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75-606: It is regarded as one of the masterpieces of Persian architecture in the Islamic era. The Royal Mosque is registered, along with the Naghsh-e Jahan Square , as a UNESCO World Heritage Site . Its construction began in 1611. The mosque is depicted on the reverse of the Iranian 20,000 rials banknote. It was found damaged in 2022. In 1598, when Shah Abbas decided to move the capital of his Persian empire from

150-683: A continuity that, although temporarily distracted by internal political conflicts or foreign invasion, nonetheless has achieved an unmistakable style. Arthur Pope , a 20th-century scholar of Persian architecture, described it in these terms: "there are no trivial buildings; even garden pavilions have nobility and dignity, and the humblest caravanserais generally have charm. In expressiveness and communicativity, most Persian buildings are lucid, even eloquent. The combination of intensity and simplicity of form provides immediacy, while ornament and, often, subtle proportions reward sustained observation." According to scholars Nader Ardalan and Laleh Bakhtiar ,

225-484: A distant glimpse of what contributions Persians made to the art of building. The imposing Sassanid castle built at Derbent , Dagestan (now a part of Russia) is one of the most extant and living examples of splendid Sassanid Iranian architecture. Since 2003, the Sassanid castle has been listed on Russia's UNESCO World Heritage list. According to Mohammad Karim Pirnia, the ancient architecture of Iran can be divided into

300-574: A more sophisticated form of the pointed arch , is first attested during the 9th century in Abbasid monuments at Samarra in Iraq, such as the Qasr al-Ashiq palace. It became widely used in later Iranian architecture. Samarra also saw the appearance of new decorative styles, which rendered the earlier vegetal motifs of Sasanian and Byzantine traditions into more abstract and stylized forms, as exemplified by

375-691: A number of ornate brick towers and minarets which have survived as stand-alone structures. Their exact functions are unclear. They include the Tower of Mas'ud III near Ghazna (early 12th century) and the Minaret of Jam built by the Ghurids (late 12th century), also in present-day Afghanistan. As the Great Seljuks declined in the 12th century, various other dynasties (often also of Turkic origin) formed smaller states and empires. In Iran and Central Asia,

450-417: A picture of its classical architecture. The Achaemenids built on a grand scale. The artists and materials they used were brought in from practically all territories of what was then the largest state in the world. Pasargadae set the standard: its city was laid out in an extensive park with bridges, gardens, colonnaded palaces and open column pavilions. Pasargadae along with Susa and Persepolis expressed

525-833: A square base. Around the same time, between the late 10th century and the early 13th century, the Turkic Qarakhanids ruled in Transoxiana and executed many impressive constructions in Bukhara and Samarkand (present-day Uzbekistan ). Among the known Qarakhanid monuments are the great congregational mosque in Bukhara, of which only the Kalyan Minaret (c. 1127) survives, the nearby Minaret of Vabkent (1141), and several Qarakhanid mausoleums with monumental façades, such as those in Uzgen (present-day Kyrgyzstan ) from

600-539: A variety of traditions and experience. Without sudden innovations, and despite the repeated trauma of invasions and cultural shocks, it developed a recognizable style distinct from other regions of the Muslim world. Its virtues are "a marked feeling for form and scale; structural inventiveness, especially in vault and dome construction; a genius for decoration with a freedom and success not rivaled in any other architecture". Traditional Persian architecture has maintained

675-655: A wall of carved stucco in the Mausoleum of Pir-i Bakran in Linjan (near Isfahan), and a mihrab added in 1310 to the Jameh Mosque of Isfahan. The latter is one of the masterpieces of Islamic sculptural art from this era, featuring multiple layers of deeply-carved vegetal motifs, along with a carved inscription. Various mosques were built or expanded during this period, usually following the four-iwan plan for congregational mosques (e.g. at Varamin and Kirman ), except in

750-535: A way to foster trade and assert Seljuk authority in the countryside. They typically consisted of a building with a fortified exterior appearance, monumental entrance portal, and interior courtyard surrounded by various halls, including iwans. Some notable examples, only partly preserved, are the caravanserais of Ribat-i Malik (c. 1068–1080) and Ribat-i Sharaf (12th century) in Transoxiana and Khorasan, respectively. The Seljuks also continued to build "tower tombs", an Iranian building type from earlier periods, such as

825-434: A winter mosque clamped at either side of it. The architect of the mosque is Ali Akbar Isfahani . His name appears in an inscription in the mosque above the doorway of the entrance iwan complex. The inscription also mentions that the supervisor of the construction as Muhibb 'Ali Beg Lala who was also a major donor to the mosque. Another architect Badi al-zaman-i Tuni may have been involved in its early design. Because of

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900-530: Is also evidence of multi-domed mosques, though most mosques were modified or rebuilt in later eras. The Jameh Mosque of Na'in , one of the oldest surviving congregational mosques in Iran, contains some of the best-preserved features from this period, including decorative brickwork, Kufic inscriptions, and rich stucco decoration featuring vine scrolls and acanthus leaves that draw from the earlier styles of Samarra. Another important architectural trend to arise in

975-408: Is recognized by UNESCO as being one of the cradles of civilization . Each of the periods of Elamites , Achaemenids , Parthians and Sassanids were creators of great architecture that, over the ages, spread far and wide far to other cultures. Although Iran has suffered its share of destruction, including Alexander The Great 's decision to burn Persepolis , there are sufficient remains to form

1050-573: Is the Soltaniyeh Mausoleum built for Sultan Uljaytu ( r.  1304–1317 ), a massive dome supported on a multi-level octagonal structure with internal and external galleries. Only the domed building remains today, missing much of its original turquoise tile decoration, but it was once the centerpiece of a larger religious complex including a mosque, a hospital , and living areas. Smaller tombs and shrines in honour of local Sufis were also built or renovated by Ilkhanid patrons, such as

1125-520: Is the Tarikhaneh Mosque in Damghan . Though the chronology of its construction is not well-documented, its overall form and style may date to the 9th century, or possibly earlier, given its close similarities with Sassanid architecture. It has a courtyard surrounded by a portico and a hypostyle prayer hall where the central aisle leading to the mihrab (a niche in the wall symbolizing

1200-523: Is the architecture of Iran and parts of the rest of West Asia , the Caucasus and Central Asia . Its history dates back to at least 5,000 BC with characteristic examples distributed over a vast area from Turkey and Iraq to Uzbekistan and Tajikistan , and from the Caucasus to Zanzibar . Persian buildings vary greatly in scale and function, from vernacular architecture to monumental complexes. In addition to historic gates, palaces, and mosques,

1275-680: The banna'i technique was used to create geometric patterns and Kufic inscriptions at relatively low cost, while more expensive tile mosaic continued to be used for floral patterns. Tiles were preferred on the outside, while interior walls could be covered with carved or painted plaster instead. Among the most important Timurid innovations was the more sophisticated and fluid arrangement of geometric vaulting. Large vaults were divided by intersecting ribs into smaller vaults which could then be further subdivided or filled with muqarnas and other types of decoration. Muqarnas itself also became even more complex by using smaller individual cells to create

1350-455: The qibla ) is slightly wider than the other aisles. It originally had no minaret, but a tall cylindrical tower was added to it in 1026. This minaret is now the oldest one still standing in Iran. In secular architecture, the remains of various palaces and residences from this period have also been studied, such as those around Merv (present-day Turkmenistan ). They shared many features with earlier Sasanian and Sogdian architecture. Among

1425-533: The Ghurids , built monuments in a very similar style. A general tradition of architecture was thus shared across most of the eastern Islamic world (Iran, Central Asia, and parts of the northern Indian subcontinent ) throughout the Seljuk period and its decline, from the 11th to 13th centuries. This period is also regarded as a "classical" age of Central Asian architecture. The most important religious monument from

1500-651: The Khwarazm-Shahs , formerly vassals of the Seljuks and Qara Khitai , took advantage of this to expand their power and form the Khwarazmian Empire, occupying much of the region and conquering the Ghurids in the early 13th century, only to fall soon after to the Mongol invasions. The site of the former Khwarazmian capital, Kunya-Urgench (in present-day Turkmenistan), has preserved several monuments from

1575-582: The Muzaffarids and the Jalayirids , also sponsored new constructions. Ilkhanid architecture elaborated earlier Iranian traditions. In particular, greater attention was given to interior spaces and how to organize them. Rooms were made taller, while transverse vaulting was employed and walls were opened with arches, thus allowing more light and air inside. Muqarnas , which was previously confined to covering limited transitional elements like squinches,

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1650-639: The Ottomans , and at the same time gained more control over the Persian Gulf , which had recently become an important trading route for the Dutch and British East India Companies . The chief architect of this task of urban planning was Shaykh Bahai (Baha' ad-Din al-`Amili), who focused the programme on two key features of Shah Abbas's master plan: the Chahar Bagh avenue, flanked at either side by all

1725-626: The Safavids . The distinct feature of Persian domes, which separates them from those domes created in the Christian world or the Ottoman and Mughal empires , was the colorful tiles, with which they covered the exterior of their domes, as they would on the interior. These domes soon numbered dozens in Isfahan, and the distinct, blue-colored shape would dominate the skyline of the city. Reflecting

1800-585: The Samanids , with other dynasties arising in Central Asia soon after. It is around this period that many of the distinctive features of subsequent Iranian and Central Asian architecture first emerged, including the use of baked brick for both construction and decoration, the use of glazed tile for surface decoration, and the development of muqarnas (three-dimensional geometric vaulting) from squinches . Hypostyle mosques continued to be built and there

1875-639: The Seleucid (310–140 BCE), Parthian (247 BCE – 224 CE), and Sassanid (224–651 CE) eras, reaching its apex of development in the Sassanid period. Examples of this style are Ghal'eh Dokhtar , the royal compounds at Nysa , Anahita Temple , Khorheh , Hatra , the Ctesiphon vault of Kasra , Bishapur , and the Palace of Ardashir in Ardeshir Khwarreh (Firouzabad). The Islamic era began with

1950-477: The Timurids (1370–1506). This period saw the construction of some of the largest and most ambitious Iranian monuments of the Islamic world. The Ilkhanids were initially traditional nomadic Mongols, but at the end of the 13th century, Ghazan Khan ( r.  1295–1304 ) converted to Islam and aided a cultural and economic resurgence in which urban Iranian culture was of primary importance. Ilkhanid vassals, like

2025-618: The Toghrul Tower built in Rayy (south of present-day Tehran ) in 1139. More innovative, however, was the introduction of mausoleums with a square or polygonal floor plan, which later became a common form of monumental tombs. Early examples of this are the two Kharraqan Mausoleums (1068 and 1093) near Qazvin (northern Iran), which have octagonal forms, and the large Mausoleum of Sanjar (c. 1152) in Merv (present-day Turkmenistan), which has

2100-445: The history of Iran . The most striking are a marked feeling for scale and a discerning use of simple and massive forms. The consistency of decorative preferences, the high-arched portal set within a recess , columns with bracket capitals, and recurrent types of plan and elevation can also be mentioned. Through the ages these elements have recurred in completely different types of buildings, constructed for various programs and under

2175-683: The 10th to 11th centuries is the development of mausolea , which took on monumental forms for the first time. One type of mausoleum was the tomb tower, such as the Gunbad-i-Qabus (circa 1006–7), while the other main type was the domed square, such as the Tomb of the Samanids in Bukhara (before 943). Turkic peoples began moving west across Central Asia and towards the Middle East from

2250-534: The 8th and 9th centuries, the power and unity of the Abbasid Caliphate allowed architectural features and innovations from its heartlands to spread quickly to other areas of the Islamic world under its influence, including Iran. Features from the Umayyad period, such as vaulting , carved stucco , and painted wall decoration, were continued and elaborated in the Abbasid period. The four-centred arch ,

2325-666: The 8th century onward, eventually converting to Islam and becoming major forces in the region. The most significant of these were the Seljuk Turks, who formed the Great Seljuk Empire in the 11th century, conquering all of Iran and other extensive territories in Central Asia and the Middle East. While the apogee of the Great Seljuks was short-lived, it represents a major benchmark in the history of Islamic art and architecture in Iran and Central Asia, inaugurating an expansion of patronage and of artistic forms. Much of

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2400-599: The 9th century. Attached to the mosque was a minaret (tower for the muezzin to issue the call to prayer ), the base of which remains, constituting the oldest remnants of a minaret in the eastern Islamic world. The Jameh Mosque of Isfahan , one of the major Islamic monuments in Iran, was originally founded towards 771, but it was rebuilt and expanded in 840–841. It too had a courtyard surrounded by hypostyle halls. It continued to undergo further modifications and additions in subsequent centuries. The only major mosque from this early period to preserve some of its original form

2475-631: The Abbasid Caliphate fragmented into regional states in the 9th and 10th centuries that were formally obedient to the caliphs in Baghdad but were de facto independent. In Iran and Central Asia, a number of local and regional dynasties rose to power by the 10th century: Iraq and central Iran were controlled by the Buyid dynasty , northern Iran was ruled by the Bawandids and Ziyarids , and the northeastern regions of Khurasan and Transoxiana were ruled by

2550-764: The Eastern Iranian cities such as Bam and Zaranj . Overall, Mohammad Karim Pirnia categorizes the traditional architecture of the Iranian lands throughout the ages into the six following classes or styles ("sabk") : The pre-Islamic styles draw on 3000 to 4000 years of architectural development from various civilizations of the Iranian plateau. The post- Islamic architecture of Iran in turn, draws ideas from its pre-Islamic predecessor, and has geometrical and repetitive forms, as well as surfaces that are richly decorated with glazed tiles, carved stucco , patterned brickwork, floral motifs , and calligraphy . Iran

2625-502: The Great Seljuk period is the Jameh Mosque of Isfahan, which was expanded and modified by various Seljuk patrons in the late 11th century and early 12th century. Two major and innovative domed chambers were added to it in the late 11th century. Four large iwans were then erected around the courtyard around the early 12th century, giving rise to the four-iwan plan in mosque architecture. The four-iwan plan quickly became popular and

2700-567: The Khwarazmian Empire period (late 12th and early 13th century), including the so-called Mausoleum of Fakhr al-Din Razi (possibly the tomb of Il-Arslan ) and the Mausoleum of Sultan Tekesh . From the 13th century to the early 16th century, Iran and Central Asia came under the control of two major dynasties descended from the Mongol conqueror Genghis Khan , the Ilkhanids (1256–1353) and

2775-541: The Masjed-e Shah has four. Still, in Persian mosques, tall minarets were considered unsuitable for the call to prayer, and they would add an aedicule, known in Persian as a goldast (bouquet) for this particular purpose, which in the Masjed-e Shah stands on top of the west iwan. The mihrab , a large marble tablet ten feet tall and three feet wide on the southwestern wall, indicated the direction of Mecca. Above it

2850-582: The Seljuk architectural heritage was destroyed during the Mongol invasions in the 13th century. Nonetheless, compared to pre-Seljuk Iran, a larger volume of surviving monuments and artifacts from the Seljuk period has allowed scholars to study the arts of this era in greater depth. Several neighbouring dynasties and empires contemporary with the Seljuks, including the Qarakhanids , the Ghaznavids , and

2925-585: The Shah Mosque as a channel through which they could express themselves with their numerous architectural techniques. The four-iwan format , finalized by the Seljuq dynasty , and inherited by the Safavids, firmly established the courtyard facade of such mosques, with the towering gateways at every side, as more important than the actual building itself. The distinct feature of any mosque is the minaret , and

3000-486: The Shah's desire to have the building completed during his lifetime, shortcuts were taken in the construction; for example, the Shah ignored warnings by one of the architects, Abu'l Qāsim, regarding the danger of subsidence in the foundations of the mosque, and he pressed ahead with the construction. The architect proved to be right, as in 1662 the building had to undergo major repairs. Also, many historians have wondered about

3075-401: The Shah's men had placed a gold-encrusted cupboard of allow wood. It held two relics: a Quran , said to have been copied by Imam Reza , and the bloodstained robe of Imam Hussain . Although never displayed, the robe was said to have magical powers; lifted on the end of a pike in the battle field, the belief was that it could rout an enemy. A renaissance in Persian dome building was initiated by

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3150-488: The architectural landmarks in this style are the Teppe Zagheh , near Qazvin . Other extant examples of this style are Chogha Zanbil , Sialk , Shahr-i Sokhta , and Ecbatana . Elamite and proto-Elamite buildings among others, are covered within this stylistic subcategory as well. The "Persian style" (New Persian:شیوه معماری پارسی) is a style of architecture (" sabk ") defined by Mohammad Karim Pirnia when categorizing

3225-528: The authority of 'The King of Kings', the staircases of the latter recording in relief sculpture the vast extent of the imperial frontier. With the emergence of the Parthians and Sassanids new forms appeared. Parthian innovations fully flowered during the Sassanid period with massive barrel-vaulted chambers, solid masonry domes and tall columns. This influence was to remain for years to come. For example,

3300-801: The cities of Khorasan and Transoxiana, including Samarkand, Bukhara, Herat , and Mashhad . Timur's own monuments are distinguished by their size; notably, the Bibi Khanum Mosque and the Gur-i Amir Mausoleum , both in Samarkand, and his imposing but now-ruined Ak-Saray Palace at Shahr-i Sabz . The Gur-i Amir Mausoleum and the Bibi Khanum Mosque are distinguished by their lavish interior and exterior decoration, their imposing portals, and their prominent dome. The domes are supported on tall, cylindrical drums and have

3375-608: The colors at once, then fired the tile. Cheaper and quicker, the new procedure allowed a wider range of colors to be used, creating richer patterns, sweeter to the eye. According to Jean Chardin , it was the low humidity in the air in Persia that made the colors so much more vivid and the contrasts between the different patterns so much stronger than what could be achieved in Europe, where the colors of tiles turned dull and lost its appearance. Still, most contemporary and modern writers regard

3450-430: The covered halls of the building, which were later revetted in tiles of cooler, yellowy-green shades. [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] Persian architecture Iranian architecture or Persian architecture ( Persian : معمارى ایرانی , Me'māri e Irāni )

3525-556: The following periods. The pre-Parsian style ( New Persian :شیوه معماری پیش از پارسی) is a sub-style of architecture (or " zeer-sabk ") when categorizing the history of Persian/Iranian architectural development. This architectural style flourished in the Iranian Plateau until the eighth century BC, during the era of the Median Empire . It is often classified as a subcategory of Parsian architecture. The oldest remains of

3600-620: The formation of Islam under the leadership of Muhammad in early 7th-century Arabia . The Arab-Muslim conquest of Persia began soon afterwards and ended with the region coming under the control of the Rashidun Caliphs , followed by the Umayyad Caliphs after 661. Early Islamic architecture was heavily influenced by Byzantine architecture and Sasanian architecture . Umayyad architecture (661–750) drew on elements of these traditions, mixing them together and adapting them to

3675-474: The guiding formative motif of Iranian architecture has been its cosmic symbolism "by which man is brought into communication and participation with the powers of heaven". This theme has not only given unity and continuity to the architecture of Persia, but has been a primary source of its emotional character as well. Available building materials dictate major forms in traditional Iranian architecture. Heavy clays , readily available at various places throughout

3750-689: The history of Persian/Iranian architectural development. Although the Median and Achaemenid architecture fall under this classification, the pre-Achaemenid architecture is also studied as a sub-class of this category. This style of architecture flourished from eighth century BCE from the time of the Median Empire, through the Achaemenid empire, to the arrival of Alexander the Great in the third century BCE This architectural style includes designs from

3825-426: The inside they had central courtyards or a central domed hall flanked by vaulted halls. Some had four iwans flanking a central courtyard. The Sasanian tradition of building caravanserais along trade routes also continued, with the remains of one such structure in southern Turkmenistan attesting to the presence of a central courtyard surrounded by arcaded galleries with domed roofs. After its initial apogee of power,

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3900-542: The larger three-dimensional geometric plan. Visual balance could be achieved by alternating one type or pattern of decoration with another between the different subdivisions of the vault. By combining these vaulting techniques with a cruciform plan and by breaking the solid mass of supporting walls with open arches and windows, a strict division between dome, squinch, and wall was dissolved and an endless diversity of elaborate interior spaces could be created. The most significant preserved Timurid monuments are found in and around

3975-544: The light of the Sun, these domes appeared like glittering turquoise gem and could be seen from miles away by travelers following the Silk Road through Persia. Reaching 53 meters in height, the dome of the Masjed-e Shah would become the tallest in the city when it was finished in 1629. It was built as a double-shelled dome, with 14 meters spanning between the two layers, and resting on an octagonal dome chamber. The Masjed-e Shah

4050-405: The mosque displays the finest tile decoration in the building. It is entirely executed in tile mosaic in a full palette of seven colors (dark Persian blue, light Turkish blue, white, black, yellow, green and bisquit). A wide inscription band with religious texts written in white thuluth script on a dark blue ground frames the iwan. The tiles in the Masjed-e Shah are predominantly blue, except in

4125-615: The northwest, where cold winters discouraged the presence of an open courtyard, as at the Jameh Mosque of Ardabil (now ruined). Another hallmark of the Ilkhanid period is the introduction of monumental mosque portals topped by twin minarets, as seen at the Jameh Mosque of Yazd . Caravanserais were built again, although the Khan al-Mirjan in Baghdad is the only surviving example. The most impressive monument to survive from this period

4200-473: The northwestern city of Qazvin to the central city of Isfahan, he initiated what would become one of the greatest programmes in Persian history; the complete remaking of this ancient city. By choosing the central city of Isfahan, fertilized by the Zāyandeh River ("The life-giving river "), lying as an oasis of intense cultivation in the midst of a vast area of arid landscape, he both distanced his capital from any future assaults by Iran's neighboring arch rival,

4275-503: The patronage of a long succession of rulers . The columned porch , or talar , seen in the rock-cut tombs near Persepolis , reappear in Sassanid temples, and in late Islamic times it was used as the portico of a palace or mosque, and adapted even to the architecture of roadside tea-houses. Similarly, the dome on four arches, so characteristic of Sassanid times, is a still to be found in many cemeteries and Imamzadehs across Iran today. The notion of earthly towers reaching up toward

4350-406: The peculiar orientation of The Royal square (The Maidān). Unlike most buildings of importance, this square did not lie in alignment with Mecca , so that when entering the entrance-portal of the mosque, one makes, almost without realising it, the half-right turn, which enables the main court within to face Mecca. Donald Wilber gives the most plausible explanation to this; the vision of Shaykh Bahai

4425-464: The plateau, have encouraged the development of the most primitive of all building techniques, molded mud , compressed as solidly as possible, and allowed to dry. This technique, used in Iran from ancient times, has never been completely abandoned. The abundance of heavy plastic earth, in conjunction with a tenacious lime mortar , also facilitated the development and use of brick . Certain design elements of Persian architecture have persisted throughout

4500-452: The prominent institutions of the city, such as the residences of all foreign dignitaries, and the Naqsh-e Jahan Square (" Exemplar of the World "). Prior to the Shah's ascent to power, Persia had a decentralized power structure, in which different institutions battled for power, including both the military (the Qizilbash ) and governors of the different provinces making up the empire. Shah Abbas wanted to undermine this political structure, and

4575-436: The rapid growth of cities such as the capital Tehran has brought about a wave of demolition and new construction. According to American historian and archaeologist Arthur Pope , the supreme Iranian art, in the proper meaning of the word, has always been its architecture. The supremacy of architecture applies to both pre- and post-Islamic periods. Iranian architecture displays great variety, both structural and aesthetic, from

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4650-442: The recreation of Isfahan, as a Grand capital of Persia, was an important step in centralizing the power. The crown jewel in this project was the Masjed i Shah, which would replace the much older Jameh Mosque in conducting the Friday prayers. To achieve this, the Shah Mosque was constructed not only with vision of grandeur, having the largest dome in the city, but Shaykh Bahai also planned the construction of two religious schools and

4725-427: The recurring elements are iwans and domed chambers. Some of the earlier examples up to the 8th century seem to have had halls with wooden pillars and roofs, while those that probably date to the 9th century seem to have favored domes and vaulted ceilings. They also had stucco decoration executed in the styles of Samarra. Residences built in the countryside were enclosed by outer walls with semi-circular towers, while on

4800-403: The requirements of the new Muslim patrons. After the overthrow of the Umayyads in 750 and their replacement by the Abbasid Caliphate , the caliphate's political center shifted further east to the new capital of Baghdad , in present-day Iraq. Partly as a result of this, Abbasid architecture was even more influenced by Sasanian architecture and by its roots in ancient Mesopotamia . During

4875-495: The roundness of the city of Baghdad in the Abbasid era, points to its Persian precedents, such as Firouzabad in Fars . Al-Mansur hired two designers to plan the city's design: Naubakht , a former Persian Zoroastrian who also determined that the date of the foundation of the city should be astrologically significant, and Mashallah ibn Athari , a former Jew from Khorasan . The ruins of Persepolis , Ctesiphon , Sialk , Pasargadae , Firouzabad , and Arg-é Bam give us

4950-427: The second half of the 12th century. Further east, the first major Turkic dynasty was the Ghaznavids , who became independent in the late 10th century and ruled from Ghazna , in present-day Afghanistan. In the second half of the 12th century, the Ghurids replaced them as the major power in the region from northern India to the edge of the Caspian Sea . Among the most remarkable monuments of these two dynasties are

5025-596: The shrine of Bayazid Bastami in the town of Bastam , the aforementioned Mausoleum of Pir-i Bakran, and the aforementioned Tomb of Abd-al-Samad. Also in Bastam, the Ilkhanids built a traditional tower tomb to house the remains of Uljaytu's infant son. Unusually, rather than being an independent structure, the tomb was erected behind the qibla wall of the town's main mosque – a configuration also found in some contemporary Mamluk architecture . The Timurid Empire , created by Timur ( r.  1370–1405 ), oversaw another cultural renaissance. Timurid architecture continued

5100-419: The sky to mingle with the divine towers of heaven lasted into the 19th century, while the interior court and pool, the angled entrance and extensive decoration are ancient, but still common, features of Iranian architecture. A circular city plan was a characteristic of several major Parthian and Sasanian cities, such as Hatra and Gor (Firuzabad). Another city design was based on a square geometry, found in

5175-448: The so-called "beveled" style. This style subsequently spread to other regions, including Iran. Few of the major mosques built during this early Islamic period in Iran have survived in something close to their original form. Remains of a mosque at Susa , probably from the Abbasid period, show that it had a hypostyle prayer hall (i.e. a hall with many columns supporting a roof) and a courtyard. Another mosque excavated at Siraf dates to

5250-402: The tile work of the Masjed-e Shah as inferior in both quality and beauty compared to those covering the Lotfallah Mosque , the latter often referred to by contemporary Persian historians, such as Iskandar Munshi , as the mosque of great purity and beauty . The architects also employed a great deal of marble, which they gathered from a marble quarry in nearby Ardestan . The entrance portal of

5325-427: The tradition of Ilkhanid architecture, building monuments once again on a grand scale and with lavish decoration made to impress, but they also refined previous designs and techniques. Timurid rulers recruited the best craftsmen from their conquered territories or even forced them to move to the Timurid capital. Brick continued to be used as construction material. To cover large brick surfaces with colorful decoration,

5400-431: Was a huge structure, said to contain 18 million bricks and 475,000 tiles, having cost the Shah 60,000 tomans to build. It employed the new haft rangi (seven-colour) style of tile mosaic . In earlier Iranian mosques the tiles had been made of faience mosaic, a slow and expensive process where tiny pieces are cut from monochrome tiles and assembled to create intricate designs. In the haft rangi method, artisans put on all

5475-536: Was applied to other major mosques around this time, including those of Ardestan and Zavareh , as well as in secular architecture. It was probably also used for madrasas , a new type of building introduced around this time, though none of the Seljuk madrasas have been well preserved. Lodging places ( khān , or caravanserai) for travellers and their animals, generally displayed utilitarian rather than ornamental architecture, with rubble masonry, strong fortifications, and minimal comfort. Large caravanserais were built as

5550-432: Was for the mosque to be visible wherever a person was situated in the maydān. Had the axis of the maydān coincided with the axis of Mecca, the dome of the mosque would have been concealed from view by the towering entrance portal leading to it. By creating an angle between them, the two parts of the building, the entrance portal and the dome, are in perfect view for everyone within the square to admire. The Safavids founded

5625-720: Was now used to cover entire domes and vaults for purely decorative effect. The Tomb of 'Abd al-Samad in Natanz (1307–8), for example, is covered inside by an elaborate muqarnas dome that is made from stucco suspended below the pyramidal vault that roofs the building. Brick remained the main construction material, but more color was added through the use of tile mosaic, which involved cutting monochrome tiles of different colors into pieces that were then fitted together to form larger patterns, especially geometric motifs and floral motifs. Carved stucco decoration also continued. Some exceptional examples in Iran come from this period, including

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