105-484: (Redirected from Hunting Party ) Hunting Party or The Hunting Party may refer to: Hunting party, a group of people organized to hunt wild game Mixed hunting party , a group of hunting birds Political parties with a pro-hunting platform such as the French Hunting, Fishing, Nature, Tradition Film [ edit ] Hunting Party (1959 film) ,
210-587: A Judge Dredd story Music [ edit ] The Hunting Party (album) , the sixth studio album by American rock band Linkin Park The Hunting Party (live album) , DVD to the sixth studio album by American rock band Linkin Park Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Hunting party . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change
315-436: A chariot , had a function similar to tournaments and manly sports. Hunting ranked as an honourable, somewhat competitive pastime to help the aristocracy practice skills of war in times of peace. In most parts of medieval Europe, the upper class obtained the sole rights to hunt in certain areas of a feudal territory. Game in these areas was used as a source of food and furs, often provided via professional huntsmen, but it
420-501: A cull ). Recreationally hunted species are generally referred to as the game , and are usually mammals and birds . A person participating in a hunt is a hunter or (less commonly) huntsman ; a natural area used for hunting is called a game reserve ; and an experienced hunter who helps organise a hunt and/or manage the game reserve is also known as a gamekeeper . Hunting activities by humans arose in Homo erectus or earlier, in
525-484: A frugivorous diet. Indirect evidence for Oldowan era hunting, by early Homo or late Australopithecus , has been presented in a 2009 study based on an Oldowan site in southwestern Kenya. Louis Binford (1986) criticised the idea that early hominids and early humans were hunters. On the basis of the analysis of the skeletal remains of the consumed animals, he concluded that hominids and early humans were mostly scavengers , not hunters, Blumenschine (1986) proposed
630-544: A noun ("the act, the practice, or an instance of hunting") and a verb ("to pursue for food or in sport"). The noun has been dated to the early 12th century, from the verb hunt . Old English had huntung, huntoþ . The meaning of "a body of persons associated for the purpose of hunting with a pack of hounds" is first recorded in the 1570s. "The act of searching for someone or something" is from about 1600. The verb, Old English huntian "to chase game" ( transitive and intransitive ), perhaps developed from hunta "hunter,"
735-413: A 1959 West German drama film The Hunting Party (1971 film) , a US–UK western film directed by Don Medford The Hunting Party (2007 film) , a US black comedy film directed by Richard Shepard TV [ edit ] The Hunting Party (TV series) , an upcoming television series expected to premiere in the 2024–25 US television season "Hunting Party" ( Body of Proof ) , a 2011 episode from
840-658: A broad one. Static magnetic fields , for reasons still unknown, retard animal development. The quality and quantity of usable meat depends on the animal's plane of nutrition , i.e., whether it is over- or underfed. Scientists disagree about how exactly the plane of nutrition influences carcase composition. The composition of the diet, especially the amount of protein provided, is an important factor regulating animal growth. Ruminants , which may digest cellulose , are better adapted to poor-quality diets, but their ruminal microorganisms degrade high-quality protein if supplied in excess. Because producing high-quality protein animal feed
945-462: A caution against disrespect of prey or against impudent boasting. With the domestication of the dog, birds of prey , and the ferret , various forms of animal-aided hunting developed, including venery ( scent-hound hunting, such as fox hunting ), coursing ( sight-hound hunting), falconry , and ferreting . While these are all associated with medieval hunting , over time, various dog breeds were selected by humans for very precise tasks during
1050-575: A distinctive way of hunting was popularized by the US author Ernest Hemingway and President Theodore Roosevelt . A safari may consist of a several-days—or even weeks-long journey, with camping in the bush or jungle , while pursuing big game . Nowadays, it is often used to describe hunting tours through African wildlife. Hunters are usually tourists, accompanied by licensed and highly regulated professional hunters, local guides, skinners , and porters in more difficult terrains. A special safari type
1155-454: A hunt; the rituals done may vary according to the species hunted or the season the hunt is taking place. Often a hunting ground, or the hunt for one or more species, was reserved or prohibited in the context of a temple cult. In Roman religion, Diana is the goddess of the hunt. Hindu scriptures describe hunting as an occupation, as well as a sport of the kingly. Even figures considered divine are described to have engaged in hunting. One of
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#17327979138711260-476: A master of the hunt, who might be styled mir-shikar . Often, they recruited the normally low-ranking local tribes because of their traditional knowledge of the environment and hunting techniques. Big game, such as Bengal tigers , might be hunted from the back of an Indian elephant . Regional social norms are generally antagonistic to hunting, while a few sects , such as the Bishnoi , lay special emphasis on
1365-519: A means of population control . Hunting advocates state that regulated hunting can be a necessary component of modern wildlife management , for example to help maintain a healthy proportion of animal populations within an environment's ecological carrying capacity when natural checks such as natural predators are absent or insufficient, or to provide funding for breeding programs and maintenance of natural reserves and conservation parks . However, excessive hunting has also heavily contributed to
1470-587: A predetermined age or weight, livestock are usually transported en masse to the slaughterhouse. Depending on its length and circumstances, this may exert stress and injuries on the animals, and some may die en route . Unnecessary stress in transport may adversely affect the quality of the meat. In particular, the muscles of stressed animals are low in water and glycogen , and their pH fails to attain acidic values, all of which results in poor meat quality. Animals are usually slaughtered by being first stunned and then exsanguinated (bled out). Death results from
1575-895: A result of cobalt deficiency in the soil. Plant toxins are a risk to grazing animals; for instance, sodium fluoroacetate , found in some African and Australian plants, kills by disrupting the cellular metabolism . Some man-made pollutants such as methylmercury and some pesticide residues present a particular hazard as they bioaccumulate in meat, potentially poisoning consumers. Practices such as confinement in factory farming have generated concerns for animal welfare . Animals have abnormal behaviors such as tail-biting, cannibalism, and feather pecking . Invasive procedures such as beak trimming , castration , and ear notching have similarly been questioned. Breeding for high productivity may affect welfare, as when broiler chickens are bred to be very large and to grow rapidly. Broilers often have leg deformities and become lame, and many die from
1680-547: A subsistence activity to a selective one, two trends emerged: The meaning of the word game in Middle English evolved to include an animal which is hunted. As the domestication of animals for meat grew, subsistence hunting remained among the lowest classes; however, the stylised pursuit of game in European societies became a luxury. Dangerous hunting, such as for lions or wild boars , often done on horseback or from
1785-497: Is a risk; in 2013, products in Europe labelled as beef actually contained horse meat . Meat can be cooked in many ways, including braising , broiling , frying , grilling , and roasting . Meat can be cured by smoking , which preserves and flavors food by exposing it to smoke from burning or smoldering wood. Other methods of curing include pickling , salting , and air-drying. Some recipes call for raw meat; steak tartare
1890-404: Is anticipated. Heat regulation in livestock is of economic significance, as mammals attempt to maintain a constant optimal body temperature. Low temperatures tend to prolong animal development and high temperatures tend to delay it. Depending on their size, body shape and insulation through tissue and fur, some animals have a relatively narrow zone of temperature tolerance and others (e.g. cattle)
1995-417: Is being reversed by consumer demand for leaner meat. The fatty deposits near the muscle fibers in meats soften meat when it is cooked, improve its flavor, and make the meat seem juicier. Fat around meat further contains cholesterol . The increase in meat consumption after 1960 is associated with significant imbalances of fat and cholesterol in the human diet. Biomass of mammals on Earth Upon reaching
2100-460: Is carried out on foot without hounds, using stealth. Meat Meat is animal tissue , often muscle , that is eaten as food. Humans have hunted and farmed other animals for meat since prehistory. The Neolithic Revolution allowed the domestication of vertebrates , including chickens , sheep , goats , pigs , horses , and cattle , starting around 11,000 years ago. Since then, selective breeding has enabled farmers to produce meat with
2205-411: Is consumed, and egg and/or dairy consumption may or may not be strictly restricted. The type of meat consumed varies between different cultures. The amount and kind of meat consumed varies by income, both between countries and within a given country. Horses are commonly eaten in countries such as France, Italy, Germany and Japan. Horses and other large mammals such as reindeer were hunted during
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#17327979138712310-445: Is expensive, several techniques are employed or experimented with to ensure maximum utilization of protein. These include the treatment of feed with formalin to protect amino acids during their passage through the rumen , the recycling of manure by feeding it back to cattle mixed with feed concentrates, or the conversion of petroleum hydrocarbons to protein through microbial action. In plant feed, environmental factors influence
2415-428: Is illicit, and canonists generally make a distinction declaring noisy ( clamorosa ) hunting unlawful, but not quiet ( quieta ) hunting. Ferraris gives it as the general sense of canonists that hunting is allowed to clerics if it be indulged in rarely and for sufficient cause, as necessity, utility or "honest" recreation, and with that moderation which is becoming to the ecclesiastical state. Ziegler, however, thinks that
2520-564: Is important to economies and cultures around the world. The word meat comes from the Old English word mete , meaning food in general. In modern usage, meat primarily means skeletal muscle with its associated fat and connective tissue, but it can include offal , other edible organs such as liver and kidney . The term is sometimes used in a more restrictive sense to mean the flesh of mammalian species (pigs, cattle, sheep, goats, etc.) raised and prepared for human consumption, to
2625-877: Is made from minced raw beef. Pâtés are made with ground meat and fat, often including liver . Meat, in particular red and processed meat, is linked to a variety of health risks. The 2015–2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans asked men and teenage boys to increase their consumption of vegetables or other underconsumed foods (fruits, whole grains, and dairy) while reducing intake of protein foods (meats, poultry, and eggs) that they currently overconsume. Toxic compounds including heavy metals , mycotoxins , pesticide residues, dioxins , polychlorinated biphenyl can contaminate meat. Processed, smoked and cooked meat may contain carcinogens such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons . Toxins may be introduced to meat as part of animal feed, as veterinary drug residues, or during processing and cooking. Such compounds are often metabolized in
2730-402: Is more conformable to the ecclesiastical law . In practice, therefore, the synodal statutes of various localities must be consulted to discover whether they allow quiet hunting or prohibit it altogether. Small-scale hunting as a family or subsistence farming activity is recognised by Pope Francis in his encyclical letter, Laudato si' , as a legitimate and valuable aspect of employment within
2835-453: Is particularly prevalent in the US, but has been banned in the EU, partly because it causes antimicrobial resistance in pathogenic microorganisms. The biochemical composition of meat varies in complex ways depending on the species, breed, sex, age, plane of nutrition, training and exercise of the animal, as well as on the anatomical location of the musculature involved. Even between animals of
2940-407: Is permitted. The Sikh gurus , especially Guru Hargobind and Guru Gobind Singh were ardent hunters. Many old Sikh Rehatnamas like Prem Sumarag , recommend hunting wild boar and deer . However, among modern Sikhs, the practice of hunting has died down; some even saying that all meat is forbidden. From early Christian times, hunting has been forbidden to Roman Catholic Church clerics . Thus
3045-408: Is related to hentan "to seize," from Proto-Germanic huntojan (the source also of Gothic hinþan "to seize, capture," Old High German hunda "booty"), which is of uncertain origin. The general sense of "search diligently" (for anything) is first recorded c. 1200. Hunting has a long history. It predates the emergence of Homo sapiens ( anatomically modern humans ) and may even predate
3150-471: Is represented by deities such as the horned god Cernunnos and lunar goddesses of classical antiquity , the Greek Artemis or Roman Diana . Taboos are often related to hunting, and mythological association of prey species with a divinity could be reflected in hunting restrictions such as a reserve surrounding a temple. Euripides ' tale of Artemis and Actaeon , for example, may be seen as
3255-544: Is still called so. The practices of netting or trapping insects and other arthropods for trophy collection , or the foraging or gathering of plants and mushrooms , are also not regarded as hunting. Skillful tracking and acquisition of an elusive target has caused the word hunt to be used in the vernacular as a metaphor for searching and obtaining something, as in " treasure hunting ", " bargain hunting", " hunting for votes " and even " hunting down " corruption and waste . The word hunt serves as both
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3360-420: Is tender and pliable when cooked just after death or after the resolution of rigor , but tough when cooked during rigor. As the muscle pigment myoglobin denatures, its iron oxidizes , which may cause a brown discoloration near the surface of the meat. Ongoing proteolysis contributes to conditioning: hypoxanthine , a breakdown product of ATP, contributes to meat's flavor and odor, as do other products of
3465-731: Is the human practice of seeking, pursuing, capturing, and killing wildlife or feral animals . The most common reasons for humans to hunt are to obtain the animal's body for meat and useful animal products ( fur / hide , bone / tusks , horn / antler , etc.), for recreation / taxidermy (see trophy hunting ), although it may also be done for resourceful reasons such as removing predators dangerous to humans or domestic animals (e.g. wolf hunting ), to eliminate pests and nuisance animals that damage crops / livestock / poultry or spread diseases (see varminting ), for trade/tourism (see safari ), or for ecological conservation against overpopulation and invasive species (commonly called
3570-446: Is the chasing of hares with hounds . Pairs of sighthounds (or long-dogs), such as greyhounds , may be used to pursue a hare in coursing, where the greyhounds are marked as to their skill in coursing the hare (but are not intended to actually catch it), or the hare may be pursued with scent hounds such as beagles or harriers. Other sorts of foxhounds may also be used for hunting stags (deer) or mink . Deer stalking with rifles
3675-518: Is the solo-safari, where all the license acquiring, stalking, preparation, and outfitting is done by the hunter himself. During the feudal and colonial times in British India , hunting or shikar was regarded as a regal sport in the numerous princely states , as many maharajas and nawabs , as well as British officers, maintained a whole corps of shikari s ( big-game hunters ), who were native professional hunters. They would be headed by
3780-450: Is very low in carbohydrates and does not contain dietary fiber. The fat content of meat varies widely with the species and breed of animal, the way in which the animal was raised, what it was fed, the part of the body, and the methods of butchering and cooking. Wild animals such as deer are leaner than farm animals, leading those concerned about fat content to choose game such as venison . Decades of breeding meat animals for fatness
3885-715: The Corpus Juris Canonici (C. ii, X, De cleric. venat.) says, "We forbid to all servants of God hunting and expeditions through the woods with hounds; and we also forbid them to keep hawks or falcons." The Fourth Council of the Lateran , held under Pope Innocent III , decreed (canon xv): "We interdict hunting or hawking to all clerics." The decree of the Council of Trent is worded more mildly: "Let clerics abstain from illicit hunting and hawking" (Sess. XXIV, De reform., c. xii), which seems to imply that not all hunting
3990-546: The Arctic trap and hunt animals for clothing and use the skins of sea mammals to make kayaks , clothing, and footwear. On ancient reliefs , especially from Mesopotamia , kings are often depicted by sculptors as hunters of big game such as lions and are often portrayed hunting from a war chariot - early examples of royalty symbolically and militaristically engaging in hunting as "the sport of kings". The cultural and psychological importance of hunting in ancient societies
4095-642: The First World War . Unarmed fox hunting on horseback with hounds is the type of hunting most closely associated with the United Kingdom; in fact, "hunting" without qualification implies fox hunting. What in other countries is called "hunting" is called "shooting" (birds) or "stalking" (deer) in Britain. Fox hunting is a social activity for the upper classes, with roles strictly defined by wealth and status. Similar to fox hunting in many ways
4200-929: The Labrador Retriever , the Golden Retriever , the Chesapeake Bay Retriever , the Brittany Spaniel , and other similar breeds. Game birds are flushed out using flushing spaniels such as the English Springer Spaniel , the various Cocker Spaniels and similar breeds. The hunting of wild mammals in England and Wales with dogs was banned under the Hunting Act 2004 . The wild mammals include fox, hare, deer and mink. There are, however, exceptions in
4305-805: The Translational Genomics Research Institute showed that nearly half (47%) of the meat and poultry in U.S. grocery stores were contaminated with S. aureus , with more than half (52%) of those bacteria resistant to antibiotics. A 2018 investigation by the Bureau of Investigative Journalism and The Guardian found that around 15 percent of the US population suffers from foodborne illnesses every year. The investigation highlighted unsanitary conditions in US-based meat plants, which included meat products covered in excrement and abscesses "filled with pus". Complete cooking and
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4410-643: The University of Southern California , has suggested that the discovery of spear use by chimpanzees probably means that early humans used wooden spears as well, perhaps, five million years ago. The earliest dated find of surviving wooden hunting spears dates to the very end of the Lower Paleolithic , about 300,000 years ago. The Schöningen spears , found in 1976 in Germany , are associated with Homo heidelbergensis . The hunting hypothesis sees
4515-585: The breeding of animals to improve meat production. In the postwar period , governments gave farmers guaranteed prices to increase animal production. The effect was to raise output at the cost of increased inputs such as of animal feed and veterinary medicines, as well as of animal disease and environmental pollution. In 1966, the United States, the United Kingdom and other industrialized nations, began factory farming of beef and dairy cattle and domestic pigs. Intensive animal farming became globalized in
4620-546: The control of fire , is emphasised in the so-called " hunting hypothesis " and de-emphasised in scenarios that stress omnivory and social interaction . There is no direct evidence for hunting predating Homo erectus , in either Homo habilis or in Australopithecus . The early hominid ancestors of humans were probably frugivores or omnivores , with a partially carnivorous diet from scavenging rather than hunting. Evidence for australopithecine meat consumption
4725-553: The domestication of livestock and the dawn of agriculture , beginning about 11,000 years ago in some parts of the world. In addition to the spear , hunting weapons developed during the Upper Paleolithic include the atlatl (a spear-thrower; before 30,000 years ago) and the bow (18,000 years ago). By the Mesolithic , hunting strategies had diversified with the development of these more far-reaching weapons and
4830-564: The domestication of the dog about 15,000 years ago. Evidence puts the earliest known mammoth hunting in Asia with spears to approximately 16,200 years ago. Many species of animals have been hunted throughout history. One theory is that in North America and Eurasia , caribou and wild reindeer "may well be the species of single greatest importance in the entire anthropological literature on hunting" (see also Reindeer Age ), although
4935-551: The endangerment , extirpation and extinction of many animals. Some animal rights and anti-hunting activists regard hunting as a cruel , perverse and unnecessary blood sport . Certain hunting practices, such as canned hunts and ludicrously paid / bribed trophy tours (especially to poor countries), are considered unethical and exploitative even by some hunters. Marine mammals such as whales and pinnipeds are also targets of hunting, both recreationally and commercially, often with heated controversies regarding
5040-493: The genus Homo . The oldest undisputed evidence for hunting dates to the Early Pleistocene , consistent with the emergence and early dispersal of Homo erectus about 1.7 million years ago ( Acheulean ). While it is undisputed that Homo erectus were hunters, the importance of this for the emergence of Homo erectus from its australopithecine ancestors, including the production of stone tools and eventually
5145-456: The Act. Nevertheless, there have been numerous attempts on behalf of activists, pressure groups, etc. to revoke the act over the last two decades. Many prehistoric deities are depicted as predators or prey of humans, often in a zoomorphic form, perhaps alluding to the importance of hunting for most Palaeolithic cultures. In many pagan religions, specific rituals are conducted before or after
5250-929: The National Cancer Institute published results of a study which found that human subjects who ate beef rare or medium-rare had less than one third the risk of stomach cancer than those who ate beef medium-well or well-done. While eating muscle meat raw may be the only way to avoid HCAs fully, the National Cancer Institute states that cooking meat below 100 °C (212 °F) creates "negligible amounts" of HCAs. Microwaving meat before cooking may reduce HCAs by 90%. Nitrosamines , present in processed and cooked foods, are carcinogenic, being linked to colon cancer. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons , present in processed, smoked and cooked foods, are similarly carcinogenic. Bacterial contamination has been seen with meat products. A 2011 study by
5355-489: The TV series Body of Proof "The Hunting Party" ( Lost ) , a 2006 episode from the TV series Lost "The Hunting Party" ( Dead Zone ) , an episode from the TV series The Dead Zone Books [ edit ] Hunting Party (novel) , a novel by Elizabeth Moon The Hunting Party (comics) (French: Partie de chasse ), a graphic novel by Pierre Christin and Enki Bilal "The Hunting Party" ( Judge Dredd story) ,
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#17327979138715460-546: The animal genome . To enable such manipulation, the genomes of many animals are being mapped . Some research has already seen commercial application. For instance, a recombinant bacterium has been developed which improves the digestion of grass in the rumen of cattle, and some specific features of muscle fibers have been genetically altered. Experimental reproductive cloning of commercially important meat animals such as sheep, pig or cattle has been successful. Multiple asexual reproduction of animals bearing desirable traits
5565-662: The animal to store energy and consisting of "true fats" ( esters of glycerol with fatty acids ), or intramuscular fat, which contains phospholipids and cholesterol . Meat can be broadly classified as "red" or "white" depending on the concentration of myoglobin in muscle fiber. When myoglobin is exposed to oxygen , reddish oxymyoglobin develops, making myoglobin-rich meat appear red. The redness of meat depends on species, animal age, and fiber type: Red meat contains more narrow muscle fibers that tend to operate over long periods without rest, while white meat contains more broad fibers that tend to work in short fast bursts, such as
5670-413: The animal's commercial value. Genetic analysis continues to reveal the genetic mechanisms that control numerous aspects of the endocrine system and, through it, meat growth and quality. Genetic engineering techniques can shorten breeding programs significantly because they allow for the identification and isolation of genes coding for desired traits, and for the reincorporation of these genes into
5775-471: The availability of crucial nutrients or micronutrients , a lack or excess of which can cause a great many ailments. In Australia, where the soil contains limited phosphate , cattle are fed additional phosphate to increase the efficiency of beef production. Also in Australia, cattle and sheep in certain areas were often found losing their appetite and dying in the midst of rich pasture; this was found to be
5880-436: The best possible genetic quality, and the efficiency of this method is improved through the administration of hormones that synchronize the ovulation cycles within groups of females. Growth hormones , particularly anabolic agents such as steroids , are used in some countries to accelerate muscle growth in animals. This practice has given rise to the beef hormone controversy , an international trade dispute. It may decrease
5985-551: The body to form harmful by-products. Negative effects depend on the individual genome, diet, and history of the consumer. The consumption of processed and red meat carries an increased risk of cancer. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), a specialized agency of the World Health Organization (WHO), classified processed meat (e.g., bacon, ham, hot dogs, sausages) as, "carcinogenic to humans (Group 1), based on sufficient evidence in humans that
6090-480: The brief flight of the chicken. The meat of adult mammals such as cows , sheep , and horses is considered red, while chicken and turkey breast meat is considered white. Muscle tissue is high in protein, containing all of the essential amino acids , and in most cases is a good source of zinc , vitamin B 12 , selenium , phosphorus , niacin , vitamin B 6 , choline , riboflavin and iron. Several forms of meat are high in vitamin K . Muscle tissue
6195-405: The carcass is necessary because blood causes the meat to have an unappealing appearance and is a breeding ground for microorganisms. After exsanguination, the carcass is dressed; that is, the head, feet, hide (except hogs and some veal), excess fat, viscera and offal are removed, leaving only bones and edible muscle. Cattle and pig carcases, but not those of sheep, are then split in half along
6300-557: The conservation of particular species, such as the antelope . India's Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 bans the killing of all wild animals. However, the Chief Wildlife Warden may, if satisfied that any wild animal from a specified list has become dangerous to human life or is so disabled or diseased as to be beyond recovery, permit any person to hunt such an animal. In this case, the body of any wild animal killed or wounded becomes government property. The practice among
6405-1131: The consumption of processed meat causes colorectal cancer." IARC classified red meat as "probably carcinogenic to humans (Group 2A), based on limited evidence that the consumption of red meat causes cancer in humans and strong mechanistic evidence supporting a carcinogenic effect." Cancer Research UK , National Health Service (NHS) and the National Cancer Institute have stated that red and processed meat intake increases risk of bowel cancer . The American Cancer Society in their "Diet and Physical Activity Guideline", stated "evidence that red and processed meats increase cancer risk has existed for decades, and many health organizations recommend limiting or avoiding these foods." The Canadian Cancer Society have stated that "eating red and processed meat increases cancer risk". A 2021 review found an increase of 11–51% risk of multiple cancer per 100g/d increment of red meat, and an increase of 8–72% risk of multiple cancer per 50g/d increment of processed meat. Cooking muscle meat creates heterocyclic amines (HCAs), which are thought to increase cancer risk in humans. Researchers at
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#17327979138716510-571: The decomposition of muscle fat and protein. When meat is industrially processed, additives are used to protect or modify its flavor or color, to improve its tenderness, juiciness or cohesiveness, or to aid with its preservation . A bioarchaeological (specifically, isotopic analysis ) study of early medieval England found, based on the funerary record, that high-meat protein diets were extremely rare, and that (contrary to previously held assumptions) elites did not consume more meat than non-elites, and men did not consume more meat than women. In
6615-488: The demands of customers. The trend towards selling meat in pre-packaged cuts has increased the demand for larger breeds of cattle, better suited to producing such cuts. Animals not previously exploited for their meat are now being farmed, including mammals such as antelope , zebra, water buffalo and camel, as well as non-mammals, such as crocodile, emu and ostrich. Organic farming supports an increasing demand for meat produced to that standard. Several factors affect
6720-422: The development of agriculture, hunting usually remained a significant contributor to the human food-supply. The supplementary meat and materials from hunting included protein , bone for implements, sinew for cordage , fur , feathers , rawhide and leather used in clothing. Hunting is still vital in marginal climates, especially those unsuited for pastoral uses or for agriculture. For example, Inuit in
6825-482: The emergence of behavioral modernity in the Middle Paleolithic as directly related to hunting, including mating behaviour , the establishment of language , culture, and religion , mythology and animal sacrifice . Sociologist David Nibert of Wittenberg University argues that the emergence of the organized hunting of animals undermined the communal, egalitarian nature of early human societies, with
6930-455: The exclusion of fish , other seafood, insects , poultry, or other animals. Paleontological evidence suggests that meat constituted a substantial proportion of the diet of the earliest humans. Early hunter-gatherers depended on the organized hunting of large animals such as bison and deer . Animals were domesticated in the Neolithic , enabling the systematic production of meat and
7035-444: The first day after death, glycolysis continues until the accumulation of lactic acid causes the pH to reach about 5.5. The remaining glycogen , about 18 g per kg, increases the water-holding capacity and tenderness of cooked meat. Rigor mortis sets in a few hours after death as adenosine triphosphate is used up. This causes the muscle proteins actin and myosin to combine into rigid actomyosin . This in turn lowers
7140-518: The food production system. Hunting is not forbidden in Jewish law , although there is an aversion to it. The great 18th-century authority Rabbi Yechezkel Landau after a study concluded although "hunting would not be considered cruelty to animals insofar as the animal is generally killed quickly and not tortured... There is an unseemly element in it, namely cruelty." The other issue is that hunting can be dangerous and Judaism places an extreme emphasis on
7245-557: The forest, Ravana kidnapped his wife, Sita , from their hut, while Rama was asked by Sita to capture a golden deer, and his brother Lakshman went after him. According to the Mahabharat , Pandu , the father of the Pandavas , accidentally killed the sage Kindama and his wife with an arrow, mistaking them for a deer. Jainism teaches followers to have tremendous respect for all of life. Prohibitions for hunting and meat eating are
7350-459: The fundamental conditions for being a Jain . Buddhism 's first precept is the respect for all sentient life. The general approach by all Buddhists is to avoid killing any living animals. Buddha explained the issue by saying "all fear death; comparing others with oneself, one should neither kill nor cause to kill." In Sikhism , only meat obtained from hunting, or slaughtered with the Jhatka
7455-456: The glycolytic enzymes – are involved in glycolysis , the conversion of sugars into high-energy molecules, especially adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The two most abundant myofibrillar proteins, myosin and actin , form the muscle's overall structure and enable it to deliver power, consuming ATP in the process. The remaining protein mass includes connective tissue ( collagen and elastin ). Fat in meat can be either adipose tissue , used by
7560-450: The growth and development of meat. Some economically important traits in meat animals are heritable to some degree, and can thus be selected for by animal breeding . In cattle, certain growth features are controlled by recessive genes which have not so far been controlled, complicating breeding. One such trait is dwarfism ; another is the doppelender or " double muscling " condition, which causes muscle hypertrophy and thereby increases
7665-562: The hunt, reflected in such names as "pointer" and " setter ". Even as agriculture and animal husbandry became more prevalent, hunting often remained as a part of human culture where the environment and social conditions allowed. Hunter-gatherer societies persisted, even when increasingly confined to marginal areas. And within agricultural systems, hunting served to kill animals that prey upon domestic and wild animals or to attempt to extirpate animals seen by humans as competition for resources such as water or forage. When hunting moved from
7770-491: The idea of confrontational scavenging , which involves challenging and scaring off other predators after they have made a kill, which he suggests could have been the leading method of obtaining protein -rich meat by early humans. Stone spearheads dated as early as 500,000 years ago were found in South Africa. Wood does not preserve well, however, and Craig Stanford, a primatologist and professor of anthropology at
7875-533: The increase. Overall, diets that include meat are the most common worldwide according to the results of a 2018 Ipsos MORI study of 16–64 years olds in 28 countries. Ipsos states "An omnivorous diet is the most common diet globally, with non-meat diets (which can include fish) followed by over a tenth of the global population." Approximately 87% of people include meat in their diet in some frequency. 73% of meat eaters included it in their diet regularly and 14% consumed meat only occasionally or infrequently. Estimates of
7980-499: The interpretation of the canonists is not in accordance with the letter or spirit of the laws of the church. Nevertheless, although a distinction between lawful and unlawful hunting is undoubtedly permissible, it is certain that a bishop can absolutely prohibit all hunting to the clerics of his diocese, as was done by synods at Milan , Avignon , Liège , Cologne , and elsewhere. Benedict XIV declared that such synodal decrees are not too severe, as an absolute prohibition of hunting
8085-636: The late Paleolithic in western Europe. Dogs are consumed in China, South Korea and Vietnam. Dogs are occasionally eaten in the Arctic regions. Historically, dog meat has been consumed in various parts of the world, such as Hawaii, Japan, Switzerland and Mexico. Cats are sometimes eaten, such as in Peru. Guinea pigs are raised for their flesh in the Andes . Whales and dolphins are hunted, partly for their flesh, in several countries. Misidentification
8190-407: The later years of the 20th century, replacing traditional stock rearing in countries around the world. In 1990 intensive animal farming accounted for 30% of world meat production and by 2005, this had risen to 40%. Modern agriculture employs techniques such as progeny testing to speed selective breeding , allowing the rapid acquisition of the qualities desired by meat producers. For instance, in
8295-417: The link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hunting_party&oldid=1254600562 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Articles containing French-language text Short description is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Hunting Hunting
8400-455: The meat industry than in any other British business" except finance. The US was a meat importing country by 1926. Truncated lifespan as a result of intensive breeding allows more meat to be produced from fewer animals. The world cattle population was about 600 million in 1929, with 700 million sheep and goats and 300 million pigs. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization ,
8505-419: The meat's water-holding capacity, so the meat loses water or "weeps". In muscles that enter rigor in a contracted position, actin and myosin filaments overlap and cross-bond, resulting in meat that becomes tough when cooked. Over time, muscle proteins denature in varying degree, with the exception of the collagen and elastin of connective tissue , and rigor mortis resolves. These changes mean that meat
8610-425: The mid ventral axis, and the carcase is cut into wholesale pieces. The dressing and cutting sequence, long a province of manual labor, is being progressively automated. Under hygienic conditions and without other treatment, meat can be stored at above its freezing point (−1.5 °C) for about six weeks without spoilage, during which time it undergoes an aging process that increases its tenderness and flavor. During
8715-501: The morality, ethics and legality of such practices. The pursuit, harvesting or catch and release of fish and aquatic cephalopods and crustaceans is called fishing , which however is widely accepted and not commonly categorised as a form of hunting. It is also not considered hunting to pursue animals without intent to kill them, as in wildlife photography , birdwatching , or scientific-research activities which involve tranquilizing or tagging of animals, although green hunting
8820-535: The multiple, or possibly main, environmental factors leading to the Holocene extinction of megafauna and their replacement by smaller herbivores . In some locations, such as Australia, humans are thought to have played a very significant role in the extinction of the Australian megafauna that was widespread prior to human occupation. Hunting was a crucial component of hunter-gatherer societies before
8925-523: The names of the god Shiva is Mrigavyadha (deer-slayer). The word Mriga , in many Indian languages including Malayalam, not only stands for deer, but for all animals and animal instincts (Mriga Thrishna). Shiva, as Mrigavyadha, is the one who destroys the animal instincts in human beings. In the epic Ramayana , Dasharatha , the father of Rama , is said to have the ability to hunt in the dark. During one of his hunting expeditions, he accidentally killed Shravana , mistaking him for game. During Rama's exile in
9030-519: The nineteenth century, meat consumption in Britain was the highest in Europe, exceeded only by that in British colonies. In the 1830s consumption per head in Britain was about 34 kilograms (75 lb) a year, rising to 59 kilograms (130 lb) in 1912. In 1904, laborers consumed 39 kilograms (87 lb) a year while aristocrats ate 140 kilograms (300 lb). There were some 43,000 butcher's shops in Britain in 1910, with "possibly more money invested in
9135-431: The non-meat diets were analysed. About 3% of people followed vegan diets, where consumption of meat, eggs, and dairy are abstained from. About 5% of people followed vegetarian diets, where consumption of meat is abstained from, but egg and/or dairy consumption is not strictly restricted. About 3% of people followed pescetarian diets, where consumption of the meat of land animals is abstained from, fish meat and other seafood
9240-435: The one or the other procedure, depending on the methods employed. Stunning can be effected through asphyxiating the animals with carbon dioxide , shooting them with a gun or a captive bolt pistol , or shocking them with electric current. The exsanguination is accomplished by severing the carotid artery and the jugular vein in cattle and sheep, and the anterior vena cava in pigs. Draining as much blood as possible from
9345-500: The order of millions of years ago. Hunting has become deeply embedded in various human cultures and was once an important part of rural economies—classified by economists as part of primary production alongside forestry , agriculture , and fishery . Modern regulations (see game law ) distinguish lawful hunting activities from illegal poaching , which involves the unauthorised and unregulated killing , trapping , or capture of animals. Apart from food provision, hunting can be
9450-459: The overall consumption for white meat has increased from the 20th to the 21st centuries. Poultry meat has increased by 76.6% per kilo per capita and pig meat by 19.7%. Bovine meat has decreased from 10.4 kg (22 lb 15 oz) per capita in 1990 to 9.6 kg (21 lb 3 oz) per capita in 2009. FAO analysis found that 357 million tonnes of meat were produced in 2021, 53% more than in 2000, with chicken meat representing more than half
9555-566: The qualities desired by producers and consumers. Meat is mainly composed of water, protein, and fat. Its quality is affected by many factors, including the genetics, health, and nutritional status of the animal involved. Without preservation, bacteria and fungi decompose and spoil unprocessed meat within hours or days. Under optimal conditions, meat is edible raw , but is often normally eaten cooked—such as by stewing or roasting —or processed —such as by smoking or salting . The consumption of meat (especially red and processed meat) increases
9660-650: The recent past include some indigenous peoples of the Amazonas ( Aché ), some Central and Southern African ( San people ), some peoples of New Guinea ( Fayu ), the Mlabri of Thailand and Laos , the Vedda people of Sri Lanka , and a handful of uncontacted peoples . In Africa, one of the last remaining hunter-gatherer tribes are the Hadza of Tanzania. Even as animal domestication became relatively widespread and after
9765-446: The risk of certain negative health outcomes including cancer, coronary heart disease , and diabetes . Meat production is a major contributor to environmental issues including global warming , pollution, and biodiversity loss , at every scale from local to global. Some people choose not to eat meat ( vegetarians and vegans ) for reasons such as ethics , environmental effects, health concerns, or religious dietary rules. However, meat
9870-672: The same litter and sex there are considerable differences in such parameters as the percentage of intramuscular fat. Adult mammalian muscle consists of roughly 75 percent water, 19 percent protein, 2.5 percent intramuscular fat, 1.2 percent carbohydrates and 2.3 percent other soluble substances. These include organic compounds, especially amino acids , and inorganic substances such as minerals. Muscle proteins are either soluble in water ( sarcoplasmic proteins, about 11.5 percent of total muscle mass) or in concentrated salt solutions ( myofibrillar proteins, about 5.5 percent of mass). There are several hundred sarcoplasmic proteins. Most of them –
9975-421: The set of seven mechanical arts . Although various other animals have been used to aid the hunter, such as ferrets , the dog has assumed many very important uses to the hunter. The domestication of the dog has led to a symbiotic relationship in which the dog's independence from humans is deferred. Though dogs can survive independently of humans, and in many cases do ferally, when raised or adopted by humans
10080-509: The soldiers in British India during the 1770s of going out to hunt snipes , a shorebird considered extremely challenging for hunters due to its alertness, camouflaging colour and erratic flight behavior, is believed to be the origin of the modern word for sniper , as snipe-hunters needed to be stealthy in addition to having tracking skills and marksmanship . The term was used in the nineteenth century, and had become common usage by
10185-417: The species tends to defer to its control in exchange for habitation, food and support. Dogs today are used to find, chase, retrieve, and sometimes kill game. Dogs allow humans to pursue and kill prey that would otherwise be very difficult or dangerous to hunt. Different breeds of specifically bred hunting dog are used for different types of hunting. Waterfowl are commonly hunted using retrieving dogs such as
10290-558: The status of women and less powerful males declining as the status of men quickly became associated with their success at hunting, which also increased human violence within these societies. However, 9000-year-old remains of a female hunter along with a toolkit of projectile points and animal processing implements were discovered at the Andean site of Wilamaya Patjxa, Puno District in Peru . Evidence exists that hunting may have been one of
10395-424: The stress of handling and transport. Meat producers may seek to improve the fertility of female animals through the administration of gonadotrophic or ovulation -inducing hormones . In pig production, sow infertility is a common problem – possibly due to excessive fatness. No methods currently exist to augment the fertility of male animals. Artificial insemination is now routinely used to produce animals of
10500-514: The tenderness of meat, although research on this is inconclusive, and have other effects on the composition of the muscle flesh. Where castration is used to improve control over male animals, its side effects can be counteracted by the administration of hormones. Myostatin has been used to produce muscle hypertrophy . Sedatives may be administered to animals to counteract stress factors and increase weight gain. The feeding of antibiotics to certain animals increases growth rates. This practice
10605-536: The value of human life. Islamic Sharia Law permits hunting of lawful animals and birds if they cannot be easily caught and slaughtered. However, this is only for the purpose of food and not for trophy hunting. A safari, from a Swahili word meaning "journey, expedition," especially in Africa, is defined as a journey to see or kill animals in their natural environment, most commonly in East Africa. Safari as
10710-527: The varying importance of different species depended on the geographic location. Mesolithic hunter-gathering lifestyles remained prevalent in some parts of the Americas , Sub-Saharan Africa , and Siberia , as well as all of Australia, until the European Age of Discovery . They still persist in some tribal societies , albeit in rapid decline. Peoples that preserved Paleolithic hunting-gathering until
10815-445: The wake of well-publicized health concerns associated with saturated fats in the 1980s, the fat content of United Kingdom beef, pork and lamb fell from 20–26 percent to 4–8 percent within a few decades, due to both selective breeding for leanness and changed methods of butchery. Methods of genetic engineering that could improve the meat-producing qualities of animals are becoming available. Meat production continues to be shaped by
10920-598: Was also expected to provide a form of recreation for the aristocracy. The importance of this proprietary view of game can be seen in the Robin Hood legends, in which one of the primary charges against the outlaws is that they "hunt the King's deer". In contrast, settlers in Anglophone colonies gloried democratically in hunting for all. In medieval Europe, hunting was considered by Johannes Scotus Eriugena to be part of
11025-807: Was presented in the 1990s. It has nevertheless often been assumed that at least occasional hunting behaviour may have been present well before the emergence of Homo .This can be argued on the basis of comparison with chimpanzees , the closest extant relatives of humans, who also engage in hunting, indicating that the behavioural trait may have been present in the Chimpanzee–human last common ancestor as early as 5 million years ago. The common chimpanzee ( Pan troglodytes ) regularly engages in troop predation behaviour, where bands of beta males are led by an alpha male . Bonobos ( Pan paniscus ) have also been observed to occasionally engage in group hunting, although more rarely than Pan troglodytes , mainly subsisting on
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