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150-423: Imagination is the process of developing theories and ideas based on the functioning of the mind through a creative division. Drawing from actual perceptions, imagination employs intricate conditional processes that engage both semantic and episodic memory to generate new or refined ideas. This part of the mind helps develop better and easier ways to accomplish tasks, whether old or new. A way to train imagination

300-459: A neural network . The defining feature of a semantic network is that its links are almost always directed (that is, they only point in one direction, from a base to a target) and the links come in many different types, each one standing for a particular relationship that can hold between any two nodes. Semantic networks see the most use in models of discourse and logical comprehension , as well as in artificial intelligence . In these models,

450-533: A subconscious and instinctive level. Social perception is the part of perception that allows people to understand the individuals and groups of their social world. Thus, it is an element of social cognition . Speech perception is the process by which spoken language is heard, interpreted and understood. Research in this field seeks to understand how human listeners recognize the sound of speech (or phonetics ) and use such information to understand spoken language. Listeners manage to perceive words across

600-465: A case study of an individual who had impairments for vegetables and animals, while their category for food remained intact. Modality refers to a semantic category of meaning that has to do with necessity and probability expressed through language. In linguistics, certain expressions are said to have modal meanings. A few examples of this include conditionals , auxiliary verbs , adverbs, and nouns. When looking at category-specific semantic deficits, there

750-400: A chicken a meteor?") when the relevant nodes are very far apart in the network. TLC is an instance of a more general class of models known as semantic networks . In a semantic network, each node is to be interpreted as representing a specific concept, word, or feature; each node is a symbol. Semantic networks generally do not employ distributed representations for concepts, as may be found in

900-399: A creator, reflecting his view of imagination as a representational rather than an inventive faculty. Greek philosophers typically distinguished imagination from perception and rational thinking: "For imagination is different from either perceiving or discursive thinking, though it is not found without sensation, or judgement without it" ( De Anima , iii 3). Aristotle viewed imagination as

1050-489: A crucial role in religious practice , especially in visualization practices, which include the recollection of the Buddha 's body, visualization of celestial Buddhas and Buddha-fields (Pure Lands and mandalas ), and devotion to images . In Zhuang Zi 's Taoism , imagination is perceived as a complex mental activity that is championed as a vital form of cognition . It is defended on empathetic grounds but discredited by

1200-494: A deficit of non-biological objects (artifacts). Modality-based theories assume that if there is damage to modality-specific knowledge, then all the categories that fall under it will be damaged. In this case, damage to the visual modality would result in a deficit for all biological objects with no deficits restricted to the more specific categories. For example, there would be no category specific semantic deficits for just "animals" or just "fruits and vegetables". Semantic dementia

1350-637: A faculty that mediates between the senses and intellect . The mental images it manipulates, whether arising from visions, dreams or sensory perception, were thought to be transmitted through the lower parts of the soul, suggesting that these images could be influenced by emotions and primal desires, thereby confusing the judgement of the intellect . In the Middle Ages , the concept of imagination encompassed domains such as religion , literature , artwork , and notably, poetry . Men of science often recognized poets as "imaginative," viewing imagination as

1500-567: A given situation and to envision the potential help and harm that are likely to result from a given action." In one proposed example, Hitler 's assassin Claus von Stauffenberg was said to have decided to dare to overthrow the Nazi regime as a result (among other factors) of a process of "moral imagination." His willingness to kill Hitler was less due to his compassion for his comrades, his family, or friends living at that time, but from thinking about

1650-406: A key element of human cognition . In the 16th and 17th centuries, the connotations of imagination" extended to many areas of early modern civic life. Juan Luis Vives noted the connection between imagination and rhetoric skills. Huarte extended this idea, linking imagination to any disciplines that necessitates "figures, correspondence, harmony, and proportion," such as medical practice and

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1800-414: A larger conceptual idea by using amodal views (also known as amodal perception ). Instead of being representations in modality-specific systems, semantic memory representations had previously been viewed as redescriptions of modality-specific states. Some accounts of category-specific semantic deficits that are amodal remain even though researchers are beginning to find support for theories in which knowledge

1950-470: A length such that some links take longer to traverse than others. All these features of networks have been employed in models of semantic memory. One of the first examples of a network model of semantic memory is the teachable language comprehender (TLC). In this model, each node is a word, representing a concept (like bird ). Within each node is stored a set of properties (like "can fly" or "has wings") as well as links to other nodes (like chicken ). A node

2100-413: A model of perception, in which people put "together the information contained in" a target and a situation to form "perceptions of ourselves and others based on social categories." This model is composed of three states: According to Alan Saks and Gary Johns, there are three components to perception: Stimuli are not necessarily translated into a percept and rarely does a single stimulus translate into

2250-449: A network of brain areas from the frontal cortex to sensory areas, overlapping with the default mode network , and can function much like a weak version of afferent perception. A study that used fMRI while subjects were asked to imagine precise visual figures, to mentally disassemble them, or mentally blend them, showed activity in the occipital , frontoparietal, posterior parietal , precuneus , and dorsolateral prefrontal regions of

2400-468: A pear, knowledge of grasping, chewing, sights, sounds, and tastes used to encode episodic experiences of a pear are recalled through sensorimotor simulation. A grounded simulation approach refers to context-specific re-activations that integrate the important features of episodic experience into a current depiction. Such research has challenged previously utilized amodal views. The brain encodes multiple inputs such as words and pictures to integrate and create

2550-407: A percept. An ambiguous stimulus may sometimes be transduced into one or more percepts, experienced randomly, one at a time, in a process termed multistable perception . The same stimuli, or absence of them, may result in different percepts depending on subject's culture and previous experiences. Ambiguous figures demonstrate that a single stimulus can result in more than one percept. For example,

2700-410: A physical standpoint. Smell is also a very interactive sense as scientists have begun to observe that olfaction comes into contact with the other sense in unexpected ways. It is also the most primal of the senses, as it is known to be the first indicator of safety or danger, therefore being the sense that drives the most basic of human survival skills. As such, it can be a catalyst for human behavior on

2850-562: A quality of genius, distinguishing it from talent by emphasizing that only genius is characterized by creative innovation. Samuel Taylor Coleridge distinguished between imagination expressing realities of an imaginal realm above our mundane personal existence, and "fancy", or fantasy, which represents the creativity of the artistic soul. In Preliminary Discourse to the Encyclopedia of Diderot ( French : Discours Préliminaire des Éditeurs ), d'Alembert referred to imagination as

3000-585: A sentence by comparing the feature sets that represent its subject and predicate concepts. Such computational feature-comparison models include the ones proposed by Meyer (1970), Rips (1975), and Smith et al. (1974). Early work in perceptual and conceptual categorization assumed that categories had critical features and that category membership could be determined by logical rules for the combination of features. More recent theories have accepted that categories may have an ill-defined or "fuzzy" structure and have proposed probabilistic or global similarity models for

3150-453: A similar activation pattern, particularly in the bilateral parahippocampal and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) regions. This suggests that the construction of new ideas relies on processes similar to those in the reconstruction of original ideas from episodic memory . Piaget posited that a person's perceptions depend on their world view. The world view is the result of arranging perceptions into existing imagery by imagination. Piaget cites

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3300-464: A specific context, where the strength of that association determined by how long each item is present in a given context. In SAM, memories consist of a set of associations between items in memory and between items and contexts. The presence of a set of items and/or a context is more likely to evoke some subset of the items in memory. The degree to which items evoke one another—either by virtue of their shared context or their co-occurrence—is an indication of

3450-462: A specific memory of stroking a particular cat. Semantic memory and episodic memory are both types of explicit memory (or declarative memory) , or memory of facts or events that can be consciously recalled and "declared". The counterpart to declarative or explicit memory is implicit memory (also known as nondeclarative memory). The idea of semantic memory was first introduced following a conference in 1972 between Endel Tulving and W. Donaldson on

3600-470: A time) and were asked different questions. In the second phase of the experiment, 60 "old words" seen in stage one and 20 "new words" not shown in stage one were presented to the subjects one at a time. The subjects were given one of two tasks: Results showed that the percentage of correct answers in the semantic task (perceptual identification) did not change with the encoding conditions of appearance, sound, or meaning. The percentage of correct answers for

3750-574: A trait or ability that an individual could possess. Miguel de Cervantes , influenced by Spanish physician and philosopher Juan Huarte de San Juan , crafted the iconic character Don Quixote , who epitomized Huarte 's idea of "wits full of invention ." This type of wit was thought to be typically found in individuals for whom imagination was the most prominent component of their "ingenium" ( Spanish : ingenio ; term meaning close to " intellect "). Early modern philosophers also started to acknowledge imagination as an active, cognitive faculty, although it

3900-494: A wide range of conditions, as the sound of a word can vary widely according to words that surround it and the tempo of the speech, as well as the physical characteristics, accent , tone , and mood of the speaker. Reverberation , signifying the persistence of sound after the sound is produced, can also have a considerable impact on perception. Experiments have shown that people automatically compensate for this effect when hearing speech. The process of perceiving speech begins at

4050-428: A word with a cough-like sound. His subjects restored the missing speech sound perceptually without any difficulty. Moreover, they were not able to accurately identify which phoneme had even been disturbed. Facial perception refers to cognitive processes specialized in handling human faces (including perceiving the identity of an individual) and facial expressions (such as emotional cues.) The somatosensory cortex

4200-453: Is active exploration . The concept of haptic perception is related to the concept of extended physiological proprioception according to which, when using a tool such as a stick, perceptual experience is transparently transferred to the end of the tool. Taste (formally known as gustation ) is the ability to perceive the flavor of substances, including, but not limited to, food . Humans receive tastes through sensory organs concentrated on

4350-421: Is a cognitive process in mental functioning. It is also associated with rational thinking in a way that both imaginative and rational thoughts involve the cognitive process that "underpins thinking about possibilities". However, imagination is not considered to be purely a cognitive activity because it is also linked to the body and place. It involves setting up relationships with materials and people, precluding

4500-495: Is a meditation technique wherein the contents of one's unconscious are translated into images , narratives , or personified as separate entities, thus serving as a bridge between the conscious "ego" and the unconscious. Albert Einstein famously said: "Imagination... is more important than knowledge . Knowledge is limited. Imagination encircles the world." Nikola Tesla described imagination as: "When I get an idea I start at once building it up in my imagination. I change

4650-456: Is a measurable difference between the making of a decision and the feeling of agency. Through methods such as the Libet experiment , a gap of half a second or more can be detected from the time when there are detectable neurological signs of a decision having been made to the time when the subject actually becomes conscious of the decision. There are also experiments in which an illusion of agency

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4800-458: Is a part of the brain that receives and encodes sensory information from receptors of the entire body. Affective touch is a type of sensory information that elicits an emotional reaction and is usually social in nature. Such information is actually coded differently than other sensory information. Though the intensity of affective touch is still encoded in the primary somatosensory cortex, the feeling of pleasantness associated with affective touch

4950-403: Is a part) as "chunks", which consist of a label, a set of defined relationships to other chunks (e.g., "this is a _", or "this has a _"), and any number of chunk-specific properties. Chunks can be mapped as a semantic network, given that each node is a chunk with its unique properties, and each link is the chunk's relationship to another chunk. In ACT, a chunk's activation decreases as a function of

5100-400: Is a semantic memory disorder that causes patients to lose the ability to match words or images to their meanings. It is fairly rare for patients with semantic dementia to develop category specific impairments, though there have been documented cases of it occurring. Typically, a more generalized semantic impairment results from dimmed semantic representations in the brain. Alzheimer's disease

5250-454: Is a subcategory of semantic dementia which can cause similar symptoms. The main difference between the two is that Alzheimer's is categorized by atrophy to both sides of the brain, while semantic dementia is categorized by loss of brain tissue in the front portion of the left temporal lobe. With Alzheimer's disease in particular, interactions with semantic memory produce different patterns in deficits between patients and categories over time which

5400-448: Is above threshold, it is retrieved; otherwise an "error of omission" has occurred and the item has been forgotten. There is also retrieval latency, which varies inversely with the amount by which the activation of the retrieved chunk exceeds the retrieval threshold. This latency is used to measure the response time of the ACT model and compare it to human performance. Some models characterize

5550-439: Is activated more in the anterior cingulate cortex . Increased blood oxygen level-dependent (BOLD) contrast imaging, identified during functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), shows that signals in the anterior cingulate cortex, as well as the prefrontal cortex , are highly correlated with pleasantness scores of affective touch. Inhibitory transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) of the primary somatosensory cortex inhibits

5700-403: Is another kind of modality that looks at word relationships which is much more relevant to these disorders and impairments. For category-specific impairments, there are modality-specific theories that are based on a few general predictions. These theories state that damage to the visual modality will result in a deficit of biological objects, while damage to the functional modality will result in

5850-474: Is by listening to and practicing storytelling ( narrative ), wherein imagination is expressed through stories and writings such as fairy tales , fantasies , and science fiction . When children develop their imagination, they often exercise it through pretend play. They use role-playing to act out what they have imagined, and followingly, they play on by acting as if their make-believe scenarios are actual reality. The English word "imagination" originates from

6000-429: Is called the proximal stimulus . These neural signals are then transmitted to the brain and processed. The resulting mental re-creation of the distal stimulus is the percept . To explain the process of perception, an example could be an ordinary shoe. The shoe itself is the distal stimulus. When light from the shoe enters a person's eye and stimulates the retina, that stimulation is the proximal stimulus. The image of

6150-532: Is caused by distorted representations in the brain. For example, in the initial onset of Alzheimer's disease, patients have mild difficulty with the artifacts category. As the disease progresses, the category specific semantic deficits progress as well, and patients see a more concrete deficit with natural categories. In other words, the deficit tends to be worse with living things as opposed to non-living things. Perception Perception (from Latin perceptio  'gathering, receiving')

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6300-474: Is chosen. The buffer size is defined as r , and not a fixed number, and as items are rehearsed in the buffer the associative strengths grow linearly as a function of the total time inside the buffer. In SAM, when any two items simultaneously occupy a working memory buffer, the strength of their association is incremented; items that co-occur more often are more strongly associated. Items in SAM are also associated with

6450-430: Is directly linked to those nodes of which it is either a subclass or superclass (i.e., bird would be connected to both chicken and animal ). Properties are stored at the highest category level to which they apply; for example, "is yellow" would be stored with canary , "has wings" would be stored with bird (one level up), and "can move" would be stored with animal (another level up). Nodes may also store negations of

6600-434: Is exploited in human technologies such as camouflage and biological mimicry . For example, the wings of European peacock butterflies bear eyespots that birds respond to as though they were the eyes of a dangerous predator. There is also evidence that the brain in some ways operates on a slight "delay" in order to allow nerve impulses from distant parts of the body to be integrated into simultaneous signals. Perception

6750-553: Is further divided into voluntary imagination driven by the lateral prefrontal cortex (LPFC), such as mental rotation , and involuntary imagination (LPFC-independent), such as REM sleep dreaming , daydreaming , hallucinations , and spontaneous insight . In clinical settings, clinicians nowadays increasingly make use of visual imagery for psychological treatment of anxiety disorders , depression , schizophrenia and Parkinson's disease . Ancient Greek philosophers conceived imagination, or "phantasia," as working with "pictures" in

6900-505: Is induced in psychologically normal subjects. In 1999, psychologists Wegner and Wheatley gave subjects instructions to move a mouse around a scene and point to an image about once every thirty seconds. However, a second person—acting as a test subject but actually a confederate—had their hand on the mouse at the same time, and controlled some of the movement. Experimenters were able to arrange for subjects to perceive certain "forced stops" as if they were their own choice. Recognition memory

7050-477: Is interest in how artificial imagination may evolve to create an artificial world comfortable enough for people to use as an escape from reality. A subfield of artificial imagination that receives rising concern is artificial morals. Artificial intelligence faces challenges regarding the responsibility for machines ' mistakes or decisions and the difficulty in creating machines with universally accepted moral rules. Recent research in artificial morals bypasses

7200-419: Is intertwined in experience and dependent on culture . New concepts are learned by applying knowledge learned from things in the past. Semantic memory is distinct from episodic memory —the memory of experiences and specific events that occur in one's life that can be recreated at any given point. For instance, semantic memory might contain information about what a cat is, whereas episodic memory might contain

7350-501: Is needed to associate the feeling with a specific source. Sexual stimulation is any stimulus (including bodily contact) that leads to, enhances, and maintains sexual arousal , possibly even leading to orgasm . Distinct from the general sense of touch , sexual stimulation is strongly tied to hormonal activity and chemical triggers in the body. Although sexual arousal may arise without physical stimulation , achieving orgasm usually requires physical sexual stimulation (stimulation of

7500-450: Is not necessarily uni-directional. Higher-level language processes connected with morphology , syntax , and/or semantics may also interact with basic speech perception processes to aid in recognition of speech sounds. It may be the case that it is not necessary (maybe not even possible) for a listener to recognize phonemes before recognizing higher units, such as words. In an experiment, professor Richard M. Warren replaced one phoneme of

7650-518: Is not only the passive receipt of these signals , but it is also shaped by the recipient's learning , memory , expectation , and attention . Sensory input is a process that transforms this low-level information to higher-level information (e.g., extracts shapes for object recognition ). The following process connects a person's concepts and expectations (or knowledge ) with restorative and selective mechanisms, such as attention , that influence perception. Perception depends on complex functions of

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7800-429: Is one of the oldest fields in psychology. The oldest quantitative laws in psychology are Weber's law , which states that the smallest noticeable difference in stimulus intensity is proportional to the intensity of the reference; and Fechner's law , which quantifies the relationship between the intensity of the physical stimulus and its perceptual counterpart (e.g., testing how much darker a computer screen can get before

7950-412: Is reflected through their co-occurrence in a local context. WAS was developed by analyzing a database of free association norms, and is where "words that have similar associative structures are placed in similar regions of space". The adaptive control of thought (ACT) (and later ACT-R (Adaptive Control of Thought-Rational) ) theory of cognition represents declarative memory (of which semantic memory

8100-475: Is selectively impaired while other categories remain undamaged. This condition can result in brain damage that is widespread, patchy, or localized. Research suggests that the temporal lobe, more specifically the structural description system, might be responsible for category specific impairments of semantic memory disorders. Theories on category-specific semantic deficits tend to fall into two different groups based on their underlying principles. Theories based on

8250-403: Is sometimes divided into two functions by neuroscientists: familiarity and recollection . A strong sense of familiarity can occur without any recollection, for example in cases of deja vu . The temporal lobe (specifically the perirhinal cortex ) responds differently to stimuli that feel novel compared to stimuli that feel familiar. Firing rates in the perirhinal cortex are connected with

8400-508: Is stored by the same brain systems involved in episodic memory , that is, the medial temporal lobes , including the hippocampal formation . In this system, the hippocampal formation "encodes" memories, or makes it possible for memories to form at all, and the neocortex stores memories after the initial encoding process is completed. Recently, new evidence has been presented in support of a more precise interpretation of this hypothesis. The hippocampal formation includes, among other structures:

8550-404: Is stored in semantic memory is the "gist" of experience, an abstract structure that applies to a wide variety of experiential objects and delineates categorical and functional relationships between such objects. There are numerous sub-theories related to semantic memory that have developed since Tulving initially posited his argument on the differences between semantic and episodic memory; an example

8700-402: Is strongly influenced by smell. The process of perception begins with an object in the real world, known as the distal stimulus or distal object . By means of light, sound, or another physical process, the object stimulates the body's sensory organs. These sensory organs transform the input energy into neural activity—a process called transduction . This raw pattern of neural activity

8850-436: Is the belief in hierarchies of semantic memory, in which different information one has learned with specific levels of related knowledge is associated. According to this theory, brains are able to associate specific information with other disparate ideas despite not having unique memories that correspond to when that knowledge was stored in the first place. This theory of hierarchies has also been applied to episodic memory, as in

9000-522: Is the number of items in memory; each cell of the matrix corresponds to the strength of the association between the row item and the column item. Learning of associations is generally believed to be a Hebbian process, where whenever two items in memory are simultaneously active, the association between them grows stronger, and the more likely either item is to activate the other. See below for specific operationalizations of associative models. A standard model of memory that employs association in this manner

9150-472: Is the organization, identification, and interpretation of sensory information in order to represent and understand the presented information or environment. All perception involves signals that go through the nervous system , which in turn result from physical or chemical stimulation of the sensory system . Vision involves light striking the retina of the eye ; smell is mediated by odor molecules ; and hearing involves pressure waves . Perception

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9300-572: Is the probability that context i {\displaystyle i} is active, given that item t {\displaystyle t} has occurred (this is obtained simply by dividing the raw frequency, M t , d {\displaystyle \mathbf {M} _{t,d}} by the total of the item vector, ∑ i = 0 D M t , i {\displaystyle \sum _{i=0}^{D}\mathbf {M} _{t,i}} ). The Hyperspace Analogue to Language (HAL) model considers context only as

9450-401: Is the process of absorbing molecules through olfactory organs , which are absorbed by humans through the nose . These molecules diffuse through a thick layer of mucus ; come into contact with one of thousands of cilia that are projected from sensory neurons; and are then absorbed into a receptor (one of 347 or so). It is this process that causes humans to understand the concept of smell from

9600-456: Is the search of associative memory (SAM) model. Though SAM was originally designed to model episodic memory, its mechanisms are sufficient to support some semantic memory representations. The model contains a short-term store (STS) and long-term store (LTS), where STS is a briefly activated subset of the information in the LTS. The STS has limited capacity and affects the retrieval process by limiting

9750-641: Is the sum of all knowledge one has obtained—vocabulary, understanding of math, or all the facts one knows. In his book titled Episodic and Semantic Memory , Tulving adopted the term semantic from linguists to refer to a system of memory for "words and verbal symbols, their meanings and referents, the relations between them, and the rules, formulas, or algorithms for influencing them". The use of semantic memory differs from episodic memory: semantic memory refers to general facts and meanings one shares with others, while episodic memory refers to unique and concrete personal experiences. Tulving's proposal of this distinction

9900-423: Is tied to modality-specific brain regions. The concept that semantic representations are grounded across modality-specific brain regions can be supported by episodic and semantic memory appearing to function in different yet mutually dependent ways. The distinction between semantic and episodic memory has become a part of the broader scientific discourse. For example, researchers speculate that semantic memory captures

10050-474: The Romantics to transform the philosophical understanding of it into an authentic creative force, associated with genius , inventive activity, and freedom . In the work of Hegel , imagination, though not given as much importance as by his predecessors, served as a starting point for the defense of Hegelian phenomenology . Hegel distinguished between a phenomenological account of imagination, which focuses on

10200-464: The Rubin vase can be interpreted either as a vase or as two faces. The percept can bind sensations from multiple senses into a whole. A picture of a talking person on a television screen, for example, is bound to the sound of speech from speakers to form a percept of a talking person. In many ways, vision is the primary human sense. Light is taken in through each eye and focused in a way which sorts it on

10350-406: The memoria concept dealt with memories that did not reference experiences having an autobiographic index. Semantic memory reflects the knowledge of the world, and the term general knowledge is often used. It holds generic information that is more than likely acquired across various contexts and is used across different situations. According to Madigan in his book titled Memory , semantic memory

10500-451: The nervous system , but subjectively seems mostly effortless because this processing happens outside conscious awareness . Since the rise of experimental psychology in the 19th century, psychology's understanding of perception has progressed by combining a variety of techniques. Psychophysics quantitatively describes the relationships between the physical qualities of the sensory input and perception. Sensory neuroscience studies

10650-433: The throat and lungs . In the case of visual perception, some people can see the percept shift in their mind's eye . Others, who are not picture thinkers , may not necessarily perceive the 'shape-shifting' as their world changes. This esemplastic nature has been demonstrated by an experiment that showed that ambiguous images have multiple interpretations on the perceptual level. The confusing ambiguity of perception

10800-453: The "Cognitive revolution", "Upper Paleolithic Revolution", and the "Great Leap Forward". Moral imagination usually describes the mental capacity to find answers to ethical questions and dilemmas through the process of imagination and visualization . Different definitions of "moral imagination" can be found in the literature. The philosopher Mark Johnson described it as "[an ability to imaginatively discern various possibilities for acting in

10950-461: The Imagination ( French : L'Imaginaire: Psychologie phénoménologique de l'imagination ), also published under the title The Psychology of the Imagination , a 1940 book by Jean-Paul Sartre . In this book, Sartre propounded his concept of imagination, with imaginary objects being "melanges of past impressions and recent knowledge," and discussed what the existence of imagination shows about

11100-514: The Krause-Finger corpuscles found in erogenous zones of the body.) Other senses enable perception of body balance (vestibular sense ); acceleration , including gravity ; position of body parts (proprioception sense ). They can also enable perception of internal senses (interoception sense ), such as temperature, pain, suffocation , gag reflex , abdominal distension , fullness of rectum and urinary bladder , and sensations felt in

11250-744: The Latin term "imaginatio," which is the standard Latin translation of the Greek term "phantasia." The Latin term also translates to " mental image " or "fancy." The use of the word "imagination" in English can be traced back to the mid-14th century, referring to a faculty of the mind that forms and manipulates images. In modern philosophical understanding, imagination is commonly seen as a faculty for creating mental images and for making non-rational, associative transitions among these images. One view of imagination links it to cognition , suggesting that imagination

11400-472: The acquisition of semantic information as a form of statistical inference from a set of discrete experiences, distributed across a number of contexts . Though these models differ in specifics, they generally employ an (Item × Context) matrix where each cell represents the number of times an item in memory has occurred in a given context. Semantic information is gleaned by performing a statistical analysis of this matrix. Many of these models bear similarity to

11550-464: The algorithms used in search engines , though it is not yet clear whether they really use the same computational mechanisms. One of the more popular models is latent semantic analysis (LSA). In LSA, a T × D matrix is constructed from a text corpus , where T is the number of terms in the corpus and D is the number of documents (here "context" is interpreted as "document" and only words—or word phrases—are considered as items in memory). Each cell in

11700-452: The amount of information that can be sampled and limiting the time the sampled subset is in an active mode. The retrieval process in LTS is cue dependent and probabilistic, meaning that a cue initiates the retrieval process and the selected information from memory is random. The probability of being sampled is dependent on the strength of association between the cue and the item being retrieved, with stronger associations being sampled before one

11850-407: The anomalous word, the human readers generated an event-related electrical potential alteration of their EEG at the left occipital-temporal channel, over the left occipital lobe and temporal lobe. Hearing (or audition ) is the ability to perceive sound by detecting vibrations (i.e., sonic detection). Frequencies capable of being heard by humans are called audio or audible frequencies ,

12000-459: The art of warfare. Additionally, Galileo used the concept of imagination to conduct thought experiments , such as asking readers to imagine the direction a stone released from a sling would fly. By the Age of Enlightenment , philosophical discussions frequently linked the power of imagination with creativity , particularly in aesthetics . William Duff was among the first to identify imagination as

12150-500: The brain enable individuals to see the world around them as stable, even though the sensory information is typically incomplete and rapidly varying. Human and other animal brains are structured in a modular way , with different areas processing different kinds of sensory information. Some of these modules take the form of sensory maps , mapping some aspect of the world across part of the brain's surface. These different modules are interconnected and influence each other. For instance, taste

12300-488: The brain itself, assume that organization is internal. These theories assume that natural selective pressures have caused neural circuits specific to certain domains to be formed, and that these are dedicated to problem-solving and survival. Animals, plants, and tools are all examples of specific circuits that would be formed based on this theory. Category-specific semantic deficits tend to fall into two different categories, each of which can be spared or emphasized depending on

12450-448: The brain proper via the optic nerve. The timing of perception of a visual event, at points along the visual circuit, have been measured. A sudden alteration of light at a spot in the environment first alters photoreceptor cells in the retina , which send a signal to the retina bipolar cell layer which, in turn, can activate a retinal ganglion neuron cell. A retinal ganglion cell is a bridging neuron that connects visual retinal input to

12600-441: The brain, the suprachiasmatic nucleus , is responsible for the circadian rhythm (commonly known as one's "internal clock"), while other cell clusters appear to be capable of shorter-range timekeeping, known as an ultradian rhythm . One or more dopaminergic pathways in the central nervous system appear to have a strong modulatory influence on mental chronometry , particularly interval timing. Sense of agency refers to

12750-458: The brain. Other research suggests that both semantic memory and episodic memory are part of a singular declarative memory system, yet represent different sectors and parts within the greater whole. Different areas within the brain are activated depending on whether semantic or episodic memory is accessed. Category-specific semantic impairments are a neuropsychological occurrence in which an individual ability to identify certain categories of objects

12900-552: The capability of machines or programs to simulate human activities, including creativity , vision, digital art , humour , and satire . The research fields of artificial imagination traditionally include (artificial) visual and aural imagination, which extend to all actions involved in forming ideas , images , and concepts —activities linked to imagination. Practitioners are also exploring topics such as artificial visual memory, modeling and filtering content based on human emotions , and interactive search. Additionally, there

13050-417: The case of work by William Brewer on the concept of autobiographical memory. Networks of various sorts play an integral part in many theories of semantic memory. Generally speaking, a network is composed of a set of nodes connected by links. The nodes may represent concepts, words, perceptual features, or nothing at all. The links may be weighted such that some are stronger than others or, equivalently, have

13200-539: The computationally complex task of separating out sources of interest, identifying them and often estimating their distance and direction. The process of recognizing objects through touch is known as haptic perception . It involves a combination of somatosensory perception of patterns on the skin surface (e.g., edges, curvature, and texture) and proprioception of hand position and conformation. People can rapidly and accurately identify three-dimensional objects by touch. This involves exploratory procedures, such as moving

13350-517: The construction, make improvements and operate the device in my mind. It is absolutely immaterial to me whether I run my turbine in thought or test it in my shop. I even note if it is out of balance. There is no difference whatever, the results are the same. In this way I am able to rapidly develop and perfect a conception without touching anything." The phenomenology of imagination is discussed in The Imaginary: A Phenomenological Psychology of

13500-442: The correlated structure principle, which states that conceptual knowledge organization in the brain is a reflection of how often an object's properties occur, assume that the brain reflects the statistical relation of object properties and how they relate to each other. Theories based on the neural structure principle, which states that the conceptual knowledge organization in the brain is controlled by representational limits imposed by

13650-434: The creative force for Fine Arts . Immanuel Kant , in his Critique of Pure Reason ( German : Kritik der reinen Vernunft ), viewed imagination ( German : Einbildungskraft ) as a faculty of intuition , capable of making "presentations," i.e., sensible representations of objects that are not directly present. Kant distinguished two forms of imagination: productive and reproductive. Productive imagination functions as

13800-421: The damage to the semantic system, one type might be favored over the other. In many cases, there is a point where one domain is better than the other (such as the representation of living and nonliving things over feature and conceptual relationships or vice versa). Different diseases and disorders can affect the biological workings of semantic memory. A variety of studies have been done in an attempt to determine

13950-794: The effects on varying aspects of semantic memory. For example, Lambon, Lowe, & Rogers studied the different effects semantic dementia and herpes simplex virus encephalitis have on semantic memory. They found that semantic dementia has a more generalized semantic impairment. Additionally, deficits in semantic memory as a result of herpes simplex virus encephalitis tend to have more category-specific impairments. Other disorders that affect semantic memory, such as Alzheimer's disease , has been observed clinically as errors in naming, recognizing, or describing objects. Whereas researchers have attributed such impairment to degradation of semantic knowledge. Various neural imaging and research points to semantic memory and episodic memory resulting from distinct areas in

14100-451: The episodic task increased from the appearance condition (.50), to the sound condition (.63), to the meaning condition (.86). The effect was also greater for the "yes" encoding words than the "no" encoding words, which suggested a strong distinction of performance of episodic and semantic tasks, supporting Tulving's hypothesis. Semantic memory's contents are not tied to any particular instance of experience, as in episodic memory. Instead, what

14250-528: The example of a child saying that the moon is following her when she walks around the village at night. Like this, perceptions are integrated into the world view so that they make sense. Imagination is needed to make sense of perceptions. The neocortex and thalamus are crucial in controlling the brain's imagination, as well as other functions such as consciousness and abstract thought . Imagination involves many different brain functions, including emotions , memory , and thoughts . Visual imagery involves

14400-432: The faculty of imagination. Instead, Ficino posited that imagination could be the vehicle through which divine intervention transmits insights in the form of images , which ultimately facilitates the creation of art . Nevertheless, the groundwork laid by humanists made it easier for later thinkers to develop the connection between imagination and creativity . Early modern philosophers began to consider imagination as

14550-405: The familiarity effect and the typicality effect. Its biggest advantage is that it clearly explains priming : information from memory is more likely to be retrieved if related information (the "prime") has been presented a short time before. There are still a number of memory phenomena for which TLC has no account, including why people are able to respond quickly to obviously false questions (like "is

14700-404: The fingers over the outer surface of the object or holding the entire object in the hand. Haptic perception relies on the forces experienced during touch. Professor Gibson defined the haptic system as "the sensibility of the individual to the world adjacent to his body by use of his body." Gibson and others emphasized the close link between body movement and haptic perception, where the latter

14850-434: The hippocampus itself, the entorhinal cortex , and the perirhinal cortex . These latter two make up the parahippocampal cortices. Amnesiacs with damage to the hippocampus but some spared parahippocampal cortex were able to demonstrate some degree of intact semantic memory despite a total loss of episodic memory, which strongly suggests that information encoding leading to semantic memory does not have its physiological basis in

15000-447: The hippocampus. Other researchers believe the hippocampus is only involved in episodic memory and spatial cognition , which raises the question of where semantic memory may be located. Some believe semantic memory lives in the temporal cortex , while others believe that it is widely distributed across all brain areas. The hippocampal areas associate semantic memory with declarative memory. The left inferior prefrontal cortex and

15150-403: The individual's specific deficit. The first category consists of animate objects, with animals being the most common deficit. The second category consists of inanimate objects with two subcategories: fruits and vegetables (biological inanimate objects), and artifacts being the most common deficits. The type of deficit does not indicate a lack of conceptual knowledge associated with that category, as

15300-489: The invention of novel concepts or expressions. For example, it could fuse images of "gold" and "mountain" to produce the idea of a "golden mountain." In medieval artistic works, imagination served the role of combining images of perceivable things to portray legendary, mysterious, or extraordinary creatures. This can be seen in the depiction of a Mongolian in the Grandes Chroniques de France (1241), as well as in

15450-523: The items' semantic relatedness . In an updated version of SAM, pre-existing semantic associations are accounted for using a semantic matrix . During the experiment, semantic associations remain fixed showing the assumption that semantic associations are not significantly impacted by the episodic experience of one experiment. The two measures used to measure semantic relatedness in this model are latent semantic analysis (LSA) and word association spaces (WAS). The LSA method states that similarity between words

15600-430: The left posterior temporal areas are other areas involved in semantic memory use. Temporal lobe damage affecting the lateral and medial cortexes have been related to semantic impairments. Damage to different areas of the brain affect semantic memory differently. Neuroimaging evidence suggests that left hippocampal areas show an increase in activity during semantic memory tasks. During semantic retrieval, two regions in

15750-423: The level of the sound within the auditory signal and the process of audition . The initial auditory signal is compared with visual information—primarily lip movement—to extract acoustic cues and phonetic information. It is possible other sensory modalities are integrated at this stage as well. This speech information can then be used for higher-level language processes, such as word recognition . Speech perception

15900-437: The lived experience and consciousness , and a scientific, speculative account, which seeks to understand the nature and function of imagination in a systematic and theoretical manner. Between 1913 and 1916, Carl Jung developed the concept of " active imagination " and introduced it into psychotherapy. For Jung , active imagination often includes working with dreams and the creative self via imagination or fantasy . It

16050-470: The living things category despite the fact that musical instruments fall in the non-biological/inanimate category. However, there are also cases of biological impairment where musical instrument performance is at a normal level. Similarly, food has been shown to be impaired in those with biological category impairments. The category of food specifically can present some irregularities though because it can be natural, but it can also be highly processed, such as in

16200-562: The matrix is then transformed according to the equation: M t , d ′ = ln ⁡ ( 1 + M t , d ) − ∑ i = 0 D P ( i | t ) ln ⁡ P ( i | t ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {M} _{t,d}'={\frac {\ln {(1+\mathbf {M} _{t,d})}}{-\sum _{i=0}^{D}P(i|t)\ln {P(i|t)}}}} where P ( i | t ) {\displaystyle P(i|t)}

16350-468: The mental faculty that specifically permitted poetry writing. This association, they suggested, lies in the capacity of imagination for image-making and image-forming, which results in a sense of "visualizing" with "the inner eye." An epitome of this concept is Chaucer 's idea of the " mind's eye " in The Man of Law's Tale from The Canterbury Tales (ca. 1390). He described a man who, although blind,

16500-420: The nature of human consciousness . Based on Sartre's work, subsequent thinkers extended this idea into the realm of sociology, proposing ideas such as imaginary and the ontology of imagination. Imagination has been, and continues to be a well-acknowledged concept in many cultures, particularly within religious contexts, as an image -forming faculty of the mind . In Buddhist aesthetics, imagination plays

16650-400: The neural mechanisms underlying perception. Perceptual systems can also be studied computationally , in terms of the information they process. Perceptual issues in philosophy include the extent to which sensory qualities such as sound , smell or color exist in objective reality rather than in the mind of the perceiver. Although people traditionally viewed the senses as passive receptors,

16800-491: The nodes correspond to words or word stems and the links represent syntactic relations between them. Feature models view semantic categories as being composed of relatively unstructured sets of features. The semantic feature-comparison model describes memory as being composed of feature lists for different concepts. According to this view, the relations between categories would not be directly retrieved, and would be indirectly computed instead. For example, subjects might verify

16950-540: The notion that imagination is confined to the mind. The psychological view of imagination relates this concept to a cognate term, "mental imagery," which denotes the process of reviving in the mind recollections of objects previously given in sense perception . Since this use of the term conflicts with that of ordinary language , some psychologists prefer to describe this process as "imaging" or "imagery" or to speak of it as "reproductive" as opposed to "productive" or "constructive" imagination. Constructive imagination

17100-474: The number of links between those nodes. The original version of TLC did not put weights on the links between nodes. This version performed comparably to humans in many tasks, but failed to predict that people would respond faster to questions regarding more typical category instances than those involving less typical instances. Allan Collins and Quillian later updated TLC to include weighted connections to account for this effect, which allowed it to explain both

17250-411: The original source of the presentation of an object, thus preceding experience ; while reproductive imagination generates presentations derived from past experiences , recalling empirical intuitions it previously had. Kant 's treatise linked imagination to cognition , perception , aesthetic judgement, artistic creation, and morality . The Kantian idea prepared the way for Fichte , Schelling and

17400-459: The perception of affective touch intensity, but not affective touch pleasantness. Therefore, the S1 is not directly involved in processing socially affective touch pleasantness, but still plays a role in discriminating touch location and intensity. Multi-modal perception refers to concurrent stimulation in more than one sensory modality and the effect such has on the perception of events and objects in

17550-550: The portrayal of angels , demons , hell , and the apocalypse in Christian religious paintings. The Renaissance saw the revival of classical texts and the celebration for men's dignity, yet scholars of the time did not significantly contribute to the conceptual understanding of "imagination." Marsilio Ficino , for example, did not regard artistic creations such as painting , sculpture and poetry as privileged forms of human creativity , nor did he attribute creativity to

17700-491: The potential problems of later generations and people he did not know. In other words, through a process of moral imagination he developed empathy for "abstract" people (for example, Germans of later generations, people who were not yet alive). As a subcomponent of artificial general intelligence , artificial imagination generates, simulates, and facilitates real or possible fiction models to create predictions , inventions , or conscious experiences. The term also refers to

17850-468: The properties of their superordinate nodes (i.e., "NOT-can fly" would be stored with "penguin"). Processing in TLC is a form of spreading activation . When a node becomes active, that activation spreads to other nodes via the links between them. In that case, the time to answer the question "Is a chicken a bird?" is a function of how far the activation between the nodes for chicken and bird must spread, or

18000-453: The range of which is typically considered to be between 20  Hz and 20,000 Hz. Frequencies higher than audio are referred to as ultrasonic , while frequencies below audio are referred to as infrasonic . The auditory system includes the outer ears , which collect and filter sound waves; the middle ear , which transforms the sound pressure ( impedance matching ); and the inner ear , which produces neural signals in response to

18150-427: The rational intellect as only a presentation and fantasy . Memory and mental imagery are two mental activities involved in the process of imagination, each influencing the other. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) technology shows that remembering and imagining activate the identical parts of the brain . When compared to the recall of common ideas, the generation of new and old original ideas exhibits

18300-405: The reasoning faculties, providing the intellect with sense data. In this way, it enables the reshaping of images from sense perception (even in the absence of perception , such as in dreams ), performing a filtering function of reality. Although not attributed the capacity for creations, imagination was thought to combine images received from memory or perception in creative ways, allowing for

18450-444: The retina according to direction of origin. A dense surface of photosensitive cells, including rods, cones, and intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells captures information about the intensity, color, and position of incoming light. Some processing of texture and movement occurs within the neurons on the retina before the information is sent to the brain. In total, about 15 differing types of information are then forwarded to

18600-839: The right middle frontal gyrus and the area of the right inferior temporal gyrus similarly show an increase in activity. Damage to areas involved in semantic memory result in various deficits, depending on the area and type of damage. For instance, Lambon Ralph, Lowe, & Rogers (2007) found that category-specific impairments can occur where patients have different knowledge deficits for one semantic category over another, depending on location and type of damage. Category-specific impairments might indicate that knowledge may rely differentially upon sensory and motor properties encoded in separate areas (Farah and McClelland, 1991). Category-specific impairments can involve cortical regions where living and nonliving things are represented and where feature and conceptual relationships are represented. Depending on

18750-451: The role of organization in human memory. Tulving constructed a proposal to distinguish between episodic memory and what he termed semantic memory. He was mainly influenced by the ideas of Reiff and Scheers, who in 1959 made the distinction between two primary forms of memory. One form was titled remembrances , and the other memoria . The remembrance concept dealt with memories that contained experiences of an autobiographic index, whereas

18900-414: The same exploration behavior normally associated with novelty. Recent studies on lesions in the area concluded that rats with a damaged perirhinal cortex were still more interested in exploring when novel objects were present, but seemed unable to tell novel objects from familiar ones—they examined both equally. Thus, other brain regions are involved with noticing unfamiliarity, while the perirhinal cortex

19050-447: The sensation and flavor of food in the mouth. Other factors include smell , which is detected by the olfactory epithelium of the nose; texture , which is detected through a variety of mechanoreceptors , muscle nerves, etc.; and temperature, which is detected by thermoreceptors . All basic tastes are classified as either appetitive or aversive , depending upon whether the things they sense are harmful or beneficial. Smell

19200-470: The sense of mental images . Aristotle , in his work De Anima , identified imagination as a faculty that enables an image to occur within us, a definition associating imagination with a broad range of activities involved in thoughts, dreams , and memories . In Philebus , Plato discusses daydreaming and considers imagination about the future as the work of a painter within the soul. However, Plato portrayed this painter as an illustrator rather than

19350-418: The sense of familiarity in humans and other mammals. In tests, stimulating this area at 10–15 Hz caused animals to treat even novel images as familiar, and stimulation at 30–40 Hz caused novel images to be partially treated as familiar. In particular, stimulation at 30–40 Hz led to animals looking at a familiar image for longer periods, as they would for an unfamiliar one, though it did not lead to

19500-494: The shoe reconstructed by the brain of the person is the percept. Another example could be a ringing telephone. The ringing of the phone is the distal stimulus. The sound stimulating a person's auditory receptors is the proximal stimulus. The brain's interpretation of this as the "ringing of a telephone" is the percept. The different kinds of sensation (such as warmth, sound, and taste) are called sensory modalities or stimulus modalities . Psychologist Jerome Bruner developed

19650-415: The sound. By the ascending auditory pathway these are led to the primary auditory cortex within the temporal lobe of the human brain, from where the auditory information then goes to the cerebral cortex for further processing. Sound does not usually come from a single source: in real situations, sounds from multiple sources and directions are superimposed as they arrive at the ears. Hearing involves

19800-401: The stable aspects of our personality while episodes of illness may have a more episodic nature. This study was not created to solely provide evidence for the distinction of semantic and episodic memory stores. However, they did use the experimental dissociation method which provides evidence for Tulving's hypothesis. In the first part, subjects were presented with a total of 60 words (one at

19950-684: The strict definition of morality , using machine learning methods to train machines to imitate human morals instead. However, by considering data about moral decisions from thousands of people, the trained moral model may reflect widely accepted rules. Three philosophers for whom imagination is a central concept are Kendall Walton , John Sallis and Richard Kearney . See in particular: [REDACTED] The dictionary definition of imagination at Wiktionary Semantic memory Semantic memory refers to general world knowledge that humans have accumulated throughout their lives. This general knowledge ( word meanings , concepts , facts, and ideas)

20100-427: The study of illusions and ambiguous images has demonstrated that the brain 's perceptual systems actively and pre-consciously attempt to make sense of their input. There is still active debate about the extent to which perception is an active process of hypothesis testing, analogous to science , or whether realistic sensory information is rich enough to make this process unnecessary. The perceptual systems of

20250-471: The subject's brains. Phylogenetic acquisition of imagination was a gradual process. The simplest form of imagination, REM-sleep dreaming , evolved in mammals with acquisition of REM sleep 140 million years ago. Spontaneous insight improved in primates with acquisition of the lateral prefrontal cortex 70 million years ago. After hominins split from the chimpanzee line 6 million years ago they further improved their imagination. Prefrontal analysis

20400-436: The subjective feeling of having chosen a particular action. Some conditions, such as schizophrenia , can cause a loss of this sense, which may lead a person into delusions, such as feeling like a machine or like an outside source is controlling them. An opposite extreme can also occur, where people experience everything in their environment as though they had decided that it would happen. Even in non- pathological cases, there

20550-436: The time from when the chunk was created, and increases with the number of times the chunk has been retrieved from memory. Chunks can also receive activation from Gaussian noise and from their similarity to other chunks. For example, if chicken is used as a retrieval cue, canary will receive activation by virtue of its similarity to the cue. When retrieving items from memory, ACT looks at the most active chunk in memory; if it

20700-455: The two words, the smaller the amount by which the association is incremented (specifically, Δ = 11 − d {\displaystyle \Delta =11-d} , where d {\displaystyle d} is the distance between the two words in the frame). The cognitive neuroscience of semantic memory is a controversial issue with two dominant views. Many researchers and clinicians believe that semantic memory

20850-602: The upper surface of the tongue , called taste buds or gustatory calyculi . The human tongue has 100 to 150 taste receptor cells on each of its roughly-ten thousand taste buds. Traditionally, there have been four primary tastes: sweetness , bitterness , sourness , and saltiness . The recognition and awareness of umami , which is considered the fifth primary taste, is a relatively recent development in Western cuisine . Other tastes can be mimicked by combining these basic tastes, all of which contribute only partially to

21000-409: The verification of category membership. The set of associations among a collection of items in memory is equivalent to the links between nodes in a network, where each node corresponds to a unique item in memory. Indeed, neural networks and semantic networks may be characterized as associative models of cognition. However, associations are often more clearly represented as an N × N matrix, where N

21150-466: The visual processing centers within the central nervous system. Light-altered neuron activation occurs within about 5–20 milliseconds in a rabbit retinal ganglion, although in a mouse retinal ganglion cell the initial spike takes between 40 and 240 milliseconds before the initial activation. The initial activation can be detected by an action potential spike, a sudden spike in neuron membrane electric voltage. A perceptual visual event measured in humans

21300-530: The visual system used to identify and describe the structure of objects functions independently of an individual's conceptual knowledge base. Most of the time, these two categories are consistent with case-study data. However, there are a few exceptions to the rule. Categories like food, body parts, and musical instruments have been shown to defy the animate/inanimate or biological/non-biological categorical division. In some cases, it has been shown that musical instruments tend to be impaired in patients with damage to

21450-457: The words that immediately surround a given word. HAL computes an NxN matrix, where N is the number of words in its lexicon, using a 10-word reading frame that moves incrementally through a corpus of text. Like SAM, any time two words are simultaneously in the frame, the association between them is increased, that is, the corresponding cell in the NxN matrix is incremented. The bigger the distance between

21600-443: The world. Chronoception refers to how the passage of time is perceived and experienced. Although the sense of time is not associated with a specific sensory system , the work of psychologists and neuroscientists indicates that human brains do have a system governing the perception of time, composed of a highly distributed system involving the cerebral cortex , cerebellum , and basal ganglia . One particular component of

21750-433: Was able to "see" with an "eye of his mind": "That oon of hem was blynd and myghte not see, / But it were with thilke eyen of his mynde / With whiche men seen, after that they ben blynde." Medieval theories of faculty psychology posited imagination as a faculty of the internal senses (alongside memory and common sense ): imagination receives mental images from memory or perception , organizes them, and transmits them to

21900-479: Was acquired 3.3 million years ago when hominins started to manufacture Mode One stone tools . Progress in stone tools culture to Mode Two stone tools by 2 million years ago signifies remarkable improvement of prefrontal analysis. The most advanced mechanism of imagination, prefrontal synthesis , was likely acquired by humans around 70,000 years ago and resulted in behavioral modernity. This leap toward modern imagination has been characterized by paleoanthropologists as

22050-418: Was mediated through conceptual, meaning-based associations". Recent research has focused on the idea that when people access a word's meaning, sensorimotor information that is used to perceive and act on the concrete object the word suggests is automatically activated. In the theory of grounded cognition, the meaning of a particular word is grounded in the sensorimotor systems. For example, when one thinks of

22200-468: Was principally seen as a mediator between sense perception ( Latin : sensus ) and pure understanding ( Latin : intellectio pura ). René Descartes , in Meditations on First Philosophy (1641), interpreted imagination as a faculty actively focusing on bodies (corporeal entities) while being passively dependent on stimuli from different senses. In the writing of Thomas Hobbes , imagination became

22350-456: Was the presentation to individuals of an anomalous word. If these individuals are shown a sentence, presented as a sequence of single words on a computer screen, with a puzzling word out of place in the sequence, the perception of the puzzling word can register on an electroencephalogram (EEG). In an experiment, human readers wore an elastic cap with 64 embedded electrodes distributed over their scalp surface. Within 230 milliseconds of encountering

22500-628: Was widely accepted, primarily because it allowed the separate conceptualization of world knowledge. Tulving discusses conceptions of episodic and semantic memory in his book titled Précis of Elements of Episodic Memory , in which he states that several factors differentiate between episodic memory and semantic memory in ways that include In 2022, researchers Felipe De Brigard, Sharda Umanath, and Muireann Irish argued that Tulving conceptualized semantic memory to be different from episodic memory in that "episodic memories were viewed as supported via spatiotemporal relations while information in semantic memory

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