66-528: The Intelligence Bureau ( IB ) ( Hindi : आसूचना ब्यूरो; IAST : āsūcanā byūro) is India's internal security and counterintelligence agency under the Ministry of Home Affairs . It was founded in 1887 as the Central Special Branch. The IB is often regarded as the oldest extant intelligence organisation in the world. Until 1968, it handled both domestic and foreign intelligence after which
132-601: A Sanskritised register of the Hindustani language , which itself is based primarily on the Khariboli dialect of Delhi and neighbouring areas. It is an official language in nine states and three union territories and an additional official language in three other states. Hindi is also one of the 22 scheduled languages of the Republic of India . Apart from the script and formal vocabulary, standard Hindi
198-585: A core vocabulary of native Prakrit and Sanskrit-derived words. However, Hindi is written in the Devanagari script and contains more direct tatsama Sanskrit -derived words than Urdu, whereas Urdu is written in the Perso-Arabic script and uses more Arabic and Persian loanwords compared to Hindi. Because of this, as well as the fact that the two registers share an identical grammar, a consensus of linguists consider them to be two standardised forms of
264-605: A larger amount are still used in Urdu poetry written in the Devanagari script. Many words borrowed from Persian in turn were loanwords from Arabic (e.g. muśkil "difficult", havā "air", x(a)yāl "thought", kitāb "book"). Hindi also makes extensive use of loan translation ( calqueing ) and occasionally phono-semantic matching of English . Many Hindustani words were derived from Portuguese due to interaction with colonists and missionaries: Indian Political Intelligence The Indian Political Intelligence Office ( IPIO )
330-483: A literary language in the 19th century. Earliest examples could be found as Prēm Sāgar by Lallu Lal , Batiyāl Pachīsī of Sadal Misra, and Rānī Kētakī Kī Kahānī of Insha Allah Khan which were published in Devanagari script during the early 19th century. John Gilchrist was principally known for his study of the Hindustani language , which was adopted as the lingua franca of northern India (including what
396-536: A medium of expression for all the elements of the composite culture of India and to secure its enrichment by assimilating without interfering with its genius, the forms, style and expressions used in Hindustani and in the other languages of India specified in the Eighth Schedule, and by drawing, wherever necessary or desirable, for its vocabulary, primarily on Sanskrit and secondarily on other languages. It
462-410: A part of the process of Sanskritisation , new words are coined using Sanskrit components to be used as replacements for supposedly foreign vocabulary. Usually these neologisms are calques of English words already adopted into spoken Hindi. Some terms such as dūrbhāṣ "telephone", literally "far-speech" and dūrdarśan "television", literally "far-sight" have even gained some currency in formal Hindi in
528-704: A police officer from the Punjab cadre, was appointed as its first head. McCracken was the assistant to the General Superintendent, Colonel P. D. Henderson . The Provincial Special Branches were attached to the offices of either the Inspector General of Police or the chief secretary of the respective provinces. In 1904, based on the recommendations of the Indian Police Commission (1902 – 1903) chaired by Andrew Fraser ,
594-552: A second language. A Hindi proponent, Indian-born Paramananda Jha , was elected vice-president of Nepal. He took his oath of office in Hindi in July 2008. This created protests in the streets for 5 days; students burnt his effigies, and there was a general strike in 22 districts. Nepal Supreme Court ruled in 2009 that his oath in Hindi was invalid and he was kept "inactive" as vice-president. An "angry" Jha said, "I cannot be compelled to take
660-584: A standardised form of Hindustani separate from Urdu took form. In 1881, Bihar accepted Hindi as its sole official language, replacing Urdu, and thus became the first state of India to adopt Hindi. However, in 2014, Urdu was accorded second official language status in the state. After independence, the Government of India instituted the following conventions: On 14 September 1949, the Constituent Assembly of India adopted Hindi written in
726-591: A task entrusted to the military intelligence organisations before independence in 1947. All spheres of human activity within India and in the neighbourhood are allocated to the charter of duties of the Intelligence Bureau. The IB was also tasked with other external intelligence responsibilities from 1951 until 1968 when the Research and Analysis Wing was formed. Understanding of the shadowy workings of
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#1732776657813792-458: Is mutually intelligible with standard Urdu , another recognised register of Hindustani, as both Hindi and Urdu share a core vocabulary base derived from Prakrit (a descendant of Sanskrit). Hindi is also spoken, to a lesser extent, in other parts of India (usually in a simplified or pidginised variety such as Bazaar Hindustani or Haflong Hindi ). Outside India, several other languages are recognised officially as "Hindi" but do not refer to
858-657: Is a standard register of the Hindustani language; additionally, Indian media are widely viewed in Pakistan. A sizeable population in Afghanistan , especially in Kabul , can also speak and understand Hindi-Urdu due to the popularity and influence of Bollywood films, songs and actors in the region. Hindi is also spoken by a large population of Madheshis (people having roots in north-India but having migrated to Nepal over hundreds of years) of Nepal . Apart from this, Hindi
924-409: Is an official language of Gujarat , along with Gujarati . It acts as an additional official language of West Bengal in blocks and sub-divisions with more than 10% of the population speaking Hindi. Similarly, Hindi is accorded the status of official language in the following Union Territories : Delhi , Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu . Although there
990-550: Is based on the language that was spoken in the Ganges-Yamuna Doab ( Delhi , Meerut and Saharanpur ) called Khariboli ; the vernacular of Delhi and the surrounding region came to replace earlier prestige languages such as Awadhi and Braj . Standard Hindi was developed by supplanting foreign loanwords from the Hindustani language and replacing them with Sanskrit words, though Standard Hindi does continue to possess several Persian loanwords. Modern Hindi became
1056-628: Is borrowed from Sanskrit as tatsam borrowings, especially in technical and academic fields. The formal Hindi standard, from which much of the Persian, Arabic and English vocabulary has been replaced by neologisms compounding tatsam words, is called Śuddh Hindi (pure Hindi), and is viewed as a more prestigious dialect over other more colloquial forms of Hindi. Excessive use of tatsam words sometimes creates problems for native speakers. They may have Sanskrit consonant clusters which do not exist in Hindustani, causing difficulties in pronunciation. As
1122-455: Is commonly used to specifically refer the modern literary Hindi language, as opposed to colloquial and regional varieties that are also referred to as Hindi in a wider sense . Like other Indo-Aryan languages, Hindi is a direct descendant of an early form of Vedic Sanskrit , through Shauraseni Prakrit and Śauraseni Apabhraṃśa (from Sanskrit apabhraṃśa "corrupt"), which emerged in the 7th century CE. The sound changes that characterised
1188-642: Is mirror to a hand with bangles, What is Persian to a literate. The emergence of Modern Standard Hindi in the 19th century went along with the Sanskritisation of its vocabulary, leading to a marginalisation of Persian vocabulary in Hindi, which continued after Partition when the Indian government co-opted the policy of Sanskritisation. However, many Persian words (e.g. bas "enough", khud "self") have remained entrenched in Standard Hindi, and
1254-609: Is no specification of a national language in the constitution, it is a widely held belief that Hindi is the national language of India. This is often a source of friction and contentious debate. In 2010, the Gujarat High Court clarified that Hindi is not the national language of India because the constitution does not mention it as such. Outside Asia , the Awadhi language (an Eastern Hindi dialect) with influence from Bhojpuri , Bihari languages , Fijian and English
1320-526: Is now present-day Pakistan ) by British colonists and indigenous people. He compiled and authored An English-Hindustani Dictionary , A Grammar of the Hindoostanee Language , The Oriental Linguist , and many more. His lexicon of Hindustani was published in the Perso-Arabic script , Nāgarī script , and in Roman transliteration .In the late 19th century, a movement to further develop Hindi as
1386-740: Is spoken by the large Indian diaspora which hails from, or has its origin from the "Hindi Belt" of India. A substantially large North Indian diaspora lives in countries like the United States of America , the United Kingdom, the United Arab Emirates , Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, Suriname, South Africa, Fiji and Mauritius , where it is natively spoken at home and among their own Hindustani-speaking communities. Outside India, Hindi speakers are 8 million in Nepal ; 863,077 in
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#17327766578131452-531: Is spoken in Fiji. It is an official language in Fiji as per the 1997 Constitution of Fiji, where it referred to it as "Hindustani"; however, in the 2013 Constitution of Fiji , it is simply called " Fiji Hindi " as the official language. It is spoken by 380,000 people in Fiji. Hindi is spoken as a first language by about 77,569 people in Nepal according to the 2011 Nepal census , and further by 1,225,950 people as
1518-879: Is the dominant form of Hindi online. In an analysis of YouTube comments, Palakodety et al., identified that 52% of comments were in Romanised Hindi, 46% in English, and 1% in Devanagari Hindi. Traditionally, Hindi words are divided into five principal categories according to their etymology: Hindi has naturally inherited a large portion of its vocabulary from Shauraseni Prakrit , in the form of tadbhava words. This process usually involves compensatory lengthening of vowels preceding consonant clusters in Prakrit, e.g. Sanskrit tīkṣṇa > Prakrit tikkha > Hindi tīkhā . Much of Standard Hindi's vocabulary
1584-570: Is written in the Devanagari script, an abugida . Devanagari consists of 11 vowels and 33 consonants and is written from left to right. Unlike Sanskrit, Devanagari is not entirely phonetic for Hindi, especially failing to mark schwa deletion in spoken Standard Hindi. The Government of India uses Hunterian transliteration as its official system of writing Hindi in the Latin script. Various other systems also exist, such as IAST , ITRANS and ISO 15919 . Romanised Hindi , also called Hinglish ,
1650-492: The 2011 census of India . The term Hindī originally was used to refer to inhabitants of the Indo-Gangetic Plain . It was borrowed from Classical Persian هندی Hindī ( Iranian Persian pronunciation: Hendi ), meaning ' of or belonging to Hind (India) ' (hence, ' Indian ' ). Another name Hindavī ( हिन्दवी ) or Hinduī ( हिन्दुई ) (from Persian هندوی 'of or belonging to
1716-672: The Central Criminal Intelligence Department —also known as the Department of Criminal Intelligence (DCI)—was established. This reorganization led to the abolition of the Thuggee and Dacoity Department and the merger of the Central Special Branch into the DCI. Additionally, Criminal Investigation Departments (CID) were created in the provinces. Initially, Provincial Special Branches were incorporated into
1782-586: The Hindi Belt ), as well as an official language of the Government of India, along with English. In Northeast India a pidgin known as Haflong Hindi has developed as a lingua franca for the people living in Haflong , Assam who speak other languages natively. In Arunachal Pradesh , Hindi emerged as a lingua franca among locals who speak over 50 dialects natively. Hindi is quite easy to understand for many Pakistanis , who speak Urdu, which, like Hindi,
1848-811: The Indian Police Service (IPS) or the Indian Revenue Service (IRS) and the military. However, the Director of Intelligence Bureau (DIB) has always been an IPS officer. In addition to domestic intelligence responsibilities, the IB is particularly tasked with intelligence collection in border areas, following the 1951 recommendations of the Himmat Singh Ji Committee (also known as the North and North-East Border Committee),
1914-841: The Indo-China War of 1962 led to the creation of the Research and Analysis Wing (R&AW) in 1968, dedicated to external intelligence. The IB is a constitutional body under the Schedule VII of the Constitution of India . The Union List within Schedule VII includes "Central Bureau of Intelligence". IB is also listed in the Schedule of the Intelligence Organisations (Restriction of Rights) Act, 1985, which recognizes organisations "established by
1980-520: The Indo-Pakistani war of 1965 , it was bifurcated in 1968 and entrusted with the task of internal intelligence only. The external intelligence branch was handed to the newly created the Research and Analysis Wing . The IB operated a counterintelligence programme to prevent the CIA from gathering information about the preparations and activities related to the Indian nuclear weapons project, before
2046-518: The Pokhran-II nuclear tests. The IB had mixed success in counterterrorism. It was reported in 2008 that the IB had been successful in busting terror modules. It alerted the police before the Hyderabad blasts and gave repeated warnings of a possible attack on Mumbai through the sea before the 2008 Mumbai attacks . On the whole, however, the IB came in for some sharp criticism by the media after
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2112-513: The Research and Analysis Wing was formed specifically for foreign intelligence; following that, the IB was primarily assigned the role of domestic intelligence and internal security. Tapan Deka is the current director of the IB , since June 2022. The Intelligence Bureau traces its origin to the Central Special Branch, established on 23 December 1887 by the British government in India to gather intelligence on political unrest, particularly after
2178-855: The United States of America ; 450,170 in Mauritius; 380,000 in Fiji; 250,292 in South Africa; 150,000 in Suriname; 100,000 in Uganda ; 45,800 in the United Kingdom; 20,000 in New Zealand ; 20,000 in Germany ; 26,000 in Trinidad and Tobago; 3,000 in Singapore . Linguistically , Hindi and Urdu are two registers of the same language and are mutually intelligible. Both Hindi and Urdu share
2244-437: The "collection of intelligence on political, social and religious movements". He recommended the establishment of "special agencies" at both central and provincial headquarters, assigning local governments the responsibility of intelligence collection and obliging them to report relevant findings to the central government. The Provincial Special Branches, under local government control, were tasked with sharing intelligence with
2310-668: The 1920s, the IB's role was reduced to primarily relaying intelligence to the Indian Political Intelligence (IPI) office in London, which was responsible for analyzing intelligence, and acted as a liaison between the IPI and the Government of India. Following the implementation of provincial autonomy under the Government of India Act 1935 , the IB began assigning officers designated as Central Intelligence Officers to
2376-631: The 50th birthday of Beohar Rajendra Simha on 14 September 1949, the efforts came to fruition following the adoption of Hindi as the official language. Now, it is celebrated as Hindi Day . Part XVII of the Indian Constitution deals with the official language of the Indian Union. Under Article 343, the official languages of the Union have been prescribed, which includes Hindi in Devanagari script and English: (1) The official language of
2442-601: The CIDs, headed by a Deputy Inspector General (DIG), but they were later separated as their functions evolved. Section 40(2) of the Government of India Act 1919 stated that "the Intelligence Bureau should keep the Government posted with matters relating to the security of the Indian Empire." Reflecting this directive, the DCI was renamed the Intelligence Bureau in 1920, a year before the Act formally came into force in 1921. In
2508-480: The Central Special Branch. Dufferin modelled the agency after the Third Section of Imperial Russia . To reduce expenses, the agency shared the manpower and facilities of the existing Thuggee and Dacoity Department , headquartered at Shimla . The General Superintendent of the Department was entrusted with the supervision of the Central Special Branch. His proposed annual budget was ₹46,800. Donald McCracken,
2574-644: The Devanagari script as the official language of the Republic of India replacing the previous usage of Hindustani in the Perso-Arabic script in the British Indian Empire . To this end, several stalwarts rallied and lobbied pan-India in favour of Hindi, most notably Beohar Rajendra Simha along with Hazari Prasad Dwivedi , Kaka Kalelkar , Maithili Sharan Gupt and Seth Govind Das who even debated in Parliament on this issue. As such, on
2640-690: The Director. At the state level, IB officers are part of the State Special Bureau and report to a Central Intelligence Officer, who acts as the intelligence advisor to the Governor . The IB maintains field units and headquarters, usually under the control of Joint or Deputy Directors. Shrouded in secrecy, the IB is used to garner intelligence from within India and also execute counter-intelligence and counter-terrorism tasks. The Bureau comprises employees from law enforcement agencies, mostly from
2706-402: The Hindi heartland. Persian borrowings reached a heyday in the 17th century, pervading all aspects of life. Even grammatical constructs, namely the izafat , were assimilated into Hindi. The status of Persian language then and thus its influence, is also visible in Hindi proverbs : हाथ कंगन को आरसी क्या, पढ़े लिखे को फ़ारसी क्या। Hāth kaṅgan ko ārsī kyā, Paṛhe likhe ko Fārsī kyā. What
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2772-580: The Hindu/Indian people') was often used in the past, for example by Amir Khusrau in his poetry. The terms Hindi and Hindu trace back to Old Persian which derived these names from the Sanskrit name Sindhu ( सिन्धु ), referring to the Indus River . The Greek cognates of the same terms are Indus (for the river) and India (for the land of the river). The term Modern Standard Hindi
2838-433: The IB is largely speculative. Many times even members' family members are unaware of their whereabouts. One known task of the IB is to clear licences to amateur radio enthusiasts. The IB also passes intelligence between other Indian intelligence agencies and the police. The bureau also grants the necessary security clearances to Indian diplomats and judges before they take the oath. On rare occasions, IB officers interact with
2904-715: The IPIO, headed by John Wallinger , had been established in mainland Europe. In scale, this office was larger than those operated by the British War Office , approaching the size of the European intelligence network of the Secret Service Bureau . This network already had agents in Switzerland against possible German intrigues. After the outbreak of the war, Wallinger, under the cover of an officer of
2970-406: The Official Languages Act of 1963, which provided for the continued use of English indefinitely for all official purposes, although the constitutional directive for the Union Government to encourage the spread of Hindi was retained and has strongly influenced its policies. Article 344 (2b) stipulates that the official language commission shall be constituted every ten years to recommend steps for
3036-442: The President may, during the said period, by order authorise the use of the Hindi language in addition to the English language and of the Devanagari form of numerals in addition to the international form of Indian numerals for any of the official purposes of the Union. Article 351 of the Indian constitution states: It shall be the duty of the Union to promote the spread of the Hindi language, to develop it so that it may serve as
3102-412: The Sony TV Series Yudh , starring Amitabh Bachchan . Hindi language Modern Standard Hindi ( आधुनिक मानक हिन्दी , Ādhunik Mānak Hindī ), commonly referred to as Hindi , is the standardised variety of the Hindustani language written in Devanagari script . It is the official language of India alongside English and the lingua franca of North India . Hindi is considered
3168-430: The Standard Hindi language described here and instead descend from other nearby languages, such as Awadhi and Bhojpuri . Such languages include Fiji Hindi , which has an official status in Fiji , and Caribbean Hindustani , which is spoken in Suriname , Trinidad and Tobago , and Guyana . Hindi is the fourth most-spoken first language in the world, after Mandarin, Spanish and English. If counted together with
3234-717: The Steering Committee. The director has the authority to brief the Prime Minister when necessary. The organization operates at both state and national levels. The most of the intelligence collection is handled by Grade II officers, including Security Assistants (constables), Junior Intelligence Officers (head constables), Assistant Central Intelligence Officers (sub-inspectors), Deputy Central Intelligence Officers (inspectors), and Joint Central Intelligence Officers (superintendents of police). Higher-level coordination and management are carried out by Group A gazetted officers, such as Assistant Director, Deputy Director, Joint Director, Additional Director, Special Director, or Special Secretary, and
3300-460: The Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script. The form of numerals to be used for the official purposes of the Union shall be the international form of Indian numerals. (2) Notwithstanding anything in clause (1), for a period of fifteen years from the commencement of this Constitution, the English language shall continue to be used for all the official purposes of the Union for which it was being used immediately before such commencement: Provided that
3366-439: The central government for purposes of intelligence or counter-intelligence". The IB functions under the Ministry of Home Affairs and is headed by a Director of the Intelligence Bureau . According to the Government of India, IB is a civilian organization without police powers. Though IB operates under the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA), in practice, the director of the IB is a member of the Joint Intelligence Committee (JIC) and
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#17327766578133432-808: The entire country. Of these, many were engaged in political intelligence . Since 2014, the IB has undergone many reforms and changes. One of the biggest reforms was the cessation of internal political espionage. The agency has also boosted its infrastructure and recruited more agents. It has been successful in stopping the earlier pattern of frequent terror attacks in India. The agency has also been successful in counterintelligence. The Intelligence Bureau has been depicted in films such as Bad Aur Badnam ( Hindi , 1984), Mukhbiir ( Hindi , 2008), Vandae Maatharam ( Tamil , 2010), Kahaani ( Hindi , 2012), Jism 2 ( Hindi , 2012), Iru Mugan ( Tamil , 2016), Spyder ( Tamil , Telugu , 2017), India's Most Wanted ( Hindi , 2019) and IB71 . IB also featured in
3498-462: The formation of the Indian National Congress in 1885. Its creation followed Secret Dispatch No. 11, dated 25 March 1887, in which R. A. Cross , the Secretary of State for India , sanctioned the proposal by Marquess of Dufferin , the Viceroy of India , to create a system for the "collection of secret and political intelligence in India". Dufferin proposed utilizing the police forces in British India and political officers in princely states for
3564-436: The last 125 years, there are no academic studies of any of them – of their use in South Africa, their evolution and current decline. Hindi is adopted as the third official court language in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi . As a result of this status, the Indian workforce in UAE can file their complaints to the labour courts in the country in their own mother-tongue. Hindi is the lingua franca of northern India (which contains
3630-454: The media during a crisis. The IB is also rumoured to intercept and open around 6,000 letters daily. It also has an email spying system similar to the FBI 's Carnivore system. The bureau is authorised to conduct wiretapping without a warrant . The IB was initially India's internal and external intelligence agency. Due to lapses on the part of the Intelligence Bureau to predict the Sino-Indian War of 1962, and later on, intelligence failure in
3696-400: The mutually intelligible Urdu, it is the third most-spoken language in the world, after Mandarin and English. According to reports of Ethnologue (2022, 25th edition) Hindi is the third most-spoken language in the world including first and second language speakers. Hindi is the fastest growing language of India , followed by Kashmiri , Meitei , Gujarati and Bengali according to
3762-410: The oath now in Nepali. I might rather take it in English." Hindi is a protected language in South Africa . According to the Constitution of South Africa , the Pan South African Language Board must promote and ensure respect for Hindi along with other languages. According to a doctoral dissertation by Rajend Mesthrie in 1985, although Hindi and other Indian languages have existed in South Africa for
3828-460: The official language of the imperial court during the reign of Shah Jahan . It is recorded that Emperor Aurangzeb spoke in Hindvi . The Hindustani vernacular became an expression of Indian national unity during the Indian Independence movement , and continues to be spoken as the common language of the people of the northern Indian subcontinent, which is reflected in the Hindustani vocabulary of Bollywood films and songs. Standard Hindi
3894-426: The place of the English borrowings (ṭeli)fon and ṭīvī . Hindi also features significant Persian influence, standardised from spoken Hindustani . Early borrowings, beginning in the mid-12th century, were specific to Islam (e.g. Muhammad , Islām ) and so Persian was simply an intermediary for Arabic. Later, under the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire , Persian became the primary administrative language in
3960-522: The progressive use of Hindi language and impose restrictions on the use of the English language by the union government. In practice, the official language commissions are constantly endeavouring to promote Hindi but not imposing restrictions on English in official use by the union government. At the state level, Hindi is the official language of the following Indian states: Bihar , Chhattisgarh , Haryana , Himachal Pradesh , Jharkhand , Madhya Pradesh , Rajasthan , Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand . Hindi
4026-545: The provinces starting in 1937. The IB, initially also referred to as the Delhi Intelligence Bureau (DIB), was placed under the Home Department and reported directly to the Governor-General of India . After India gained independence in 1947, the IB came under the Ministry of Home Affairs , with T. G. Sanjeevi Pillai becoming its first Indian director . Until 1968, the IB was responsible for both internal and external intelligence. However, shortcomings in its external intelligence, particularly in foreseeing Chinese movements before
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#17327766578134092-417: The relentless wave of terror attacks in 2008. The government came close to sacking top intelligence officials soon after the 26/11 attacks, because of serious lapses that led to the 2008 Mumbai attacks . Heavy politics, under-funding and a shortage of field agents were the chief problems facing the agency. The overall strength of the agency is believed to be around 25,000, with 3500-odd field agents operating in
4158-440: The same language, Hindustani or Hindi-Urdu. Hindi is the most commonly used scheduled language in India and is one of the two official languages of the union , the other being English. Urdu is the national language and lingua franca of Pakistan and is one of 22 scheduled languages of India , also having official status in Uttar Pradesh , Jammu and Kashmir , Delhi , Telangana , Andhra Pradesh and Bihar . Hindi
4224-471: The transition from Middle Indo-Aryan to Hindi are: During the period of Delhi Sultanate in medieval India , which covered most of today's north India, eastern Pakistan, southern Nepal and Bangladesh and which resulted in the contact of Hindu and Muslim cultures , the Sanskrit and Prakrit base of Old Hindi became enriched with loanwords from Persian , evolving into the present form of Hindustani. Hindi achieved prominence in India after it became
4290-431: Was an intelligence organisation initially established in England in 1909 in response to the dissemination of anarchist and revolutionary elements of Indian nationalism to different countries in Europe after the liquidation of India House (where it was based between 1905 and 1910) in London in 1909. It formally came to be called the Indian Political Intelligence ( IPI ) from 1921. By the time World War I broke out
4356-399: Was envisioned that Hindi would become the sole working language of the Union Government by 1965 (per directives in Article 344 (2) and Article 351), with state governments being free to function in the language of their own choice. However, widespread resistance to the imposition of Hindi on non-native speakers, especially in South India (such as those in Tamil Nadu ) led to the passage of
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