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68-600: Hüdavendigâr Eyalet ( Ottoman Turkish : ایالت خداوندگار , romanized :  Eyālet-i Ḥüdāvendigār ) was an eyalet of the Ottoman Empire . The word Hüdavendigâr comes from the Persian word Khodāvandgār which literally translates to "devotee of god" . The eyalet was subdivided into 8 sanjaks : This Ottoman Empire –related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Ottoman Turkish language Historically, Ottoman Turkish

136-527: A Latin S ( [REDACTED] ). *Upsilon is also derived from waw ( [REDACTED] ). The classical twenty-four-letter alphabet that is now used to represent the Greek language was originally the local alphabet of Ionia . By the late fifth century BC, it was commonly used by many Athenians. In c. 403 BC, at the suggestion of the archon Eucleides , the Athenian Assembly formally abandoned

204-425: A [d] when followed by a vowel sound. This is reflected in conventions of Ottoman orthography as well. In Turkish, there is a verb representing to be , but it is a defective verb. It doesn't have an infinitive or several other tenses. It is usually a suffix. Negative verb to be is created with the use of the word دگل değil , followed by the appropriate conjugation of the to be verb; or optionally used as

272-622: A colour-coded map in a seminal 19th-century work on the topic, Studien zur Geschichte des griechischen Alphabets by Adolf Kirchhoff (1867). The "green" (or southern) type is the most archaic and closest to the Phoenician. The "red" (or western) type is the one that was later transmitted to the West and became the ancestor of the Latin alphabet , and bears some crucial features characteristic of that later development. The "blue" (or eastern) type

340-606: A decision backed by President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan , who said the language should be taught in schools so younger generations do not lose touch with their cultural heritage. Most Ottoman Turkish was written in the Ottoman Turkish alphabet ( Ottoman Turkish : الفبا , romanized :  elifbâ ), a variant of the Perso-Arabic script . The Armenian , Greek and Rashi script of Hebrew were sometimes used by Armenians, Greeks and Jews. (See Karamanli Turkish ,

408-456: A dialect of Ottoman written in the Greek script; Armeno-Turkish alphabet ) The actual grammar of Ottoman Turkish is not different from the grammar of modern Turkish .The focus of this section is on the Ottoman orthography; the conventions surrounding how the orthography interacted and dealt with grammatical morphemes related to conjugations, cases, pronouns, etc. Table below lists nouns with

476-610: A distinction between uppercase and lowercase. This distinction is an innovation of the modern era, drawing on different lines of development of the letter shapes in earlier handwriting. The oldest forms of the letters in antiquity are majuscule forms. Besides the upright, straight inscriptional forms (capitals) found in stone carvings or incised pottery, more fluent writing styles adapted for handwriting on soft materials were also developed during antiquity. Such handwriting has been preserved especially from papyrus manuscripts in Egypt since

544-676: A document but would use the native Turkish word bal ( بال ) when buying it. The transliteration system of the İslâm Ansiklopedisi has become a de facto standard in Oriental studies for the transliteration of Ottoman Turkish texts. In transcription , the New Redhouse, Karl Steuerwald, and Ferit Devellioğlu dictionaries have become standard. Another transliteration system is the Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft (DMG), which provides

612-597: A few years previously in Macedonia . By the end of the fourth century BC, it had displaced local alphabets across the Greek-speaking world to become the standard form of the Greek alphabet. When the Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet, they took over not only the letter shapes and sound values but also the names by which the sequence of the alphabet could be recited and memorized. In Phoenician, each letter name

680-1204: A set of systematic phonological shifts that affected the language in its post-classical stages. [ ʝ ] before [ e ] , [ i ] ; [ ŋ ] ~ [ ɲ ] Similar to y as in English y ellow; ng as in English lo ng; ñ as in Spanish a ñ o é as in French é t é Similar to ay as in English overl ay , but without pronouncing y. ai as in English f ai ry ê as in French t ê te [ c ] before [ e ] , [ i ] q as in French q ui ô as in French t ô t r as in Spanish ca r o [ ç ] before [ e ] , [ i ] h as in English h ue Among consonant letters, all letters that denoted voiced plosive consonants ( /b, d, g/ ) and aspirated plosives ( /pʰ, tʰ, kʰ/ ) in Ancient Greek stand for corresponding fricative sounds in Modern Greek. The correspondences are as follows: Among

748-453: A seventh vowel letter for the long /ɔː/ (Ω, omega ) was introduced. Greek also introduced three new consonant letters for its aspirated plosive sounds and consonant clusters: Φ ( phi ) for /pʰ/ , Χ ( chi ) for /kʰ/ and Ψ ( psi ) for /ps/ . In western Greek variants, Χ was instead used for /ks/ and Ψ for /kʰ/ . The origin of these letters is a matter of some debate. Three of the original Phoenician letters dropped out of use before

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816-411: A single root verb, with the addition of a variety of morphemes and suffixes, multiple new and different verbs meanings can be expressed in single but larger words. Below table is a sample from the verb تپمك tepmek meaning 'to kick', whose root (which is also 2nd person imperative) is تپ tep . Each of the produced new verbs below can be made into an infinitive with the addition of ـمك -mek at

884-427: A standalone for 3rd person. Generally, the verbs 'to exist' and 'to have' are expressed using what's called an existential copula , the word وار var . The verb 'to have' is expressed in the same way, except that the object noun will take a possessive pronoun, producing sentences that will literally mean "there exists house of mine". The verbs 'to exist' and 'to have' conjugated for other tenses, are expressed in

952-428: A time, a writing style with alternating right-to-left and left-to-right lines (called boustrophedon , literally "ox-turning", after the manner of an ox ploughing a field) was common, until in the classical period the left-to-right writing direction became the norm. Individual letter shapes were mirrored depending on the writing direction of the current line. There were initially numerous local (epichoric) variants of

1020-648: A transliteration system for any Turkic language written in Arabic script. There are few differences between the İA and the DMG systems. Greek alphabet The Greek alphabet has been used to write the Greek language since the late 9th or early 8th century BC. It was derived from the earlier Phoenician alphabet , and is the earliest known alphabetic script to have developed distinct letters for vowels as well as consonants . In Archaic and early Classical times,

1088-435: A variety of phonological features that come into play when taking case suffixes. The table includes a typical singular and plural noun, containing back and front vowels, words that end with the letter ه ـه ([a] or [e]), both back and front vowels, word that ends in a ت ([t]) sound, and word that ends in either ق or ك ([k]). These words are to serve as references, to observe orthographic conventions: Table below shows

1156-653: Is also ⟨ ηι, ωι ⟩ , and ⟨ ου ⟩ , pronounced /u/ . The Ancient Greek diphthongs ⟨ αυ ⟩ , ⟨ ευ ⟩ and ⟨ ηυ ⟩ are pronounced [av] , [ev] and [iv] in Modern Greek. In some environments, they are devoiced to [af] , [ef] and [if] . The Modern Greek consonant combinations ⟨ μπ ⟩ and ⟨ ντ ⟩ stand for [b] and [d] (or [mb] and [nd] ); ⟨ τζ ⟩ stands for [d͡z] and ⟨ τσ ⟩ stands for [t͡s] . In addition, both in Ancient and Modern Greek,

1224-517: Is attested in early sources as λάβδα besides λάμβδα ; in Modern Greek the spelling is often λάμδα , reflecting pronunciation. Similarly, iota is sometimes spelled γιώτα in Modern Greek ( [ʝ] is conventionally transcribed ⟨γ{ι,η,υ,ει,οι}⟩ word-initially and intervocalically before back vowels and /a/ ). In the tables below, the Greek names of all letters are given in their traditional polytonic spelling; in modern practice, like with all other words, they are usually spelled in

1292-481: Is commonly held to have originated some time in the late ninth or early eighth century BC, conventionally around the year 800 BC. The period between the use of the two writing systems, Linear B and the Greek alphabet, during which no Greek texts are attested, is known as the Greek Dark Ages . The Greeks adopted the alphabet from the earlier Phoenician alphabet , one of the closely related scripts used for

1360-409: Is compound verbs. This consists of adding a Persian or Arabic active or passive participle to a neuter verb, to do ( ایتمك etmek ) or to become ( اولمق olmaq ). For example, note the following two verbs: Below table shows some sample conjugations of these two verbs. The conjugation of the verb "etmek" isn't straightforward, because the root of the verb ends in a [t]. This sound transforms into

1428-470: Is still conventionally used for writing Ancient Greek, while in some book printing and generally in the usage of conservative writers it can still also be found in use for Modern Greek. Although it is not a diacritic, the comma has a similar function as a silent letter in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing ό,τι ( ó,ti , "whatever") from ότι ( óti , "that"). There are many different methods of rendering Greek text or Greek names in

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1496-465: Is the one from which the later standard Greek alphabet emerged. Athens used a local form of the "light blue" alphabet type until the end of the fifth century BC, which lacked the letters Ξ and Ψ as well as the vowel symbols Η and Ω. In the Old Attic alphabet, ΧΣ stood for /ks/ and ΦΣ for /ps/ . Ε was used for all three sounds /e, eː, ɛː/ (correspondinɡ to classical Ε, ΕΙ, Η ), and Ο

1564-413: The Latin , Gothic , Coptic , and Cyrillic scripts. Throughout antiquity, Greek had only a single uppercase form of each letter. It was written without diacritics and with little punctuation . By the 9th century, Byzantine scribes had begun to employ the lowercase form, which they derived from the cursive styles of the uppercase letters. Sound values and conventional transcriptions for some of

1632-528: The Library of Congress , and others. During the Mycenaean period , from around the sixteenth century to the twelfth century BC, a script called Linear B was used to write the earliest attested form of the Greek language, known as Mycenaean Greek . This writing system, unrelated to the Greek alphabet, last appeared in the thirteenth century BC. Inscription written in the Greek alphabet begin to emerge from

1700-599: The West Semitic languages , calling it Greek : Φοινικήια γράμματα 'Phoenician letters'. However, the Phoenician alphabet was limited to consonants. When it was adopted for writing Greek, certain consonants were adapted in order to express vowels. The use of both vowels and consonants makes Greek the first alphabet in the narrow sense, as distinguished from the abjads used in Semitic languages , which have letters only for consonants. Greek initially took over all of

1768-647: The list of replaced loanwords in Turkish for more examples of Ottoman Turkish words and their modern Turkish counterparts. Two examples of Arabic and two of Persian loanwords are found below. Historically speaking, Ottoman Turkish is the predecessor of modern Turkish. However, the standard Turkish of today is essentially Türkiye Türkçesi (Turkish of Turkey) as written in the Latin alphabet and with an abundance of neologisms added, which means there are now far fewer loan words from other languages, and Ottoman Turkish

1836-494: The rough breathing ( ἁ ), marking an /h/ sound at the beginning of a word, or the smooth breathing ( ἀ ), marking its absence. The letter rho (ρ), although not a vowel, also carries rough breathing in a word-initial position. If a rho was geminated within a word, the first ρ always had the smooth breathing and the second the rough breathing (ῤῥ) leading to the transliteration rrh. The vowel letters ⟨ α, η, ω ⟩ carry an additional diacritic in certain words,

1904-402: The 1960s, Ottoman Turkish was at least partially intelligible with the Turkish of that day. One major difference between Ottoman Turkish and modern Turkish is the latter's abandonment of compound word formation according to Arabic and Persian grammar rules. The usage of such phrases still exists in modern Turkish but only to a very limited extent and usually in specialist contexts ; for example,

1972-432: The 22 letters of Phoenician. Five were reassigned to denote vowel sounds: the glide consonants /j/ ( yodh ) and /w/ ( waw ) were used for [i] (Ι, iota ) and [u] (Υ, upsilon ); the glottal stop consonant /ʔ/ ( aleph ) was used for [a] (Α, alpha ); the pharyngeal /ʕ/ ( ʿayin ) was turned into [o] (Ο, omicron ); and the letter for /h/ ( he ) was turned into [e] (Ε, epsilon ). A doublet of waw

2040-501: The Byzantine period, to distinguish between letters that had become confusable. Thus, the letters ⟨ο⟩ and ⟨ω⟩ , pronounced identically by this time, were called o mikron ("small o") and o mega ("big o"). The letter ⟨ε⟩ was called e psilon ("plain e") to distinguish it from the identically pronounced digraph ⟨αι⟩ , while, similarly, ⟨υ⟩ , which at this time

2108-479: The Greek alphabet existed in many local variants , but, by the end of the 4th century BC, the Ionic -based Euclidean alphabet , with 24 letters, ordered from alpha to omega , had become standard throughout the Greek-speaking world and is the version that is still used for Greek writing today. The uppercase and lowercase forms of the 24 letters are: The Greek alphabet is the ancestor of several scripts, such as

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2176-527: The Greek alphabet today also serves as a source of international technical symbols and labels in many domains of mathematics , science , and other fields. In both Ancient and Modern Greek, the letters of the Greek alphabet have fairly stable and consistent symbol-to-sound mappings, making pronunciation of words largely predictable. Ancient Greek spelling was generally near- phonemic . For a number of letters, sound values differ considerably between Ancient and Modern Greek, because their pronunciation has followed

2244-466: The Greek alphabet, which differed in the use and non-use of the additional vowel and consonant symbols and several other features. Epichoric alphabets are commonly divided into four major types according to their different treatments of additional consonant letters for the aspirated consonants (/pʰ, kʰ/) and consonant clusters (/ks, ps/) of Greek. These four types are often conventionally labelled as "green", "red", "light blue" and "dark blue" types, based on

2312-625: The Latin script. The form in which classical Greek names are conventionally rendered in English goes back to the way Greek loanwords were incorporated into Latin in antiquity. In this system, ⟨ κ ⟩ is replaced with ⟨c⟩ , the diphthongs ⟨ αι ⟩ and ⟨ οι ⟩ are rendered as ⟨ae⟩ and ⟨oe⟩ (or ⟨æ,œ⟩ ); and ⟨ ει ⟩ and ⟨ ου ⟩ are simplified to ⟨i⟩ and ⟨u⟩ . Smooth breathing marks are usually ignored and rough breathing marks are usually rendered as

2380-649: The Old Attic alphabet and adopted the Ionian alphabet as part of the democratic reforms after the overthrow of the Thirty Tyrants . Because of Eucleides's role in suggesting the idea to adopt the Ionian alphabet, the standard twenty-four-letter Greek alphabet is sometimes known as the "Eucleidean alphabet". Roughly thirty years later, the Eucleidean alphabet was adopted in Boeotia and it may have been adopted

2448-543: The Persian genitive construction takdîr-i ilâhî (which reads literally as "the preordaining of the divine" and translates as "divine dispensation" or "destiny") is used, as opposed to the normative modern Turkish construction, ilâhî takdîr (literally, "divine preordaining"). In 2014, Turkey's Education Council decided that Ottoman Turkish should be taught in Islamic high schools and as an elective in other schools,

2516-538: The Persian character of its Arabic borrowings with other Turkic languages that had even less interaction with Arabic, such as Tatar , Bashkir , and Uyghur . From the early ages of the Ottoman Empire, borrowings from Arabic and Persian were so abundant that original Turkish words were hard to find. In Ottoman, one may find whole passages in Arabic and Persian incorporated into the text. It was however not only extensive loaning of words, but along with them much of

2584-442: The additional - ـنـ [n] is a vowel, the final vowel ی is kept; otherwise it is removed (note the respective examples for kitaplarını versus kitaplarından ). Examples below : Below table shows the positive conjugation for two sample verbs آچمق açmak (to open) and سولمك sevilmek (to be loved). The first verb is the active verb, and the other has been modified to form a passive verb. The first contains back vowels,

2652-479: The alphabet took its classical shape: the letter Ϻ ( san ), which had been in competition with Σ ( sigma ) denoting the same phoneme /s/; the letter Ϙ ( qoppa ), which was redundant with Κ ( kappa ) for /k/, and Ϝ ( digamma ), whose sound value /w/ dropped out of the spoken language before or during the classical period. Greek was originally written predominantly from right to left, just like Phoenician, but scribes could freely alternate between directions. For

2720-400: The combinations ⟨ γχ ⟩ and ⟨ γξ ⟩ . In the polytonic orthography traditionally used for ancient Greek and katharevousa , the stressed vowel of each word carries one of three accent marks: either the acute accent ( ά ), the grave accent ( ὰ ), or the circumflex accent ( α̃ or α̑ ). These signs were originally designed to mark different forms of

2788-567: The conventional letter correspondences of Ancient Greek-based transcription systems, and to what degree they attempt either an exact letter-by-letter transliteration or rather a phonetically based transcription. Standardized formal transcription systems have been defined by the International Organization for Standardization (as ISO 843 ), by the United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names , by

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2856-468: The eighth century BC onward. While early evidence of Greek letters may date no later than 770 BC, the oldest known substantial and legible Greek alphabet texts, such as the Dipylon inscription and Nestor's cup , date from c.  740 /30 BC. It is accepted that the introduction of the alphabet occurred some time prior to these inscriptions. While earlier dates have been proposed, the Greek alphabet

2924-417: The end. Ottoman Turkish was highly influenced by Arabic and Persian. Arabic and Persian words in the language accounted for up to 88% of its vocabulary. As in most other Turkic and foreign languages of Islamic communities, the Arabic borrowings were borrowed through Persian, not through direct exposure of Ottoman Turkish to Arabic, a fact that is evidenced by the typically Persian phonological mutation of

2992-410: The following group of consonant letters, the older forms of the names in Ancient Greek were spelled with -εῖ , indicating an original pronunciation with -ē . In Modern Greek these names are spelled with -ι . The following group of vowel letters were originally called simply by their sound values as long vowels: ē, ō, ū, and ɔ . Their modern names contain adjectival qualifiers that were added during

3060-444: The following letters are more or less straightforward continuations of their Phoenician antecedents. Between Ancient and Modern Greek, they have remained largely unchanged, except that their pronunciation has followed regular sound changes along with other words (for instance, in the name of beta , ancient /b/ regularly changed to modern /v/, and ancient /ɛː/ to modern /i/, resulting in the modern pronunciation vita ). The name of lambda

3128-422: The grammatical systems of Persian and Arabic. In a social and pragmatic sense, there were (at least) three variants of Ottoman Turkish: A person would use each of the varieties above for different purposes, with the fasih variant being the most heavily suffused with Arabic and Persian words and kaba the least. For example, a scribe would use the Arabic asel ( عسل ) to refer to honey when writing

3196-439: The historical sound system in pronouncing Ancient Greek. Several letter combinations have special conventional sound values different from those of their single components. Among them are several digraphs of vowel letters that formerly represented diphthongs but are now monophthongized. In addition to the four mentioned above ( ⟨ ει , οι, υι⟩ , pronounced /i/ and ⟨ αι ⟩ , pronounced /e/ ), there

3264-474: The letter ⟨ γ ⟩ , before another velar consonant , stands for the velar nasal [ŋ] ; thus ⟨ γγ ⟩ and ⟨ γκ ⟩ are pronounced like English ⟨ng⟩ like in the word finger (not like in the word thing). In analogy to ⟨ μπ ⟩ and ⟨ ντ ⟩ , ⟨ γκ ⟩ is also used to stand for [g] before vowels [a] , [o] and [u] , and [ɟ] before [e] and [i] . There are also

3332-654: The letter ⟨h⟩ . In modern scholarly transliteration of Ancient Greek, ⟨ κ ⟩ will usually be rendered as ⟨k⟩ , and the vowel combinations ⟨ αι , οι, ει, ου⟩ as ⟨ai, oi, ei, ou⟩ . The letters ⟨ θ ⟩ and ⟨ φ ⟩ are generally rendered as ⟨th⟩ and ⟨ph⟩ ; ⟨ χ ⟩ as either ⟨ch⟩ or ⟨kh⟩ ; and word-initial ⟨ ρ ⟩ as ⟨rh⟩ . Transcription conventions for Modern Greek differ widely, depending on their purpose, on how close they stay to

3400-459: The letters differ between Ancient and Modern Greek usage because the pronunciation of Greek has changed significantly between the 5th century BC and today. Additionally, Modern and Ancient Greek now use different diacritics , with ancient Greek using the polytonic orthography and modern Greek keeping only the stress accent ( acute ) and the diaeresis . Apart from its use in writing the Greek language, in both its ancient and its modern forms,

3468-418: The phonological pitch accent in Ancient Greek. By the time their use became conventional and obligatory in Greek writing, in late antiquity, pitch accent was evolving into a single stress accent , and thus the three signs have not corresponded to a phonological distinction in actual speech ever since. In addition to the accent marks, every word-initial vowel must carry either of two so-called "breathing marks":

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3536-411: The pronunciation alone, while the reverse mapping, from spelling to pronunciation, is usually regular and predictable. The following vowel letters and digraphs are involved in the mergers: Modern Greek speakers typically use the same, modern symbol–sound mappings in reading Greek of all historical stages. In other countries, students of Ancient Greek may use a variety of conventional approximations of

3604-415: The reform was the Turkish nationalist Ziya Gökalp . It also saw the replacement of the Perso-Arabic script with the extended Latin alphabet . The changes were meant to encourage the growth of a new variety of written Turkish that more closely reflected the spoken vernacular and to foster a new variety of spoken Turkish that reinforced Turkey's new national identity as being a post-Ottoman state . See

3672-496: The same way, with a possessive pronoun if needed, and copula وار var , followed by the 3rd person singular form of the verb 'to do: ایتمك etmek attached as a suffix (or separate as a stanadalone verb); as conjugated in the above section. The verbs 'not to exist' and 'not to have' are created in the exact same manner and conjugation, except that the copula یوق yok is used. Turkish being an agglutinative language as opposed to an analytical one (generally), means that from

3740-609: The second front vowels; both containing non-rounded vowels (which also impacts pronounciation and modern Latin orthograhpy). Below table shows the conjugation of a negative verb, and a positive complex verb expressing ability. In Turkish, complex verbs can be constructed by adding a variety of suffixes to the base root of a verb. The two verbs are یازممق yazmamaq (not to write) and سوه‌بلمك sevebilmek (to be able to love). Another common category of verbs in Turkish (more common in Ottoman Turkish than in modern Turkish),

3808-462: The simplified monotonic system. In the cases of the three historical sibilant letters below, the correspondence between Phoenician and Ancient Greek is less clear, with apparent mismatches both in letter names and sound values. The early history of these letters (and the fourth sibilant letter, obsolete san ) has been a matter of some debate. Here too, the changes in the pronunciation of the letter names between Ancient and Modern Greek are regular. In

3876-434: The so-called iota subscript , which has the shape of a small vertical stroke or a miniature ⟨ ι ⟩ below the letter. This iota represents the former offglide of what were originally long diphthongs, ⟨ ᾱι, ηι, ωι ⟩ (i.e. /aːi, ɛːi, ɔːi/ ), which became monophthongized during antiquity. Another diacritic used in Greek is the diaeresis ( ¨ ), indicating a hiatus . This system of diacritics

3944-410: The suffixes for creating possessed nouns. Each of these possessed nouns, in turn, take case suffixes as shown above. For third person (singular and plural) possessed nouns, that end in a vowel, when it comes to taking case suffixes, a letter - ـنـ [n] comes after the possessive suffix. For singular endings, the final vowel ی is removed in all instances. For plural endings, if the letter succeeding

4012-459: The vowel symbols, Modern Greek sound values reflect the radical simplification of the vowel system of post-classical Greek, merging multiple formerly distinct vowel phonemes into a much smaller number. This leads to several groups of vowel letters denoting identical sounds today. Modern Greek orthography remains true to the historical spellings in most of these cases. As a consequence, the spellings of words in Modern Greek are often not predictable from

4080-476: The words of Arabic origin. The conservation of archaic phonological features of the Arabic borrowings furthermore suggests that Arabic-incorporated Persian was absorbed into pre-Ottoman Turkic at an early stage, when the speakers were still located to the north-east of Persia , prior to the westward migration of the Islamic Turkic tribes. An additional argument for this is that Ottoman Turkish shares

4148-414: Was a word that began with the sound represented by that letter; thus ʾaleph , the word for "ox", was used as the name for the glottal stop /ʔ/ , bet , or "house", for the /b/ sound, and so on. When the letters were adopted by the Greeks, most of the Phoenician names were maintained or modified slightly to fit Greek phonology; thus, ʾaleph, bet, gimel became alpha, beta, gamma . The Greek names of

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4216-494: Was adopted for official use in Modern Greek by the Greek state. It uses only a single accent mark, the acute (also known in this context as tonos , i.e. simply "accent"), marking the stressed syllable of polysyllabic words, and occasionally the diaeresis to distinguish diphthongal from digraph readings in pairs of vowel letters, making this monotonic system very similar to the accent mark system used in Spanish . The polytonic system

4284-400: Was also borrowed as a consonant for [w] (Ϝ, digamma ). In addition, the Phoenician letter for the emphatic glottal /ħ/ ( heth ) was borrowed in two different functions by different dialects of Greek: as a letter for /h/ (Η, heta ) by those dialects that had such a sound, and as an additional vowel letter for the long /ɛː/ (Η, eta ) by those dialects that lacked the consonant. Eventually,

4352-517: Was first developed by the scholar Aristophanes of Byzantium ( c.  257 – c.  185/180 BC), who worked at the Musaeum in Alexandria during the third century BC. Aristophanes of Byzantium also was the first to divide poems into lines, rather than writing them like prose, and also introduced a series of signs for textual criticism . In 1982, a new, simplified orthography, known as "monotonic",

4420-403: Was not instantly transformed into the Turkish of today. At first, it was only the script that was changed, and while some households continued to use the Arabic system in private, most of the Turkish population was illiterate at the time, making the switch to the Latin alphabet much easier. Then, loan words were taken out, and new words fitting the growing amount of technology were introduced. Until

4488-540: Was pronounced [ y ] , was called y psilon ("plain y") to distinguish it from the identically pronounced digraph ⟨οι⟩ . Some dialects of the Aegean and Cypriot have retained long consonants and pronounce [ˈɣamːa] and [ˈkapʰa] ; also, ήτα has come to be pronounced [ˈitʰa] in Cypriot. Like Latin and other alphabetic scripts, Greek originally had only a single form of each letter, without

4556-475: Was transformed in three eras: In 1928, following the fall of the Ottoman Empire after World War I and the establishment of the Republic of Turkey , widespread language reforms (a part in the greater framework of Atatürk's Reforms ) instituted by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk saw the replacement of many Persian and Arabic origin loanwords in the language with their Turkish equivalents. One of the main supporters of

4624-399: Was used for all of /o, oː, ɔː/ (corresponding to classical Ο, ΟΥ, Ω ). The letter Η (heta) was used for the consonant /h/ . Some variant local letter forms were also characteristic of Athenian writing, some of which were shared with the neighboring (but otherwise "red") alphabet of Euboia : a form of Λ that resembled a Latin L ( [REDACTED] ) and a form of Σ that resembled

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