102-403: The Code de l'indigénat ( French pronunciation: [kɔd də lɛ̃diʒena] "native code"), called régime de l'indigénat or simply indigénat by modern French historians , were diverse and fluctuating sets of laws and regulations characterized by arbitrariness which created in practice an inferior legal status for natives of French colonies from 1881 until 1944–1947. The indigénat
204-460: A French speaker . Based on a difference in use of language, a person may automatically form judgments about another person's wealth , education , social status , character or other traits, which may lead to discrimination. This has led to public debate surrounding localisation theories , likewise with overall diversity prevalence in numerous nations across the West . Linguistic discrimination
306-415: A mixed strategy when playing against players assigned the same color as their own. The experimenters then added a cooperation option to the game, and found that disadvantaged players usually cooperated with each other, while advantaged players usually did not. They state that while the equilibria reached in the original hawk-dove game are predicted by evolutionary game theory , game theory does not explain
408-636: A 1979 consultation on the issue, the United States commission on civil rights defined religious discrimination in relation to the civil rights which are guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment . Whereas religious civil liberties, such as the right to hold or not to hold a religious belief, are essential for Freedom of Religion (in the United States as secured by the First Amendment ), religious discrimination occurs when someone
510-489: A different race or ethnicity . Modern variants of racism are often based in social perceptions of biological differences between peoples. These views can take the form of social actions , practices or beliefs, or political systems in which different races are ranked as inherently superior or inferior to each other, based on presumed shared inheritable traits, abilities, or qualities. It has been official government policy in several countries, such as South Africa during
612-540: A large portion of Europe, was subjected to discrimination under Adolf Hitler and his Nazi party between 1933 and 1945. They were forced to live in ghettos, wear an identifying star of David on their clothes, and sent to concentration and death camps in rural Germany and Poland, where they were to be tortured and killed, all because of their Jewish religion. Many laws (most prominently the Nuremberg Laws of 1935) separated those of Jewish faith as supposedly inferior to
714-545: A lesbian sexual orientation (by means of mentioning an engagement in a rainbow organisation or by mentioning one's partner name) lowers employment opportunities in Cyprus and Greece but overall, it has no negative effect in Sweden and Belgium. In the latter country, even a positive effect of revealing a lesbian sexual orientation is found for women at their fertile ages. Besides these academic studies, in 2009, ILGA published
816-749: A limited vote and participated notably in Muslim electoral colleges for municipal councils and had a minority of seats. However, the Muslim population was often the majority. Muslims were a fifth of the council until 1919, when they became a third. After the First World War , the Law of 4 February 1919 reformed the procedure for full naturalisation. That reform disappointed the Muslims, and only 1204 of them in Algeria naturalised from 1919 to 1930. Lyautey, followed
918-539: A name's fluency is subtle, small and subject to significantly changing norms. The Anti-discrimination laws of most countries allow and make exceptions for discrimination based on nationality and immigration status. The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD) does not prohibit discrimination by nationality, citizenship or naturalization but forbids discrimination "against any particular nationality". Discrimination on
1020-480: A number of basic needs for an individual such as collective purpose, social contact, status, and activity. A person with a disability is often found to be socially isolated and work is one way to reduce his or her isolation. In the United States, the Americans with Disabilities Act mandates the provision of equality of access to both buildings and services and is paralleled by similar acts in other countries, such as
1122-493: A person's name is one of the six things they focus on most. France has made it illegal to view a person's name on a résumé when screening for the initial list of most qualified candidates. Great Britain, Germany, Sweden, and the Netherlands have also experimented with name-blind summary processes. Some apparent discrimination may be explained by other factors such as name frequency. The effects of name discrimination based on
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#17327721964561224-609: A report based on research carried out by Daniel Ottosson at Södertörn University College in Stockholm, Sweden . This research found that of the 80 countries around the world that continue to consider homosexuality illegal, five carry the death penalty for homosexual activity, and two do in some regions of the country. In the report, this is described as "State sponsored homophobia". This happens in Islamic states, or in two cases regions under Islamic authority. On February 5, 2005,
1326-451: A salient social group. This is a comparative definition. An individual need not be actually harmed in order to be discriminated against. He or she just needs to be treated worse than others for some arbitrary reason. If someone decides to donate to help orphan children, but decides to donate less, say, to children of a particular race out of a racist attitude, he or she will be acting in a discriminatory way even if he or she actually benefits
1428-803: A stint in Senegal, ten in Guinea and twelve in Soudan and Mauritania. Workers were supposed to be provided with food if they were working more than 5 km from home, but that was often ignored. In 1930, the Geneva Convention outlawed the corvée , but France substituted a work tax ( Prestation ) by the French West Africa decree of 12 September 1930 in which able-bodied men were assessed a high monetary tax, which they could pay via forced labor. It was, in fact, political processes that doomed
1530-522: A substantial part of the population, the colons elected mayors and councils for self-governing "full exercise" communes ( communes de plein exercice ). In the "mixed" communes, where Muslims were a large majority, government was exercised by officials, most of whom were appointed but some elected. The governments included representatives of the grands chefs (great chieftains) and a French administrator. The indigenous communes ( communes indigènes ), remote areas that were not adequately pacified, remained under
1632-592: A survey for the University of Kent , England, 29% of respondents stated that they had suffered from age discrimination. This is a higher proportion than for gender or racial discrimination. Dominic Abrams , social psychology professor at the university, concluded that ageism is the most pervasive form of prejudice experienced in the UK population. According to UNICEF and Human Rights Watch , caste discrimination affects an estimated 250 million people worldwide and
1734-557: A term for such hatred based upon one's sexual orientation is often called homophobia . Many continue to hold negative feelings towards those with non-heterosexual orientations and will discriminate against people who have them or are thought to have them. People of other uncommon sexual orientations also experience discrimination. One study found its sample of heterosexuals to be more prejudiced against asexual people than against homosexual or bisexual people. Employment discrimination based on sexual orientation varies by country. Revealing
1836-515: A young adult job applicant than an older job applicant. In Europe, Stijn Baert, Jennifer Norga, Yannick Thuy and Marieke Van Hecke, researchers at Ghent University , measured comparable ratios in Belgium. They found that age discrimination is heterogeneous by the activity older candidates undertook during their additional post-educational years. In Belgium, they are only discriminated if they have more years of inactivity or irrelevant employment. In
1938-439: Is a list of French historians limited to those with a biographical entry in either English or French Misplaced Pages . Other major French chroniclers, annalists, philosophers, or other writers are included if they have important historical output. This article includes French historians and other writers from France making important contributions to history, and having an article in either English or French Misplaced Pages . The list
2040-470: Is denied "equal protection under the law, equality of status under the law, equal treatment in the administration of justice, and equality of opportunity and access to employment, education, housing, public services and facilities, and public accommodation because of their exercise of their right to religious freedom". Sexism is a form of discrimination based on a person's sex or gender. It has been linked to stereotypes and gender roles , and may include
2142-457: Is mainly prevalent in parts of Asia (India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal, Japan) and Africa. As of 2011 , there were 200 million Dalits or Scheduled Castes (formerly known as "untouchables") in India. Discrimination against people with disabilities in favor of people who are not is called ableism or disablism . Disability discrimination, which treats non-disabled individuals as
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#17327721964562244-403: Is not the case. The United Nations stance on discrimination includes the statement: "Discriminatory behaviors take many forms, but they all involve some form of exclusion or rejection." The United Nations Human Rights Council and other international bodies work towards helping ending discrimination around the world. Ageism or age discrimination is discrimination and stereotyping based on
2346-402: Is organized chronologically, with sections devoted to time periods. Within a section, authors are listed alphabetically by last name, except for the brief § Middle Ages section, where they are ordered by date of birth. Red links below with a suffixed language code in brackets indicate articles available only at French Misplaced Pages. History only matured as a serious academic profession in
2448-609: The corvée (forced labour for specific projects), Prestation (taxes paid in forced labor), Head Tax (often arbitrary monetary taxes, food and property requisitioning, market taxes), and the Blood Tax (forced conscription to the native Tirailleur units). Many major projects in French West Africa in this period were performed by forced labour, including work on roads and mines and in fields of private companies. Demands for taxes and forced labour varied according to
2550-531: The Bey of Algiers capitulated to France stipulated that France undertook not to infringe the freedom of people or their religion. The term indigène ("native") was already in use in 1830 to describe locals who, whether Jewish or Muslim , were not considered French prior to the royal decree of 24 February 1834. However, they still did not have full citizenship. A royal ordinance of 1845 created three types of administration in Algeria. In areas that Europeans comprised
2652-611: The Equality Act 2010 in the UK. Linguistic discrimination (also called glottophobia, linguicism and languagism) is unfair treatment of people based upon their use of language and the characteristics of their speech, such as their first language , their accent , the perceived size of their vocabulary (whether or not the speaker uses complex and varied words), their modality , and their syntax . For example, an Occitan speaker in France will probably be treated differently from
2754-484: The French Fifth Republic of 1958 resulted in independence for most of the rest of empire in 1959 to 1962. The Comoros Islands (except Mayotte ) and Djibouti gained independence during the 1970s. Those parts of the empire that remained (Mayotte, New Caledonia and French Guiana ) became legally parts of France and only then was the category of French subject ended. French historians This
2856-509: The IRIN issued a reported titled "Iraq: Male homosexuality still a taboo". The article stated, among other things that honor killings by Iraqis against a gay family member are common and given some legal protection. In August 2009, Human Rights Watch published an extensive report detailing torture of men accused of being gay in Iraq , including the blocking of men's anuses with glue and then giving
2958-532: The apartheid era. Discriminatory policies towards ethnic minorities include the race-based discrimination against ethnic Indians and Chinese in Malaysia After the Vietnam War , many Vietnamese refugees moved to Australia and the United States, where they faced discrimination. Regional or geographic discrimination is a form of discrimination that is based on the region in which a person lives or
3060-475: The droit du sol , French citizenship being awarded to anyone born in France, not being applied to Muslims. In 1881, the Code de l'Indigénat formalised de facto discrimination by creating specific penalties for indigènes and by organising the seizure or appropriation of their lands. The Franco-Algerian philosopher Sidi Mohammed Barkat described the legal limbo: "Not really inclusion nor in fact exclusion, but
3162-528: The indigénat system. The Popular Front government in the decrees of 11 March and 20 March 1937 created the first labor regulations on work contracts and the creation of trade unions, but they remained largely unenforced until the late 1940s. The journalism of André Gide and Albert Londres , the political pressure of the French left and groups like the League for Human Rights and Popular Aid put pressure on
Indigénat - Misplaced Pages Continue
3264-484: The originaires with the Loi Blaise Diagne of 29 September 1916. Resistance, while common, was usually indirect. Huge population shifts occurred in France's African colonies, especially when large conscription or forced labour drives were implemented by particularly-zealous officials and when many African slaves were emancipated by the French authorities following French conquest. Whole villages fled during
3366-480: The régime du sabre , direct rule by the military. The first Code de l'indigénat was implemented by the Algerian senatus consulte of 14 July 1865, under Napoleon III , which changed the situation by allowing Algerian Jews and Muslims full citizenship on request. Its first article stipulated: "The indigenous Muslim is French; however, he will continue to be subjected to Muslim law. He may be admitted to serve in
3468-453: The southern or northern regions of the United States. It is often accompanied by discrimination that is based on accent, dialect, or cultural differences. Religious discrimination is valuing or treating people or groups differently because of what they do or do not believe in or because of their feelings towards a given religion . For instance, the Jewish population of Germany, and indeed
3570-528: The " Scramble for Africa ", the government found itself nominal ruler of some 50 million people with only a tiny retinue of French officials. The Berlin Conference specified that territory seized must be ruled actively, or other powers were welcome to seize it. The Indigénat was the method by which France ruled all its territories in Africa, Guiana , New Caledonia and Madagascar without having to extend
3672-485: The "indigenous is French", the Code de l'Indigénat enabled French authorities to subject a large alien population to their rule by legal separation and a practice of indirect institutions to supplement a tiny French governing force. While the Indigénat grew from circumstances of the colonial rule of North Africa, it was in sub-Saharan Africa and Indochina that the code became formalised. As French rule expanded during
3774-408: The "progressive suppression" of the code de l'indigénat but only after the end of the war. The small political representation from the colonies after the war made ending the indigénat as a primary goal even though the men were drawn from the Évolué class of full French citizens. The passage of the loi Lamine Guèye [fr] was the culmination of this process, and repealed the courts and labour laws of
3876-481: The 19th century. Before that, it was exercised as a literary pursuit by amateurs such as Voltaire , Jules Michelet , and François Guizot . The transition to an academic discipline first occurred in Germany under historian Leopold von Ranke who began offering his university seminar in history in 1833. Similar introduction of the discipline into academia in France took place in the 1860s. Historians active in France at
3978-529: The Christian population. Restrictions on the types of occupations that Jewish people could hold were imposed by Christian authorities. Local rulers and church officials closed many professions to religious Jews, pushing them into marginal roles that were considered socially inferior, such as tax and rent collecting and moneylending , occupations that were only tolerated as a " necessary evil ". The number of Jews who were permitted to reside in different places
4080-676: The First World War right through to the economic crisis of the 1930s and reached their high point during the Second World War, but it was decolonisation which saw a real drop in taxes paid without representation. Gradually, the corvée system was reformed because of international criticism and popular resistance. In French West Africa , the corvée had been formalised by the local decree of 25 November 1912. Duration and conditions varied, but as of 1926, all able-bodied men were required to work for no longer than eight days at
4182-610: The French chose to exercise it. It was only in 1924 that chefs du canton were exempted from the Indigénat , and if they showed insubordination or disloyalty, they could still, like all Africans, be imprisoned for as many as ten years for 'political offences' by French officials, subject to a signature of the Minister of Colonies. In Africa, sujets were assigned to two separate court systems. After their creation by Governor-General Ernest Roume and Secretary General Martial Merlin in 1904, most legal matters were processed officially by
Indigénat - Misplaced Pages Continue
4284-509: The French, and harsh conditions for African labourers. Plantations, forestry operations and salt mines in Senegal continued to be operated by forced labour, mandated by the local commandant and provided by official chiefs until the 1940s. Forced agricultural production was common in Sub-Saharan Africa from the 19th century until the Second World War, mandated sometimes by the central French government (rubber until 1920, rice during
4386-483: The Indigénat regime put in place from 1830 clearly appeared to be a favour done to the vanquished Algerians. They were not bound to respect French laws or French jurisdiction. They followed Qur'anic justice served according to Qur'anic custom until the abolishment of the Indigénat regime in 1945. To be admitted to full French citizenship, when that is possible, the Muslim had to renounce Qur'anic law and promise to follow
4488-455: The Indigénat. Legally, the Indigénat was dismantled in three phases. The ordinance of 7 May 1944 suppressed the summary punishment statutes, and offered citizenship to those who met certain criteria and would surrender their rights to native or Muslim courts. The citizenship was labeled à titre personnel : their (even-future) children would still be subject to the Indigénat. The loi Lamine Guèye of 7 April 1946 formally extended citizenship across
4590-599: The Second World War), sometimes for profit (the cotton plantations of Compagnie Française d'Afrique Occidentale and Unilever ), and sometimes on the personal whim of the local commandant, such as one official's attempt to introduce cotton into the Guinean highlands. Unlike the Congo Free State , infamous for its 19th-century forced rubber cultivation by private fiat, the French government administration
4692-533: The United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 5 is also aimed at ending all forms of discrimination on the basis of gender and sex. One's sexual orientation is a "predilection for homosexuality, heterosexuality, or bisexuality". Like most minority groups, homosexuals and bisexuals are vulnerable to prejudice and discrimination from the majority group. They may experience hatred from others because of their sexuality;
4794-447: The administrator-judge chose. They could be appealed to the tribunal criminal , where the administrator-judge was the local Commandant du cercle and was not bound to heed the advice of even his own appointed assistants. Beyond that, there was no functioning appeals process though in theory, the colonies' governor had to sign off on all decisions that imposed punishments greater than those allowed for summary sentences. Historians examining
4896-522: The balance in favor of those who are believed to be current or past victims of discrimination. These attempts have often been met with controversy, and sometimes been called reverse discrimination . The term discriminate appeared in the early 17th century in the English language. It is from the Latin discriminat- 'distinguished between', from the verb discriminare , from discrimen 'distinction', from
4998-461: The basis of nationality is usually included in employment laws (see above section for employment discrimination specifically). It is sometimes referred to as bound together with racial discrimination although it can be separate. It may vary from laws that stop refusals of hiring based on nationality, asking questions regarding origin, to prohibitions of firing, forced retirement, compensation and pay, etc., based on nationality. Discrimination on
5100-590: The basis of nationality may show as a "level of acceptance" in a sport or work team regarding new team members and employees who differ from the nationality of the majority of team members. In the GCC states, in the workplace, preferential treatment is given to full citizens, even though many of them lack experience or motivation to do the job. State benefits are also generally available for citizens only. Westerners might also get paid more than other expatriates. Racial and ethnic discrimination differentiates individuals on
5202-493: The basis of perceived statuses based on ethnic, racial, gender or religious categories. It involves depriving members of one group of opportunities or privileges that are available to members of another group. Discriminatory traditions, policies, ideas, practices and laws exist in many countries and institutions in all parts of the world, including some, where such discrimination is generally decried. In some places, countervailing measures such as quotas have been used to redress
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#17327721964565304-430: The basis of real and perceived racial and ethnic differences and leads to various forms of the ethnic penalty . It can also refer to the belief that groups of humans possess different behavioral traits corresponding to physical appearance and can be divided based on the superiority of one race over another. It may also mean prejudice , discrimination, or antagonism directed against other people because they are of
5406-670: The belief that one sex or gender is intrinsically superior to another. Extreme sexism may foster sexual harassment , rape , and other forms of sexual violence . Gender discrimination may encompass sexism and is discrimination toward people based on their gender identity or their gender or sex differences. Gender discrimination is especially defined in terms of workplace inequality . It may arise from social or cultural customs and norms. Intersex persons experience discrimination due to innate, atypical sex characteristics . Multiple jurisdictions now protect individuals on grounds of intersex status or sex characteristics . South Africa
5508-533: The colonial governor, but that was almost always done after the fact. Corporal punishment was outlawed, but still used regularly. Although these powers were periodically reformed, in practice they became arbitrary and frequently used. More than 1,500 infractions reported officially were punished by the indigénat in Moyen Congo in 1908–1909 alone. Along with the punishments were a set of methods for extracting value from colonial subjects. In Africa, they included
5610-634: The colonial system, but it was the promises made at the Brazzaville Conference of 1944, the crucial role of the colonies for the Free French during the Second World War and the looming Indochina War and the Malagasy Uprising that all made the new Fourth Republic reorient France to decolonization . The declaration at Brazzaville, more revolutionary for its discussion of the issue rather than any formal process, declared
5712-479: The concept only to socially salient groups is arbitrary, as well as raising issues of determining which groups would count as socially salient. The issue of which groups should count has caused many political and social debates. Based on realistic-conflict theory and social-identity theory, Rubin and Hewstone have highlighted a distinction among three types of discrimination: Discrimination, in labeling theory , takes form as mental categorization of minorities and
5814-599: The court records have found that governors were asked for approval after the fact and in all but a minuscule number of cases signed off on whatever their commandants decided. Those Africans who had obtained the status of French citizens ( Évolué ) or those born into the Four Communes of Senegal ( originaires ) were subject to a small French court system, operating under the Code Napoleon as practiced in France. The lack of an adversarial system (in French law,
5916-443: The definition of discrimination should be. Some philosophers have argued that discrimination should only refer to wrongful or disadvantageous treatment in the context of a socially salient group (such as race, gender, sexuality etc.) within a given context. Under this view, failure to limit the concept of discrimination would lead to it being overinclusive; for example, since most murders occur because of some perceived difference between
6018-733: The early- to mid-1970s, a time period that focused on under-representation and action policies intended to remedy the effects of past discrimination in both government and the business world. Article 15 of the Constitution of India prohibits discrimination against any citizen on grounds of caste, religion, sex, race or place of birth etc. Similarly, the Constitution of India guarantees several rights to all citizens irrespective of gender, such as right to equality under Article 14, right to life and personal liberty under Article 21. Indian Penal Code , 1860 (Section 153 A) - Criminalises
6120-554: The emergence of cooperation in the disadvantaged group. Citing earlier psychological work of Matthew Rabin , they hypothesize that a norm of differing entitlements emerges across the two groups, and that this norm could define a "fairness" equilibrium within the disadvantaged group. The psychological impact of discrimination on health refers to the cognitive pathways through which discrimination impacts mental and physical health in members of marginalized , subordinate, and low-status groups (e.g. racial and sexual minorities). Research on
6222-695: The empire, indigènes included. Third, the law of 20 September 1947 eliminated the two-tier court system and mandated equal access to public employment. Applied in fact only very slowly, the abrogation of the code de l'indigénat did not become real during 1962, when most of the colonies had become independent and French law adopted the notion of double jus soli . Thus, any children of colonial parents born in French-ruled territory became French citizens. All others were by then full citizens of their respective nations. Full voting representation and full French legal, labour, and property rights were never offered to
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#17327721964566324-529: The entire sujet class. The Loi Cadre of 1956 extended more rights, including consultative 'legislatures' for the colonies within the French Union . Within three years, this was replaced by the referendum on the French Community in which colonies could vote for independence The First Indochina War resulted in independence for the different regions of French Indochina . The Algerian War and
6426-458: The experimental laboratory", and that neither classical game theory nor neoclassical economics can explain this. In 2002, Varoufakis and Shaun Hargreaves-Heap ran an experiment where volunteers played a computer-mediated, multiround hawk-dove game . At the start of each session, each participant was assigned a color at random, either red or blue. At each round, each player learned the color assigned to his or her opponent, but nothing else about
6528-471: The grounds of someone's age. It is a set of beliefs, norms, and values which used to justify discrimination or subordination based on a person's age. Ageism is most often directed toward elderly people, or adolescents and children. Age discrimination in hiring has been shown to exist in the United States. Joanna Lahey, professor at The Bush School of Government and Public Service at Texas A&M , found that firms are more than 40% more likely to interview
6630-406: The indefinite hanging on for some future inclusion". He argued that the legal limbo allowed the French to treat the colonised as a less-than-human mass , but still subject to a humanising mission. They would become fully human only when they had cast off all the features that the French would use to define them as part of the mass of the indigène . In practical terms, by continuing the fiction that
6732-559: The judge is also the prosecutor) may have worked in France but was hardly trusted by educated Africans. That may explain why French Africans' demand for access (promoted by politician Lamine Guèye ) to both local and French courts was so strong and why so few who managed to meet the requirements of citizenship chose to pursue it but abandoned themselves to French justice. Even originaires were not free from summary law. During 1908, most African voters in Saint-Louis were eliminated from
6834-469: The law of the Republic. There were important differences such as on polygamy, arranged marriage, divorce, and inequality between man and woman in matters. In 1874, a list of infractions punishable by French justice is made on the Indigénat on matters such as an unauthorised meeting or disrespectful act. In 1860s, the Indigénat regime was being debated. Napoléon III dreamed of an Arab Kingdom in Algeria, which
6936-543: The local cercle , and in some areas, forced contract labour continued as a staple of the colonial economy, such as if private enterprises could not attract sufficient workers or for projects of colonial officials. In the interwar period, the demand for forced labour increased massively. Even the most well-intentioned officials often believed in 'forced modernization' (supposing that 'progress' would result only from coercion), and French-created 'chiefs' also enjoyed tremendous coercive power. That resulted in enrichment for chiefs and
7038-433: The majority group. In such cases it is intended to remove discrimination that minority groups may already face. Reverse discrimination can be defined as the unequal treatment of members of the majority groups resulting from preferential policies, as in college admissions or employment, intended to remedy earlier discrimination against minorities. Conceptualizing affirmative action as reverse discrimination became popular in
7140-738: The men laxatives. Although gay marriage has been legal in South Africa since 2006, same-sex unions are often condemned as "un-African". Research conducted in 2009 shows 86% of black lesbians from the Western Cape live in fear of sexual assault. A number of countries, especially those in the Western world , have passed measures to alleviate discrimination against sexual minorities, including laws against anti-gay hate crimes and workplace discrimination. Some have also legalized same-sex marriage or civil unions in order to grant same-sex couples
7242-454: The negotiations with the settlers, noted, "I consider the situation incurable. The French farming settlers have a full Gerry mentality, with the same theories on inferior races worth exploiting without mercy. They have no humanity or intelligence." (Weil Patrick, Qu'est-ce qu'un Français , Paris, Grasset, 2002, p. 241) Some elements of the Indigénat were reformed over time. The formal right of caucasian civilians to exercise summary punishment
7344-431: The opponent. Hargreaves-Heap and Varoufakis found that the players' behavior within a session frequently developed a discriminatory convention, giving a Nash equilibrium where players of one color (the "advantaged" color) consistently played the aggressive "hawk" strategy against players of the other, "disadvantaged" color, who played the acquiescent "dove" strategy against the advantaged color. Players of both colors used
7446-406: The people he discriminates against by donating some money to them. Discrimination also develops into a source of oppression , the action of recognizing someone as 'different' so much that they are treated inhumanly and degraded. This moralized definition of discrimination is distinct from a non-moralized definition - in the former, discrimination is wrong by definition, whereas in the latter, this
7548-418: The perpetrator and the victim, many murders would constitute discrimination if the social salience requirement is not included. Thus this view argues that making the definition of discrimination overinclusive renders it meaningless. Conversely, other philosophers argue that discrimination should simply refer to wrongful disadvantageous treatment regardless of the social salience of the group, arguing that limiting
7650-460: The power of official chiefs. What was deemed customary differed from cercle to cercle , with the Commandant relying upon his native subofficials to interpret and formalize oral traditions of which the French had little knowledge. Civil cases that came to the attention of the French officials were tried by an administrator-judge in a tribunaux du premier degré for which the administrator-judge
7752-519: The region in which a person was born. It differs from national discrimination because it may not be based on national borders or the country in which the victim lives, instead, it is based on prejudices against a specific region of one or more countries. Examples include discrimination against Chinese people who were born in regions of the countryside that are far away from cities that are located within China, and discrimination against Americans who are from
7854-440: The relation between discrimination and health became a topic of interest in the 1990s, when researchers proposed that persisting racial/ethnic disparities in health outcomes could potentially be explained by racial/ethnic differences in experiences with discrimination. Although the bulk of the research tend to focus on the interactions between interpersonal discrimination and health, researchers studying discrimination and health in
7956-424: The right to be free from government sponsored social discrimination. Due to a belief in the capacity to perceive pain or suffering shared by all animals, abolitionist or vegan egalitarianism maintains that the interests of every individual (regardless of their species), warrant equal consideration with the interests of humans, and that not doing so is speciesist . Philosophers have debated as to how inclusive
8058-502: The rights of Frenchmen to the people who lived there. The protectorates ( Tunisia and Morocco for example) were not affected by the regime. The commandant de cercle was free to impose summary punishment under any of 34 (later 12) headings of infractions specified by the code, ranging from murder to 'disrespect' of France, its symbols, or functionaries. Punishment could range from fines, to 15 days in prison or immediate execution. The statute stated that all punishments must be signed by
8160-472: The roadbuilding campaign during the 1920s and the 1930s, and colonial officials gradually relaxed the use of forced labour. Rober Delavignette, a former colonial official, documented the mass movement of some 100,000 Mossi people from Upper Volta to Gold Coast to escape forced labor, while the investigative journalist Albert Londres claims that the figures were closer to 600,000 sujets fleeing to Gold Coast and 2 million fleeing to Nigeria . In practice,
8262-698: The rolls, and in the Decree of 1912 , the government said that only originaires who complied with the rigorous demands of those seeking French citizenship from the outside would be able to exercise French rights. Even then, originaires were subject to customary and arbitrary law if they stepped outside the Four Communes. It was only through a protracted battle by Senegalese Deputy Blaise Diagne and his help recruiting thousands of Africans to fight in World War I that legal and voting rights were restored to even
8364-571: The same definition. Linguistic discrimination is culturally and socially determined due to preference for one use of language over others. Discrimination based on a person's name may also occur, with researchers suggesting that this form of discrimination is present based on a name's meaning, its pronunciation, its uniqueness, its gender affiliation, and its racial affiliation. Research has further shown that real world recruiters spend an average of just six seconds reviewing each résumé before making their initial "fit/no fit" screen-out decision and that
8466-508: The same protections and benefits as opposite-sex couples. In 2011, the United Nations passed its first resolution recognizing LGBT rights. Reverse discrimination is discrimination against members of a dominant or majority group, in favor of members of a minority or historically disadvantaged group. This discrimination may seek to redress social inequalities under which minority groups have had less access to privileges enjoyed by
8568-420: The so-called customary courts . They were courts convened by village chefs du canton or some other French-recognized native authority or were Muslim Sharia courts. While Muslim courts had some real local relevance behind them, the French history of chief-creation was to replace traditional chiefs with Africans who would be dependent upon the French. Consequently, customary courts often served simply to increase
8670-445: The standard of 'normal living', results in public and private places and services, educational settings, and social services that are built to serve 'standard' people, thereby excluding those with various disabilities. Studies have shown that disabled people not only need employment in order to be provided with the opportunity to earn a living but they also need employment in order to sustain their mental health and well-being. Work fulfils
8772-410: The term indigénat are often grouped other oppressive measures that were applied to the native population of the French empire, such as forced labor , requisitions, capitation (head tax), etc. The Indigénat was created first to solve specific problems of administering Algeria during the early-to-mid-19th century. In 1685, the French royal Code Noir decreed the treatment of subject peoples, but it
8874-500: The terrestrial and marine armies. He may be called to functions and civil employment in Algeria. He may, on his request, be admitted to enjoy the rights of a French citizen ; in this case, he is subject to the political and civil laws of France." That was intended to promote assimilation , but as few people were willing to abandon their religious values, it had the opposite effect. By 1870, fewer than 200 requests had been registered by Muslims and 152 by Jewish Algerians . The 1865 decree
8976-554: The time such as Henri Sée inherited the principles of a new academic discipline from Ranke and earlier mentors including Numa Denis Fustel de Coulanges . Discrimination Discrimination is the process of making unfair or prejudicial distinctions between people based on the groups, classes, or other categories to which they belong or are perceived to belong, such as race , gender , age , species , religion , physical attractiveness or sexual orientation . Discrimination typically leads to groups being unfairly treated on
9078-681: The use of stereotype . This theory describes difference as deviance from the norm, which results in internal devaluation and social stigma that may be seen as discrimination. It is started by describing a "natural" social order. It is distinguished between the fundamental principle of fascism and social democracy. The Nazis in 1930s-era Germany and the pre-1990 Apartheid government of South Africa used racially discriminatory agendas for their political ends. This practice continues with some present day governments. Economist Yanis Varoufakis (2013) argues that "discrimination based on utterly arbitrary characteristics evolves quickly and systematically in
9180-440: The use of language that promotes discrimination or violence against people on the basis of race, caste, sex, place of birth, religion, gender identity, sexual orientation or any other category. Important UN documents addressing discrimination include: Social theories such as egalitarianism assert that social equality should prevail. In some societies, including most developed countries, each individual's civil rights include
9282-536: The verb discernere (corresponding to "to discern"). Since the American Civil War the term "discrimination" generally evolved in American English usage as an understanding of prejudicial treatment of an individual based solely on their race, later generalized as membership in a certain socially undesirable group or social category. Before this sense of the word became almost universal, it
9384-433: Was a synonym for discernment, tact and culture as in "taste and discrimination", generally a laudable attribute; to "discriminate against" being commonly disparaged. Moral philosophers have defined discrimination using a moralized definition. Under this approach, discrimination is defined as acts, practices, or policies that wrongfully impose a relative disadvantage or deprivation on persons based on their membership in
9486-461: Was an appointed African notable (other than local chief). Matters deemed especially serious by the French officials or matters for which the colonial power had any interest were handled by a French administrator-judge. All criminal cases were handled by a tribunaux du premier degré directed by the chef du subdivision (the lowest post held by caucasians) with the assistance of two local notables and two caucasian officials or (in practice) anyone whom
9588-485: Was at first considered an act of racism. In the mid-1980s, linguist Tove Skutnabb-Kangas captured the idea of language-based discrimination as linguicism, which was defined as "ideologies and structures which are used to legitimize, effectuate, and reproduce unequal divisions of power and resources (both material and non-material) between groups which are defined on the basis of language". Although different names have been given to this form of discrimination, they all hold
9690-580: Was bound legally to provide labour for its rubber concessionaires in French Equatorial Africa and settler-owned cotton plantations in Côte d'Ivoire . In addition, native sub-officials, such as the appointed local chiefs, made use of forced labour, compulsory crops and taxes in kind at their discretion. As the enforcers of the indigénat , they were also partly beneficiaries. Still, they themselves were very much subject to French authority when
9792-578: Was eliminated by the decree of 15 November 1924. This decree reduced the headings by which subjects could be summarily punished to 24, which was later further reduced to 12. Maximum fines decreased from 25 francs to 15, and summary imprisonment was capped at five days. In practice, though, summary punishment continued at the discretion of local authorities. In French-controlled Cameroon, during 1935 there were 32,858 prison sentences for these 'administrative' offenses, compared to 3,512 for common law offenses. Head taxes had been increasing well above inflation from
9894-429: Was in Algeria during the 1830s and 1840s that the French government began actively to rule large subject populations. It quickly realised that it was impractical in areas without a French population, and French experiences with large groups of subject people had also convinced many that both direct rule and eventual assimilation were undesirable. In 1830, Algeria became the first modern French colony. The treaty in which
9996-463: Was introduced by decree, in various forms and degrees of severity, to Algeria and Cochinchina in 1881, New Caledonia and Senegal in 1887, Annam - Tonkin and Polynesia in 1897, Cambodia in 1898, Mayotte and Madagascar in 1901, French West Africa in 1904, French Equatorial Africa in 1910, French Somaliland in 1912, and the Mandates of Togo and Cameroon in 1923 and 1924. Under
10098-725: Was limited; they were concentrated in ghettos and banned from owning land. In Saudi Arabia, non- Muslims are not allowed to publicly practice their religions and they cannot enter Mecca and Medina . Furthermore, private non-Muslim religious gatherings might be raided by the religious police . In Maldives, non-Muslims living and visiting the country are prohibited from openly expressing their religious beliefs, holding public congregations to conduct religious activities, or involving Maldivians in such activities. Those expressing religious beliefs other than Islam may face imprisonment of up to five years or house arrest, fines ranging from 5,000 to 20,000 rufiyaa ($ 320 to $ 1,300), and deportation. In
10200-420: Was the first country to explicitly add intersex to legislation, as part of the attribute of 'sex'. Australia was the first country to add an independent attribute, of 'intersex status'. Malta was the first to adopt a broader framework of 'sex characteristics', through legislation that also ended modifications to the sex characteristics of minors undertaken for social and cultural reasons. Global efforts such as
10302-403: Was then modified by the 1870 Crémieux decrees , which granted full French nationality to Algerian Jews, followed in 1889 by étrangers ("foreigners"). The opposition was keen to give the same right to Muslims, but the French settlers did not want to equip the natives with rights equal to their own, primarily for demographic reasons. Moreover, it was at Algeria's request for an 1889 Act restoring
10404-456: Was very unpopular for French settlers. After the Empire fell, the Republic tried to simplify naturalisation procedures and even a mass naturalisation, but that provoked massive outrage from settlers. The local authorities also dragged their feet to complicate the task of Muslums wanting to naturalise. That caused between 1865 and 1915 only 2396 Muslims in Algeria to naturalise. The indigenous got
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