the preservation movement in  the United States in

4224-715: The H-10 experimental heavy 2-8-2 design for the New York Central (Michigan Central 8000) and applying both relatively new science (the Cole ratios), and every efficiency-enhancing tool available – a larger firebox , increased superheat, a feedwater heater, improved drafting, higher boiler pressure, streamlined steam passages and a trailing-truck booster engine, and by applying limited cutoff (the range of steam valve admission settings) to prevent locomotive engineers from using excessive steam at starting. The 2-8-2 thus produced

4352-527: The NOAA are “treating the whales as educational, economic, and environmental possessions while degrading the relationship of the Lummi to the whales as relatives and attacking Lummi sovereignty.” For generations, Lummi rituals have shown to be very effective when it comes to sustaining and conserving salmon and orca populations, but Native people and their traditions are being pushed aside as they have been throughout

4480-477: The National Reclamation Act, which allowed for the management and settlement of a large tract of barren land. Then, in 1905, President Roosevelt helped to create the United States Forest Service and then appointed respected forester, Gifford Pinchot, as the first head of the agency. By the end of his presidency, Theodore Roosevelt, in partnership with Gifford Pinchot, had successfully increased

4608-688: The Redwood Mountain and Big Stump giant sequoia groves in February 2022. Conservation in the United States Conservation in the United States can be traced back to the 19th century with the formation of the first National Park . Conservation generally refers to the act of consciously and efficiently using land and/or its natural resources. This can be in the form of setting aside tracts of land for protection from hunting or urban development, or it can take

4736-493: The Salish Sea have deep kinship ties to the killer whale, and in recent years have been fighting to release these animals from captivity. Lummi tribal matriarch Raynell Morris explains that the Lummi have “lived with killer whales since time immemorial and call them qwe’lhol’mechen, the people beneath the waves because we see them as people whose cetacean regalia allows them to live underwater.” The Lummi believe that healing

4864-617: The Sanger Lumber Company, and later to the Sanger Lumber Company of Michigan. During an economic recession in 1913-1914 , the Hume-Bennett Lumber Company returned to logging more profitable giant sequoia trees. To accommodate these large trees, the rail lines were converted from narrow gauge to standard gauge, and 50 additional logging cars were purchased. In 1915, George Hume purchased a third Shay engine and more log cars and yarding engines, expanding

4992-748: The Senate refused to ratify it since the agreement did not apply to the rapidly growing emissions of developing countries such as China, India, and Indonesia. The key person on environmental issues was Bruce Babbitt , the head of the League of Conservation Voters , who served for all eight years as the United States Secretary of the Interior . According to John D. Leshy: The Interior Department worked to protect scenic and historic areas of America's federal public lands. In 2000 Babbitt created

5120-659: The Sequoia Railroad to Hume Lake, adding two Shay locomotives and building a trestle over the water to a new log dump. The flume was also extended by 17 miles, with Hume Lake serving as the new flume head, making it 73 miles long from Hume to Sanger, the longest log flume ever built. By June 1, 1910, the mill was producing nearly 100,000 feet of lumber per day. The purchase included 22,240 acres of land in Converse Basin, of which 16,960 acres had already been logged and 5,280 acres still contained timber. The Hume-Bennett Lumber Company hired John Samuel Eastwood to construct

5248-658: The United States Forest Service. For the modern era, the U.S. Forest Service has noted three important aspects of the conservation movement: the climate change, water issues, and the education of the public on conservation of the natural environment, especially among children. In regards to climate change, the U.S. Forest Service has undertaken a twenty-year research project to develop ways to counteract issues surrounding climate change. However, some small steps have been taken regarding climate change. As rising greenhouse gases contribute to global warming, reforestation projects are seeking to counteract rising carbon emissions. In Oregon,

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5376-404: The United States government pushed for the creation of Yellowstone and Glacier National Park. This led to the removal and killing of Native peoples. Early preservationists like Muir believed that these Native people were “‘primitives’ who were obstructing the progress of the nation's destiny” (544). These racist beliefs have been coined by historian Mark Spence as “the justifying myth”(544). which

5504-407: The United States. Zahniser felt strongly that Congress ought to designate wilderness areas, as opposed to leaving it up to Agency discretion, and, in 1955, began working to convince members of Congress to support a bill that would establish a national wilderness preservation system. Meanwhile, in 1956, Olaus and Mardy Murie embarked upon an expedition to the upper Sheenjek River on the south slope of

5632-660: The Wilderness Act signed by President Johnson, it is unlikely that, without their tireless efforts, the preservation movement would have been able to achieve so huge a victory. On 3 September 1964, Mardy Murie stood proudly next to President Johnson in the Rose Garden at the White House and bore witness to the making of history, and the achievement of the very thing for which Zahniser and Olaus had campaigned so ardently. Though liberal Democrats gave environmentalism

5760-400: The amount of water being used and increasing how efficiently it is being used. Some of these methods are as simple as replacing the fixtures in government buildings and offering rebates to citizens, but are as complex as growing genetically engineered food crops so that farmers can consume less water for use on them. Another key resource that has been met with new legislation is the land that

5888-573: The benefit of the public, while Muir believed that the Valley should not be touched as he viewed nature in a religious light. The O’Shaughnessy dam was ultimately built in 1923 and led to the drowning of the sacred indigenous land of the Miwok and Yokuts tribes. Prior to the dam being built Native peoples had access to resources from the Tuolumne River. The river provided plant foods like seeds, berries, leaves, bulbs, and tubers. Year-around water

6016-445: The canyon walls. After 19 miles (31 km) miles, the flume crossed to the north side of the river using a wood-and-steel suspension bridge. The remaining 24 miles (39 km) miles of the flume followed the river into Sanger. Construction was completed on September 3, 1890. To load the flume, sawmill workers trimmed logs into planks and clamped them into blocks. The blocks were then linked together to form trains. It took 15 hours for

6144-603: The case that viewpoints of early conservationists came from an Anglo-Saxon, biblical point of view and that this is reflected in the current demographics of visitors to national parks and protected areas . At the same time, recent polls suggest that the Latino community in California tends to possess more environmental attitudes when it comes to voting than perceived by the general public. A highly cited historian of Southern California, D. J. Waldie , posits that conservation for

6272-411: The commercially valuable wood being wasted. The logging system in Converse Basin used a network of chutes to transport timber from the woods to the mill. The chutes were made of logs placed parallel to each other and supported by trestles or crib work on steep slopes. They were powered by donkey engines and were used to move logs that were 10 to 24 feet long and up to 10 feet in diameter. A trail rider at

6400-513: The company added a narrow-gauge logging railroad to reach outlying timber. Their first locomotive, Shay No. 1 named "Sequoia", was a 36-ton narrow-gauge steam locomotive built by Lima Locomotive Works . Teams and wagons brought up the disassembled locomotive up piece-by-piece from the San Joaquin Valley. A short 2 miles (3.2 km) line extended from the lower mill that first year. Timber production exceeded 20 million board feet for

6528-587: The company recruited men who had not yet claimed their 160-acre (65 ha) of land under the Timber and Stone Act . Stagecoaches transported people between the mountains and the United States General Land Office to hurry the claim process. The deeds were then transferred for cash. The company acquired 30,000-acre (12,000 ha) of old growth sugar pine and giant sequoia in this fashion. Smith and Moore built two mountain mills at

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6656-407: The company struggled to make a profit and went bankrupt during the depression in 1882 . The company was restructured as the Sanger Lumber Company in 1894 and sold stock to pay off creditors, who exchanged their liens for stock in the new company. However, the Sanger Lumber Company continued to face financial difficulties and its creditors foreclosed on the company in 1895. In 1896, the company reported

6784-466: The company's logging equipment to include 70 railroad cars, three locomotives, 12 steam donkeys, one McGiffert loader, and one railroad crane. The company hired 1,500 men for the 1916 season, preparing for one of its heaviest cuts on record. In 1917, the Sierra region was impacted by World War I , which led to a 40% reduction in the workforce and difficulties obtaining supplies and equipment. The Hume Mill

6912-441: The conservation movement was not about the preservation of nature simply for nature itself. After his experiences traveling as an enthusiastic, zealous hunter, Roosevelt became convinced of "the need for measures to protect the game species from further destruction and eventual extinction". President Roosevelt recognized the necessity of carefully managing America's natural resources. According to Roosevelt, "We are prone to speak of

7040-500: The creation of national forests as well as one of Pinchot’s most controversial decisions in Hetch Hetchy Valley. The damming of Hetch Hetchy Valley located in Yosemite National Park was proposed in 1913 by a conservationist group led by Pinchot and Roosevelt and was opposed by a group of preservationists led by John Muir. Pinchot’s view on conservation was more utilitarian, meaning he wanted to use nature's resources for

7168-435: The creditors, the company kept a crew of 100 men working on the project all winter and made improvements to the hoist and incline railway. By the early spring of 1897, the company had moved the equipment from Millwood and Abbot Mills into the new Converse Basin sawmill. The new mill began operating on June 30, 1897, with a crew of 400 men and a two-band saw powered by a 1,000 horsepower steam engine. At 90 feet (27 m) feet,

7296-484: The dam was put into place it destroyed the Miwok and Yokuts people's ways of life. Pinchot’s impact in the early conservation movement in the United States is undeniable. However, the implementation of the dam was tragic for the Native people surrounding Hetch Hetchy. It was a complete landscape transformation and destroyed an entire ecosystem that the Native tribes once relied on. President Theodore Roosevelt believed

7424-530: The day formed the first true North American conservation organization, the Boone and Crockett Club , with the purpose of addressing the looming conservation crises of the day. Travels by later U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt through the region around Yellowstone provided the impetus for the creation of the Yellowstone Timberland Reserve in 1891. The largest section of the reserve was later renamed Shoshone National Forest , and it

7552-400: The delicate balance between the successful management of society's industrial progress while still preserving the integrity of the natural environment that sustains humanity. In a large part, today's conservation movement in the United States is a joint effort of individuals, grassroots organizations, nongovernmental organizations, learning institutions, and various government agencies, such as

7680-408: The demonstrator owned by Lima was dubbed the A-1. In addition to supporting the very large firebox and grate, the four-wheeled trailing truck carried the ash pan. For this purpose, the truck was redesigned as an articulated extension of the locomotive frame. The result was an ash pan that could hold more ash, allowing the locomotive to travel farther between cleanings. For roads that burned coal, this

7808-403: The diminishing of resource use but rather calls for a responsible way of going about it. A distinction between Sierra Club and Boone and Crockett Club is that Sierra Club was and is considered a preservationist organization whereas Boone and Crockett Club endorses conservation, simply defined as an "intelligent use of natural resources." During the 19th century, some Americans developed

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7936-408: The end of the train of logs used a bell system to communicate with the hoist operator at the mill and control the movement of the logs. The process was dangerous, as logs could roll out of the chutes or the train could buckle, causing logs to fly off the chute and potentially start fires. The chutes replaced the use of ox carts in logging and, with the introduction of donkey engines, eventually replaced

8064-692: The environment began with the passage of the Federal Water Pollution Act in 1948 and the Air Pollution Control Act in 1955. While neither of these regulations themselves served to impose tight restrictions on either water or air pollution, they lay the groundwork for what would later become the Clean Water Act and the Clean Air Act , as well as serving to demonstrate the recognition on the part of

8192-469: The essay “Our National Parks” which was used to promote tourism to national parks. He assured future visitors and readers that most of the Native Americans were dead or civilized into useless innocence. This furthered the prominence of the racist ideologies Muir had to the Miwok tribe and other tribes he dealt with around the country. After the creation of Yosemite National Park, Muir as well as

8320-507: The existing moratorium on new oil leases off the coast line through 2013. After the Republican victory in the 1994 elections, Clinton vetoed a series of budget bills that contained amendments designed to scale back environmental restrictions. Clinton boasted that his administration "adopted the strongest air-quality protections ever, improved the safety of our drinking water and food, cleaned up about three times as many toxic waste sites as

8448-532: The expense of creating “scenic playgrounds” across the country. The creation of several national parks like Yellowstone National Park in 1872, Yosemite National Park in 1890, and the creation of Glacier National Park in 1910, have all come at the expense of Native peoples. These parks were especially relevant because they held a native population. These parks became precedents for the exclusion of native people from their homeland and are all symbols of American wilderness movements. The creation of Glacier National Park

8576-669: The federal government and became part of the Sequoia National Forest. It was the last logging company to log giant sequoia . In 1878, the United States Congress passed the Timber and Stone Act to encourage private ownership of timberland and facilitate logging. The act allowed individuals to acquire federal land in the Sierra Nevada mountains for a small fee and the filing of a claim for individual 160-acre (65 ha) parcels. This facilitated

8704-470: The federal government of the need to codify regulations geared towards environmental protection. The 1962 publication of Rachel Carson 's best seller book Silent Spring represented a major watershed moment in American conservation. In exposing the individual dangers presented to both people and nature through the use of chemical pesticides, Carson inspired an environmental revolution, helping to root

8832-628: The first time in 1891. But it was not enough to cover the capital costs of the sawmill, flume and railroad. To increase output further a new 7 miles (11 km) railway was built for the 1893 season. For the first time, the Converse Basin Grove became accessible to large scale commercial logging. In 1883, the Kings River Lumber Company provided a giant sequoia for display at the World's Colombian Exposition in Chicago. The tree stood in

8960-521: The flume. The lake was surrounded by the lumber town of Millwood , which became the base of operations in the woods. The flume was a V-shaped trough built of knot-free sequoia carried by trestles of pine and cedar. By the end of 1889, the work crews had built more than 11 miles (18 km) miles of the flume, reaching the Kings River Canyon. As the flume entered the canyon, it became steeper and traveled over pre-built trestles anchored to

9088-508: The form of using less resources such as metal , water , or coal . Usually, this process of conservation occurs through or after legislation on local or national levels is passed. Conservation in the United States , as a movement, began with the American sportsmen who came to the realization that wanton waste of wildlife and their habitat had led to the extinction of some species , while other species were at risk. John Muir and

9216-400: The frontier. Two years later, locomotives were the main product being produced by the Lima Machine Works, which would produce over 300 locomotives during the next ten years. After a serious fire, a new shop was opened in 1902 and Shay production continued. Then, with initial demand for low-speed geared locomotives well on the way to being sated, and the new facilities in place, Lima moved into

9344-485: The government's and preservationists like Muir’s used to rationalize their political ideologies towards native people.   John Muir is remembered because of his respect for the non-human world and his unique view of nature. However, according to Jedediah Purdy, Muir’s views of Native people cannot be excused as “casual” for the time period he lived in. Overall, his impact on the early preservation movement has been monumental and still impacts us today. Gifford Pinchot

9472-536: The greater good for the greatest length", and preservationists , like John Muir , the founder of the Sierra Club . Important differences separated conservationists like Roosevelt and Pinchot from preservationists like Muir. Conservationists wanted regulated use of forest lands for both public activities and commercial endeavors, preservationists wanted forest to be preserved for natural beauty, scientific study, recreation, and believed only certain people should be able to visit these nature sites. The differences continue to

9600-597: The headwaters of the Kings River . The Millwood mill was at a higher elevation, while the Abbott Creek Mill was smaller and at a lower elevation. The Abbott Creek Mill began cutting lumber for a log flume in 1885. To transport their lumber to market, the company needed a railroad terminus. The town of Sanger offered them 65-acre (26 ha) of land alongside the Southern Pacific . They built

9728-410: The heavy railroad locomotive field. Success returned to Lima in the 1920s with the new concept of "Super Power" developed by Lima's mechanical engineer William E. Woodard . By making a number of significant changes to maximize a steam locomotive's capacity to generate and utilize steam, Woodard was able to make such locomotives significantly more powerful and faster. He did this by starting in 1922 with

9856-523: The history of conservation in the United States.   On 3 September 1964, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Wilderness Act of 1964 into law. This milestone was achieved by the efforts of environmental conservationists dedicated to the protection of some of the wildest lands in the United States. Chief among these were Howard Zahniser and Olaus Murie and Mardy Murie , and Celia Hunter, who dedicated much of their lives and their work to

9984-526: The impact that tourism has on the land. It is a form of conservation because the area may be protected while tourists or businesses are also using the land for lodging or other types of accommodations that utilize resources in any way. This movement has gained international traction and recognition. The United Nations declared 2002 the International Year of Ecotourism. Ecotourism seeks to balance an interest and appreciation of protected lands with

10112-492: The late 1800s once they ironically deemed them a conflict to tourists. Battles between federal troops and the Nez Perce tribe soon ensued, and eventually the tribe was driven out of the area. Conservation history fails to incorporate details like this when talking about the beginnings and context of the movement. Throughout the history of the United States conservation movement, Native people have been removed or set aside at

10240-440: The late 19th century. He believed that nature had intrinsic value and viewed nature as a sacred religious temple, which opposed the view of many utilitarian conservationists. One of Muir’s first endeavors was helping create Yosemite National Park. He first visited Yosemite in 1868 and went back annually until 1871. These visits ultimately led to his support to create Yosemite National Park nearly 20 years later in 1890. Starting in

10368-406: The later 1930s and war years can be identified with locomotives such as the homebuilt N&W 2-6-6-4s , C&O/Virginian 2-6-6-6 and virtually all American 4-8-4s. Boiler pressures rose as high as 310 lbs/sq.in.; thermic siphons added to the firebox and combustion chamber added 8% to the efficiency of the boiler; roller bearings appeared on main axle boxes and sometimes on running gear. And

10496-486: The livestock and animals that also depend on plants that are grown on agricultural land. Because of this, the need for conservation is greater than ever, especially when current efforts have only been able to slow the gradual depletion of these two key resources while increased populations create the need for higher consumption. The goal of ecotourism is to attract appreciation and attention to specific sites, which may include protected land for conservation, while minimizing

10624-410: The local economy as rural landowners also distribute hunting leases during the years between harvests. In essence, projects, such as reforestation, create a viable market of eco-friendly services mutually beneficial to landowners, businesses and society, and most importantly, the environment. Nonetheless, such creative plans will be necessary in the near future as the United States struggles to maintain

10752-613: The location of the park. In 1910 the Department of the Interior argued for their exclusion from Glacier National Park as they felt their presence in the glacier backcountry was “illegal.” Spence explains how “Blackfeet men and women who entertained tourists appeared to be living museum specimens who no longer used the Glacier wilderness- if, indeed, they ever had” (29). The backcountry that the Blackfeet people were ultimately removed holds important religious sites, plants, and animals that

10880-473: The locomotives' weight. Maintenance crews recalculated the weight, and discovered that the H-8s weighed 771,300 pounds (349,900 kg), which was thousands of pounds heavier than Lima first claimed. The train crews that worked with the H-8s, who were getting paid based on the locomotives' weight on the driving wheels at the time, started seeing this misrepresentation as an attack on their livelihood. The C&O

11008-403: The logging operation due to the dangers of steel cables, mill machinery, and flume trestles. A private company hospital treated injuries, but treatment was sometimes inadequate. Accounts of injuries were common in newspapers and courtroom filings, including: In 1926 a forest fire destroyed 7 miles of the log flume and in 1927 George Hume sold some of the company's assets. On April 8, 1935, he sold

11136-456: The modern conservation movement in a scientific foundation. It would take another decade, however, before the use of DDT was banned in the United States. Native American Nations have fought throughout history to practice Tribally unique kinship relationships with the nonhuman world.. The push for progressive conservation in the United States in the late 19th century and early 20th century destroyed many kinship relationships Native tribes had with

11264-581: The modern era, with sustainable harvest and multiple-use the major focus of the U.S. Forest Service and recreation emphasized by the National Park Service . Although national parks can logistically fall under the category of preservation sites, certain marked National Conservation Area sites fall near or within proximity of national parks and share a common land history. The United States government began driving groups of Native American peoples out of popularly visited in Yellowstone around

11392-495: The natural setting of Walden Pond and his deep appreciation for nature. In one instance, he described a deep grief for a tree that was cut down. Thoreau went on to bemoan the lack of reverence for the natural world: "I would that our farmers when they cut down a forest felt some of that awe which the old Romans did when they came to thin, or let in the light to, a consecrated grove". As he states in Walden , Thoreau "was interested in

11520-431: The near extinction of buffalo in the area for sporting purposes,the Blackfeet people had to turn to other animals like elk and deer. By the mid-twentieth century, conservation efforts continued to gain ground with the creation and implementation of federal legislation aimed at protecting wilderness, natural resources, and wildlife. This trend on the part of the federal government towards a more protection minded approach to

11648-424: The need for protection. Many of these resources were barely touched less than half a century ago but have been drained in several situations. One of these resources, water, is key to survival of almost all life but is being used quicker than it is replenished in many states within the United States. This has created the need for greater conservation which has been met by new techniques and technologies for both reducing

11776-407: The nonhuman world. U.S. conservation practices harming Native kinship relations continued into the 1960s. Demand for ocean exhibits was at an all-time high in the United States. This pushed the initiative for the capturing of orcas (killer whales) in the Salish Sea located in the northwest United States. Hundreds of orcas were captured and displaced from their families as well as many being killed in

11904-461: The number of national parks and led to the forced removal of Native Americans from their homeland. The legacy of his actions as president at the turn of the twentieth century include estimated 230 million acres of land as public lands, through his establishment of the United States Forest Service as well as dozens of national forests, national parks, and bird reserves, in addition to 4 game preserves. This legacy, though establishing what many consider

12032-520: The orca population or “family” will help heal their Lummi and human selves. In recent years Morris and members of the Lummi nation launched an initiative to have a whale from the Miami Aquarium released named Sk’aliCh’elh-tenaut, who had spent nearly 50 years in captivity. In 2023, Sk’aliCh’elh-tenaut was set to be released but died of kidney failure just before she was released. According to environmental scholars, U.S. environmental agencies like

12160-433: The other critics at the event that writings and actions from conservationists at the turn of the twentieth century have created a legacy for the movement as one of an older white demographic. General concern among the current conservation movement deals with the accessibility of conserved/protected areas as well as the movement itself to communities of color especially. Richard White, a historian at Stanford University, makes

12288-557: The oversized ash pan), adopted many of the Super Power features but utilized a conventional full frame and separate trailing truck. The construction of the first 2-8-4 locomotive is documented in David Weitzman's book, Superpower: Making of a steam locomotive. David also explains some of the innovations it made at the time. While delivering the first group of 2-6-6-6 locomotives in 1941, Lima miscalculated and misrepresented

12416-569: The preservation" of nature. In 1860, Henry David Thoreau delivered a speech to the Middlesex Agricultural Society in Massachusetts; the speech, entitled "The Succession of Forest Trees", explored forest ecology and encouraged the agricultural community to plant trees. This speech became one of Thoreau's "most influential ecological contributions to conservationist thought". A basis for the philosophy curated by

12544-399: The process. The primary goals of these exhibits were supposed to be for public education and conservation efforts. However, These whales have been used for economic benefit for sea parks across the world. Since 1961, during the push for public orca conservation education “at least 179 orcas have died in captivity, not including 30 miscarried or still-born calves.” The Lummi Nation native to

12672-468: The prominent sportsmen, writers, anthropologists, and politicians came from observing Native Americans and how they interacted with the resources available to them. For example, George Bird Grinnell was an anthropologist who joined an expedition in 1870 which encountered different tribes such as the Pawnee for large, extended periods of time. He noted their use of every single part of an animal following

12800-607: The protection and conservation of wild lands. By 1950 both Zanhiser and Olaus Murie were working for the Wilderness Society, Zahinser as Executive Secretary in Washington DC, and Olaus as president from his ranch in Moose, WY (now home to the Murie Center ). From their positions at Wilderness Society, both men continued to work to organize and build broad-based support for the creation and protection of wilderness areas within

12928-467: The purpose of public enjoyment is usually geared for places inaccessible to minority demographics, such as skiing or backpacking in the Sierra Nevadas . Instead, he puts forth that the conservation areas of importance for these communities are local bodies of water or small mountain ranges, urban parks, and even their own backyards. Lima Locomotive Works Lima Locomotive Works (LLW)

13056-563: The remainder the company, including the dam and 20,000 acres of land, to the U.S. National Forest Service . The U.S. National Forest Service has incorporated the land into the Sequoia National Forest . On January 9, 1946, 320 acres of land adjacent to Hume Lake was sold for $ 140,000 to Walter Warkentin and partners. The sale included the Hume Lake Hotel, store, service station, post office, 22 cottages, 22 boats,

13184-419: The remaining wood, with steel wedges inserted along the saw path to keep the weight of the tree from closing the cut. After a week or so of cutting, the tree was forced to fall by pounding in additional wedges until the trunk could no longer stand upright. The process was made more difficult by the extreme brittleness of the wood, which was prone to shattering upon impact. To reduce this risk, loggers often created

13312-402: The resources of this country as inexhaustible; this is not so". Nonetheless, Roosevelt believed that conservation of America's natural resources was for the successful management and continued sustain yield harvesting of these resources in the future for the benefit and enjoyment of the American people. Roosevelt took several major steps to further his conservation goals. In 1902, Roosevelt signed

13440-482: The right, connected to a drive line on the outside of the trucks. The Shay was geared down to provide more slow-moving, pulling ability for use in the lumber industry. The first Shay locomotive was built in 1880; it was such a success that many people in the lumber industry wanted one. To accommodate the new demand for the locomotive, Shay licensed the right to build his locomotive to the Lima Machine Works, which expanded and began to ship Shay locomotives to lumbermen across

13568-594: The root of modern conservationism, remained within the hands of powerful men of white European heritage for years to come, often excluding the interests of Native Americans and other demographics within the United States. Despite these advancements, the American conservation movement did have difficulties. In the early 1900s the conservation movement in America was split into two main groups: conservationists, like Pinchot and Roosevelt, who were utilitarian foresters and natural rights advocates who wanted to protect forests "for

13696-487: The rotunda of the U.S. Government building. The intent was to create awe and drive interest in transcontinental tourism by rail. Still, some doubted the natural wonder as the "California hoax." After the exposition it became a tourist attraction in Washington D.C. The Kings River Lumber Company shipped nearly 12 million board feet of lumber in its first four months and almost 20 million in its first full year. However,

13824-420: The sawmill used "the longest bandsaw in the world" and could halve and quarter many of the largest sequoia sections. Cutting down giant redwood trees was a laborious and dangerous process that required significant skill and effort. It involved building a platform above the buttress of the trunk, chopping a deep notch into the trunk with double-bitted felling axes , and then using a crosscut saw to cut through

13952-401: The transfer of large tracts of land from the government to lumber companies, who often recruited and paid individuals to file claims on their behalf. As a result, much of the old growth forest in the region was quickly transferred to lumber companies in the late 19th century. In 1888, Hiram T. Smith and Austin D. Moore founded the Kings River Lumber Company. To accumulate their timber holdings

14080-409: The tribe has a deep connection to. The creation of the park also led to large increases in hunting in the area. The increase in hunting in the area from the late 19th century to the creation of the park led to the near extinction of the buffalo in the area. The Blackfeet people are deeply tied to hunting buffalo in the area as their meat would provide them food and their pelts provided them clothing. With

14208-526: The two previous administrations combined, [and] helped to promote a new generation of fuel-efficient vehicles and vehicles that run on alternative fuels". Vice President Gore was keenly concerned with global climate change, and Clinton created the President's Council on Sustainable Development. In November 1998, Clinton signed the Kyoto Protocol , an international agreement in which developed countries committed to reducing carbon emissions . However,

14336-632: The unique natural wonders of the American frontier. Likewise, in 1860, Frederic Edwin Church painted "Twilight in the Wilderness", which was an artistic masterpiece of the era that explored the growing importance of the American wilderness. American writers also romanticized and focused upon nature as a subject matter. However, one of the most notable literary figures upon the early conservation movement proved to be Henry David Thoreau . Throughout his work, Walden , Thoreau detailed his experiences at

14464-408: The use of animals in logging altogether. This change had long-term ecological consequences, as the wood-burning donkey engines needed fuel and consumed logging waste, undergrowth, and immature trees that would otherwise remain, compounding the destructive effect of clear-cutting on forest regeneration. The Sanger Lumber Company built an incline hoist to transport lumber from the Converse Basin mill to

14592-627: Was Nickel Plate Road No. 779 , a 2-8-4 "Berkshire", which left the erecting halls in May 1949. That same year, Lima promoted a new wheel arrangement, the 4-8-6 . This would have allowed an even larger firebox than the 4-8-4. No example of the type was built, however. From 1949 to 1951, Lima-Hamilton produced a total of 175 diesel locomotives, in 7 different models . In 1951, Lima-Hamilton merged with Baldwin Locomotive Works to form Baldwin-Lima-Hamilton (BLH). The Lima-Hamilton line of diesels

14720-491: Was a key figure in the early conservation movement in the United States. After graduating from Yale in 1889 he pursued a career in forestry in which he was later appointed head of the Division of Forestry in 1898. Later he was appointed as the first chief of the United States Forest Service in 1905 under Theodore Roosevelt. When appointed as the head of the U.S. Forest Service, Pinchot as well as President Roosevelt pushed what

14848-493: Was a significant innovation. But it was not without tradeoffs. The articulated frame reduced weight on the driving wheels, which did not aid tractive effort (pulling ability). The locomotives so configured also had more difficulty staying on the rails in reverse, particularly through yard trackwork like switch frogs. The locomotive quickly proved to be 26-30% more efficient than the New York Central H-10. After

14976-472: Was also destroyed by a fire, causing significant damages. The Sanger Lumber Company struggled financially and eventually closed in 1924 due to losses. Logging was difficult, dangerous and intermittent work with few safety regulations and no form of workmen's compensation until 1913 . Loggers worked 11 hours a day, six days a week, from April to November, earning $ 1.50 to $ 2.50 per day, less room and board. Injury and death were common occurrences in all aspects of

15104-596: Was an American firm that manufactured railroad locomotives from the 1870s through the 1950s. The company's name is derived from the location of its main manufacturing plant in Lima, Ohio ( / ˈ l aɪ m ə / LY -mə ). The shops were located between the Erie Railroad main line, the Baltimore & Ohio 's Cincinnati-Toledo main line and the Nickel Plate Road main line and shops. The company produced

15232-513: Was available for drinking, food preparation, and other practical uses. The area provided a plentiful food source for tribes that included birds, deer, and other mammals. These animals were also used for clothing and ornamentation. Plentiful fibers like grasses, sedges, and roots were used for baskets and other useful items. These resources also found their way into tools and weapons. The Native tribes used obsidian which became an important material resource used for arrow points, scrapers, and blades. Once

15360-503: Was demonstrated to be 26% more efficient overall than its immediate predecessor, and the NYC bought 301 locomotives. A large increase in firebox area (from 66 square feet (6.1 m ) on the H-10 to 100 square feet (9.3 m ) on the A-1), characteristic of his work, necessitated adding another axle to the trailing truck , thus creating the 2-8-4 wheel arrangement. Built in the spring of 1925,

15488-462: Was discontinued, in favor of Baldwin's existing line. Though Lima and Baldwin had been known for high-quality steam locomotives, their line of diesel-electric locomotives was unable to compete with EMD , Alco , and GE . BLH left the locomotive business in 1956. For a time, Clark Equipment Company manufactured Lima-brand construction cranes in the old plant. Most of the company's records and builder's drawings have been transferred and are housed in

15616-520: Was forced to pay their crews thousands of dollars to make up for lost payment, and they subsequently sued Lima for over $ 3 million in 1944. Lima also lost their pride in building fine machinery, and they would subsequently lose more money within the following years. In April 1947, the firm merged with General Machinery Corporation of Hamilton, Ohio , to form the Lima-Hamilton Corporation. Lima-Hamilton’s last steam locomotive

15744-437: Was founded in 1905 when Thomas Hume and Ira B. Bennett acquired the Sanger Lumber Company. In the same year, a fire destroyed the Converse Basin sawmill, which was rebuilt and operated for two years before logging in the area became uneconomical. As a result, the company relocated its logging operations to a new site, establishing the town of Hume, where they built a new logging complex including Hume Lake. The company also extended

15872-412: Was known as “new conservationism.” This new wave of conservation led a more progressive agenda which forced the issue of conservation into the limelight. He believed “the fundamental principle of the whole conservation policy is that of use, to take every part of the land and its resources and put it to that use in which it will serve the most people '' (Pinchot 1913). Using this ideology he later pushed for

16000-620: Was later sold to the Illinois Central as part of an order for 50 similar locomotives. Woodard summed up "Super Power" by defining it as "horsepower at speed". Previous design principles emphasized tractive effort (pulling ability) rather than speed. By 1949 some 613 Berkshires had been constructed for North American service, of which twenty are preserved – at least two in operating condition ( NKP 765 and Pere Marquette 1225 ), both Lima products. There were at least three successive waves of "Super Power". The first began with NYC 8000 and

16128-514: Was possibly the most detrimental for indigenous tribes. Historian Mark David Spence explains how the Blackfeet people, whose reservation was located just east of Glacier National Park, were over time slowly removed and filtered out of their homeland through corrupt policy from the United States Department of the Interior. The tribe maintained an 1895 agreement with the United States that permitted them certain rights near and within

16256-405: Was that the federal government in effect was subsidizing ranchers, with a few major corporations controlling millions of acres of grazing land. Babbitt and Oklahoma Congressman Mike Synar tried to rally environmentalists and raise fees, but senators from Western states successfully blocked their proposals. Ultimately, the modern conservation movement in the United States continues to strive for

16384-608: Was the protection of 8 million acres as the Arctic National Wildlife Range, renamed the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge when it was expanded to 19 million acres in 1980. Moreover, the mission underlying the protection of ANWR, namely the preservation of an entire ecological system, became the underlying motivation for the preservation of other large tracts of wild lands. While neither Zahniser nor Olaus Murie would live to see

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