Radama I "the Great" (c. 1793–1828) was the first Malagasy sovereign to be recognized as King of Madagascar (1810–1828) by a European state, Great Britain. He came to power at the age of 17 following the death of his father, King Andrianampoinimerina .
119-470: [REDACTED] France Malagasy secret societies The Malagasy Uprising ( French : Insurrection malgache ; Malagasy : Tolom-bahoaka tamin' ny 1947 ) was a Malagasy nationalist rebellion against French colonial rule in Madagascar , lasting from March 1947 to February 1949. Starting in late 1945, Madagascar's first French National Assembly deputies, Joseph Raseta , Joseph Ravoahangy [ mg ; ru ] and Jacques Rabemananjara of
238-825: A dirigiste economic policy, which included substantial state control over a capitalist economy, which was followed by 30 years of unprecedented growth. The wartime damage was extensive, and large reparations from defeated Germany did not happen. The United States helped revive the French economy with the Marshall Plan (1948–1951), giving France $ 2.3 billion with no repayment. France was the second largest recipient after Britain. The total of all American grants and credits to France from 1946 to 1953 amounted to $ 4.9 billion. It provided urgently needed funding for modernizing transport systems, electricity generation, and basic industries including cement, coal, and steel. The plan required
357-648: A plurality (not the absolute majority) of the National Assembly voting against the Cabinet. Consequently, these ministerial crises did not result in the dissolution of Parliament. Thus, as in the Third Republic, this regime was characterized by ministerial instability. The Fourth Republic was also a victim of the political context. The split of the three-party alliance in spring 1947, the departure of Communist ministers, Gaullist opposition , and
476-563: A bloodless action called Opération Corse . Operation Resurrection would be implemented if De Gaulle was not approved as leader by the French Parliament , if De Gaulle asked for military assistance to take power, or to thwart any organized attempt by the French Communist Party to seize power or stall De Gaulle's return. De Gaulle, who had announced his retirement from politics
595-466: A decade before, placed himself in the midst of the crisis, calling on the nation to suspend the government and create a new constitutional system. On 29 May 1958, French politicians agreed upon calling on De Gaulle to take over the government as prime minister. The French Army's willingness to support an overthrow of the constitutional government was a significant development in French politics. With Army support, De Gaulle's government terminated
714-481: A documentary on the Uprising entitled L'Insurrection de l'île rouge, Madagascar 1947 . French Fourth Republic In Alsace-Moselle : The French Fourth Republic ( French : Quatrième république française ) was the republican government of France from 27 October 1946 to 4 October 1958, governed by the fourth republican constitution of 13 October 1946. Essentially a reestablishment and continuation of
833-577: A formal alliance with the British crown and its recognition of Radama as "King of Madagascar" in exchange for horses, uniforms and a pledge to abandon the export of slaves . The British were invited to establish a diplomatic mission on the island, and in 1820 Hastie was appointed to the role of British resident minister . But, the import of slaves from the African mainland continued, and remained Madagascar's primary import throughout Radama's reign and into
952-483: A group that was later discovered to have secret ties to the national police. Researchers have documented reports of nationalists whose member organizations joined the conflict upon commands issued by the colonial police and French settlers living in Madagascar. Despite the role of the militants in leading the uprising, the colonial authorities immediately held MDRM responsible for the movement and responded by targeting
1071-453: A highly developed system of social benefits. According to various studies, the real purchasing power of the average French worker's salary went up by 170% between 1950 and 1975, while overall private consumption increased by 174% in the period 1950-1974. The French standard of living, which had been damaged by both World Wars , became one of the world's highest. The population also became far more urbanized; many rural départements experienced
1190-456: A low of 11,000 to a high of over 100,000. The nationalists killed approximately 550 French nationals, as well as 1,900 Malagasy auxiliary men of the French army. By August 1948, the majority of the nationalist leaders were killed or captured, and the Uprising was effectively put down by December 1948, though the last armed resistance was only defeated in February 1949. The violent repression of
1309-486: A mausoleum at the town entrance near Ampanihifana containing the remains of an estimated 2,500 local nationalists killed in the conflict. The Malagasy Uprising has been commemorated in print and cinema . The film Tabataba (1989), directed by Raymond Rajaonarivelo , relates the experience of the insurrection through the eyes of an adolescent boy named Solo. It won awards at the Cannes Film Festival and
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#17327657740641428-477: A military campaign to subjugate them. The Antesaka were conquered in Radama's final military campaign in 1827, and the northern Tanala became a vassalage. All together, Radama united two thirds of the island under Merina rule. The areas retaining independence included most of Bara country, Mahafaly and Antandroy in the south, a stretch of southern Tanala and the coastal area between Antesaka and Antanosy in
1547-494: A modernization of French industrial and managerial systems, free trade, and friendly economic relations with West Germany. The French economy grew rapidly like economies of other developed countries within the framework of the Marshall Plan such as West Germany , Italy , and Japan . These decades of economic prosperity combined high productivity with high average wages and high consumption, and were also characterised by
1666-429: A non-nationalist party, PADESM eventually favored a gradual process toward independence that would preserve close ties to France and prevent the reemergence of the precolonial Merina hegemony. The French authorities tacitly supported PADESM, which accused MDRM of launching the uprising to re-establish Merina rule. By aligning itself with PADESM, Socialist-dominated French politicians sought to cast themselves as champions of
1785-500: A policy of total war , and instructed all civilians under its control to assist the war effort by producing weapons, uniforms, and food for the rebels, to build air shelters to protect insurgents from air strikes and air reconnaissance, and to gather intelligence for the rebellion. The eruption of the conflict provided the pretext for violence between highland Merina and coastal Malagasy of other ethnic groups that were linked to precolonial history and politics. Merina Hova elites founded
1904-411: A population decline while the larger metropolitan areas grew considerably, especially that of Paris . Ownership of various household goods and amenities increased considerably, while the wages of the French working class rose significantly as the economy became more prosperous. As noted by the historians Jean Blondel and Donald Geoffrey Charlton in 1974, If it is still the case that France lags in
2023-604: A section of the French Army rebelled and openly backed the Algérie française movement to defeat separation. Revolts and riots broke out in 1958 against the French government in Algiers, but there were no adequate and competent political initiatives by the French government in support of military efforts to end the rebellion owing to party politics. The feeling was widespread that another debacle like that of Indochina in 1954
2142-594: A type of local red bird. Both organizations, which sought to achieve independence by force if necessary, saw their membership swell during this period. Following the end of the Second World War, several key Malagasy nationalist leaders attempted to achieve independence for Madagascar through legal means. At the first post-war constituent assembly convened in Paris in November 1945 to draft the constitution of
2261-664: A way to prevent further war between France and Germany . Though the United Kingdom was invited, its Labour government , then preparing for a re-election fight, did not join the initiative. It was formally established in 1951 by the Treaty of Paris , signed by France, Italy , West Germany , Belgium , Luxembourg and the Netherlands . Between these countries the ECSC would create a common market for coal and steel. The ECSC
2380-455: A young man he was described by a contemporary as about 5'4" (1.6 meters) and slim with broad shoulders and a narrow waist. Radama was invited to join his father on a military expedition during his campaign to pacify the Betsileo , who had forsaken an oath sworn to Andrianampoinimerina. Their initial attempt to capture King Andriamanalina at the fortified city of Fandanana west of Antsirabe
2499-528: Is said the funerary goods buried with him were the most extensive and richest of any tomb in Madagascar. These included a deep red silk lamba mena , imported paintings of European royalty, thousands of coins, eighty articles of clothing, swords, jewels, gold vases, containers of silver and so forth. Alongside each interior wall of the trano masina were a mirror, bed, several chairs and a table upon which were placed two porcelain water vessels and one bottle each of water and rum that were replenished annually during
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#17327657740642618-747: The Mouvement démocratique de la rénovation malgache (MDRM) political party, led an effort to achieve independence for Madagascar through legal channels. The failure of this initiative and the harsh response it drew from the Socialist Ramadier administration radicalized elements of the Malagasy population, including leaders of several militant nationalist secret societies. On the evening of 29 March 1947, coordinated surprise attacks were launched by Malagasy nationalists, armed mainly with spears, against military bases and French-owned plantations in
2737-502: The fandroana (festival of the royal bath). Most of these items were lost when a 1995 fire destroyed the Rova of Antananarivo where the tomb was located. Radama died without naming a clear successor, but according to local custom , the rightful heir was Rakotobe, the eldest son of Radama's eldest sister. Radama died in the company of two trusted courtiers who were favorable to the succession of Rakotobe. However, they hesitated to report
2856-529: The Carthage Film Festival . The term tabataba means "noise" or "troubles" in the Malagasy language , and remains a common euphemism to refer to the Uprising. The film Ilo Tsy Very by director Solo Randrasana also depicts the Uprising, and was remade in 2011 to include references to the 2009 Malagasy political crisis . In 1994, French directors Danièle Rousselier and Corinne Godeau produced
2975-574: The Council of the Republic ), played a symbolic role. His main power was to propose a Prime Minister, who was subject to election by the National Assembly before forming a Cabinet. Only the Prime Minister could invoke a parliamentary vote on legitimacy of the Cabinet. The Prime Minister was also the only member of the executive able to demand a vote of confidence from the National Assembly (in
3094-652: The Democratic and Socialist Union of the Resistance and other conservative parties, unsuccessfully attempted to oppose the Christian democrat and socialist MRP –SFIO–PCF alliance. The new constituent assembly included 166 MRP deputies, 153 PCF deputies and 128 SFIO deputies, giving the tripartite alliance an absolute majority. Georges Bidault of the MRP replaced Felix Gouin as the head of government. A new draft of
3213-667: The European Union , created in 1993 through the Maastricht Treaty ). The trigger for the collapse of the Fourth Republic was the Algiers crisis of 1958 . France was still a colonial power, although conflict and revolt had begun the process of decolonization . French West Africa , French Indochina , and French Algeria still sent representatives to the French parliament under systems of limited suffrage in
3332-531: The French Communist Party ( Parti communiste français , PCF) and the socialist SFIO supported the draft constitution, which envisaged a form of government based on unicameralism ; but this was rejected in the referendum of 5 May 1946 . For the 1946 elections , the Rally of Left Republicans ( Rassemblement des gauches républicaines , RGR), which encompassed the Radical-Socialist Party ,
3451-502: The French Fourth Republic , Madagascar was represented by two doctors named Joseph Raseta and Joseph Ravoahangy. Together with future writer Jacques Rabemananjara , in early 1946 they formed the Mouvement démocratique de la rénovation malgache (MDRM) political party, whose platform was built on national independence from France. All three leaders were the descendants of Hova who had been politically prominent in
3570-477: The French National Assembly , and promised citizenship rights to residents of its overseas colonies. Despite the partial implementation of these reforms, forced labor on French-owned plantations and other rights abuses in Madagascar continued unabated. The nationalist secret society Panama ( Patriotes nationalistes malgaches ) was founded in 1941, followed in 1943 by another called Jiny after
3689-644: The French Third Republic which governed from 1870 during the Franco-Prussian War to 1940 during World War II , it suffered many of the same problems which led to its end. The French Fourth Republic was a parliamentary republic . Despite political dysfunction, the Fourth Republic saw an era of great economic growth in France and the rebuilding of the nation's social institutions and industry after World War II, with assistance from
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3808-708: The French Union . Algeria in particular, despite being the colony with the largest French-identifying population, saw rising pressure for separation from the Métropole . The situation was complicated by those in Algeria, such as the Pieds-Noirs , who wanted to stay part of France, so the Algerian War became not just a separatist movement but had elements of a civil war . Further complications came when
3927-522: The Madagascar for the Malagasy Party (MONIMA), which has had considerable influence on Malagasy politics. France classified most documents related to the Uprising, and the French government maintained silence on the subject until French president Jacques Chirac termed it "unacceptable" during an official visit to Madagascar in 2005. Several Malagasy directors have set films in the period of
4046-474: The Third Republic any minister could call for a vote of confidence). The Cabinet could be dismissed if an absolute majority of the National Assembly's members voted against the Cabinet. Finally, the National Assembly could be dissolved after two ministerial crises in the legislature . However, these constitutional measures did not work. In January 1947, after his election by the National Assembly and
4165-475: The Tirailleurs Malgaches returning from World War II and frustrated with the limited recognition and opportunity afforded them by the French colonial government. Numerous others were railway workers who hid themselves in the dense eastern rainforest and made use of guerrilla tactics to attack French interests along the rail line connecting Antananarivo to the eastern port town of Toamasina . At
4284-524: The nobles of Imerina . Radama's European contacts describe him as openly skeptical of many of the religious rituals and traditions that formed the legitimacy of the Merina monarchy over the past four centuries. In particular he was reportedly critical of the importance placed on the sampy , the 12 royal idols that figured prominently in Merina court ritual. Many of the cultural and technological innovations Radama introduced during his reign were rejected by
4403-401: The " oil spot " method of General Joseph Gallieni , the first governor of the island (1896–1905) to root out, demoralize and crush the guerrilla fighters. In addition, the security forces adopted a strategy of terror and psychological warfare involving torture, collective punishment, the burning of villages, mass arrests and executions, and war rape. Many of these practices were later employed by
4522-424: The 129 death penalties pronounced by the civilian courts were enacted. Through amnesties and remissions, all prisoners (except the leaders) were freed in 1957. The uprising and its repression caused trauma that continues to manifest in the Malagasy population. Many Malagasy nationals fought each other and struggle to reconcile themselves to the remorse and guilt. Healing at the national level is further complicated by
4641-459: The 1820s under King Radama I , who the British government officially recognized as the sovereign over the entire island of Madagascar. After several failed attempts to impose its authority over the island, France used military force to capture the royal palace in September 1894 and exiled Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony upon officially colonizing the island in February 1895. Queen Ranavalona III
4760-520: The 1850s. Radama's military campaign to Toamasina in 1820 brought him into contact with Welshmen David Jones and David Griffiths of the Protestant London Missionary Society (LMS), who had established a school there enrolling three students. Radama was inspired to introduce similar schools throughout Imerina. Within a year he had established 23 schools enrolling 2300 students, of whom a third were girls. He tasked
4879-456: The 1910s. Conscription of Malagasy soldiers to fight for France in World War I strengthened resentment of foreign rule, and in the interwar period these nationalist organizations proliferated. Germany's defeat of the French army and occupation of France in 1940, the imposition of a Vichy regime in Madagascar and the subsequent capture of the island by the British in 1942 further tarnished
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4998-667: The Cabinet and to reinforce the authority of the Prime Minister of France, who led the Cabinet. The goal of the new constitution was to reconcile parliamentary democracy with ministerial stability. For instance, under the new Constitution, the President of the Council was the leader of the executive branch (Prime Minister of France). The President of the French Republic, elected by the Parliament (the National Assembly and
5117-735: The Constitution was written, which this time proposed the establishment of a bicameral form of government. Leon Blum of the SFIO headed the GPRF from 1946 to 1947. After a new legislative election in June 1946, the Christian democrat Georges Bidault assumed leadership of the Cabinet . Despite De Gaulle's so-called discourse of Bayeux of 16 June 1946 in which he denounced the new institutions,
5236-647: The Fourth Republic (the last parliament of the Fourth Republic voted for its dissolution) and drew up a new constitution proclaiming the French Fifth Republic in 1958. Radama I Under Radama's rule and at his invitation, the first Europeans entered his central highland Kingdom of Imerina and its capital at Antananarivo . Radama encouraged these London Missionary Society envoys to establish schools to teach tradecraft and literacy to nobles and potential military and civil service recruits. They also introduced Christianity and taught literacy using
5355-736: The French National Assembly. The Malagasy deputies submitted a bill to grant independence for Madagascar from French rule, but French deputies rejected it. The deputies attracted the disapproval of France's Socialist Prime Minister, Paul Ramadier , and the Minister of the Colonies, Marius Moutet. The French had humiliatingly had to ask Britain to yield Madagascar after World War II ended, and French political leaders suspected that Britain or South Africa would attempt to wrest Madagascar from France. The MDRM quest for independence
5474-663: The French military during the Algerian War . The intensity and cruelty of the French response was then unprecedented in the colonial history of France. On 6 May 1947, in Moramanga, soldiers machine-gunned MDRM officials detained in wagons, killing between 124 and 160 mostly unarmed MDRM activists. In Mananjary , hundreds of Malagasy were killed, among them 18 women and a group of prisoners thrown alive out of an airplane. Other massacres of 35 to 50 people occurred in Farafangana , Manakara, and Mahanoro . The rebels had expected that
5593-664: The French people wanted to continue the fight in Indochina against the Communists, led by Ho Chi Minh and his Viet Minh movement. Pierre Mendès France was a Radical Party leader who was Prime Minister for eight months in 1954–55, working with the support of the Socialist and Communist parties. His top priority was ending the war in Indochina, which had already cost 92,000 dead, 114,000 wounded and 28,000 captured in
5712-600: The LMS missionaries to transcribe and teach the Malagasy language using the Latin alphabet . It was under Radama's rule that LMS missionaries (with notable contributions from Scottsman James Cameron ) set up craft industries in carpentry, leather, tin plating and cotton, introduced the first printing press, translated and printed Bibles in the Malagasy language and oversaw Radama's plan to establish dozens of schools. They offered compulsory literacy courses and basic education for
5831-628: The MDRM not only in the interest of ending French rule, but also in regaining the political dominance of the Merina upon independence. In reaction to the founding of the MDRM, in 1946 the Party for the Disinherited of Madagascar ( Parti des déshérités de Madagascar , PADESM) was formed. It attracted membership from members of coastal communities formerly subjugated by the Merina empire, as well as highland-based descendants of former Merina slaves. Initially
5950-456: The Malagasy population and to sabotage the peaceful policy of the MDRM." The Malagasy Uprising began on the evening of 29 March 1947, the evening before Palm Sunday . The timing had additional significance as the historic date of the traditional Merina Kingdom fandroana new year's festival, historically celebrated by a ritual period of anarchy followed by the Merina sovereign's reestablishment of order. Malagasy nationalists, chief among them
6069-535: The Trente Glorieuses as an exceptional "catch up" period following the world wars. He cites statistics showing that normal growth in wealthy countries is about 1.5–2%, whereas in Europe growth dropped to 0.5% between 1913 and 1950, and then "caught up" with a growth rate of 4% between 1950 and 1970, until settling back to 1.5–2% from 1970 onward. Public opinion polls showed that in February 1954, only 7% of
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#17327657740646188-537: The United States government, which strongly denounced the French reaction and criticized its leadership. It also radicalized the leadership of the militant nationalist groups in Madagascar. Sensing the worsening mood in the country, on 27 March 1947 deputies Raseta, Ravoahangy and Rabemananjara jointly issued a statement, urging the public to "maintain absolute calm and coolness in the face of manoeuvrings and provocations of all kind destined to stir up troubles among
6307-582: The United States might intervene in their favor, but no such action was taken by Washington. In addition, the majority of the population did not rise up to join them in their fight. The rebels were thus steadily pushed back by the superior French military. Razafindrabe was forced to give up his headquarters at Beparasy in August 1947, while Radaoroson was usurped as leader of the southern insurgents by another rebel leader, Lehoaha, whose forces were better armed than those of Radaoroson. The rebels further fragmented in
6426-590: The United States through the Marshall Plan . It also saw the beginning of the rapprochement with France's longtime enemy Germany , which led to Franco-German co-operation and eventually to the European Union . The new constitution made some attempts to strengthen the executive branch of government to prevent the unstable situation before the war, but instability remained and the French Fourth Republic saw frequent changes of government – there were 21 administrations in its 12-year history. Moreover,
6545-643: The Uprising, but the request was not approved. From July to October 1948 in Antananarivo, the French organized a large public trial of the uprising, charging 77 officials of the MDRM. The French authorities claimed that MDRM appeals for calm immediately prior to the outbreak of violence had been a diversion tactic to mask their involvement in organizing the rebellion, which the French alleged was secretly launched by way of an encoded MDRM telegram. Deputies Ravoahangy and Rabemananjara were arrested and imprisoned on 12 April 1947, followed two months later by Raseta (who
6664-561: The Uprising. In 1967, the Malagasy government declared 29 March an annual holiday, and in 2012, a museum dedicated to the Uprising was inaugurated in Moramanga. By the close of the 19th century, Madagascar was largely under the control of the Kingdom of Imerina , with its royal palaces at its capital in Antananarivo . Although the kingdom had existed since the early 16th century, it expanded its control beyond its traditional borders in
6783-472: The Uprising. The most commentary appeared in the left-leaning Catholic monthly L'Esprit , with criticisms also published in other leftist publications like Humanité , Combat , Franc-tireur and Témoignage Chrétien . Albert Camus penned a seething rebuke of the French colonial administration that was published on 10 May 1947 in Combat . Very few details of the rising and subsequent repression were reported at
6902-430: The actual number killed. The population of Madagascar at the time of the Uprising was approximately four million, and these estimated losses represented nearly two percent of the population. In 1950, the colonial administration revised the casualty number to 11,342 "known dead". According to official French figures 4,928 of these had been killed in rioting while the remainder had died of starvation or exhaustion after fleeing
7021-509: The broader population as a denial of the heritage of their ancestors and their traditions. During this time and with the help of the British, Radama's military became the dominant force, allowing him to unify the island by force. Radama reportedly admired Napoleon Bonaparte and drew upon European structure and tactics to modernize his army, which included French, British and Jamaican generals. In each newly conquered territory, administrative posts were built within fortified garrisons ( rova ) on
7140-655: The colonial government's image. Popular anger was especially aroused by its policies of forced labor in lieu of taxes , involuntary conscription into the army to fight in World War II , and the required contribution of large quantities of rice per head annually. Malagasy hopes for greater sovereignty were stirred by remarks given by General Charles de Gaulle at the Brazzaville Conference in 1944, where de Gaulle announced all colonies were thereafter French overseas territories entitled to representation in
7259-402: The commemorations took on a new tone of pride and gratitude to nationalist fighters who sacrificed for their ideals and paved the way for later nationalist leaders. A national museum dedicated to the Uprising was inaugurated in 2012 by President Andry Rajoelina at Moramanga, 100 kilometers east of Antananarivo. The town has long been the site of the national monument to the conflict, as well as
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#17327657740647378-551: The conflict, of whom 350 were soldiers. In addition 1,900 Malagasy auxiliary men of the French army were killed. Although the MDRM leadership consistently maintained its innocence, the party was outlawed by the French colonial rulers. The French government classified the Malagasy Uprising documentation of the military, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of the Colonies. The French media reported little on
7497-577: The convicts' death sentences were commuted to life in prison, and the trio remained imprisoned until they were granted amnesty in 1958. Few individuals, with the notable exception of Monja Jaona , the founder of Jiny in the south, have claimed responsibility for a leadership role in the insurrection. Beside this "trial of the parliamentarians", military courts relayed by civilian courts condemned 5,765 Malagasy nationals (865 by military courts and 4,891 by civilians). The military courts delivered 44 death penalties but carried out only eight executions, while 16 of
7616-474: The country's independence. Many of the leading figures in the Uprising went on to dramatically shape the political and social landscape of Madagascar after independence. Monja Jaona , who was jailed by the French for nine years, founded the Madagascar for the Malagasy Party (MONIMA) in 1958 shortly after his release. His party was key in leading the rotaka peasant uprising against President Philibert Tsiranana which brought down his neo-colonial administration
7735-436: The east, and northern Menabe and Ambongo in the west. Radama died prematurely on 27 July 1828, at his residence (the Tranovola ). Historical sources provide conflicting accounts regarding his cause of death. Many years of military campaigning certainly took their toll, and Radama was prone to drinking heavily; shortly before his death he displayed symptoms of advanced alcoholism as his health rapidly declined. His death
7854-413: The eastern part of the island concentrated around Moramanga and Manakara . The nationalist cause was rapidly adopted in the south and spread to the central highlands and the capital of Antananarivo by the following month, with the number of Malagasy nationalist fighters estimated at over one million. By May 1947, the French began to counter the nationalists. The French tripled the number of troops on
7973-404: The eastern rainforest and the fighters extended their control from these points. The nationalists grouped together under various established or new configurations, including several militias with their own leadership structure, including generals and war ministers. Militias were sometimes led by traditional leaders ( mpanjaka ) of local communities. Many of the insurgents were demobilized soldiers of
8092-431: The end of July 1947, enabling the French to take the initiative. However, French army strength remained modest with soldiers numbering 18,000 in April 1947. The number of troops increased to about 30,000 in 1948. The French forces now included paratroopers, soldiers of the French Foreign Legion , and tirailleurs (colonial infantry) brought in from the French territories of Comoros and Senegal. The French strategy followed
8211-413: The event as it happened, and relatively little mention of the nationalist struggle was mentioned in Les Temps Modernes , the leftist publication that would become considered the leading anti-colonial advocate after the launch of the French offensive in Indochina. Other private publications served as forums for the Francophone intelligentsia to express their condemnation of the French government's response to
8330-455: The fact that the same leaders who proclaimed Madagascar's independence in 1960 were those who had been major players in the PADESM political party, which had been favored by the colonial administration after the crushing of the revolt. According to historian Philippe Leymarie, the French crushing of the Uprising resulted in the near annihilation of the managerial class in Madagascar, with consequences that continued to reverberate for decades after
8449-482: The fighting. Historians continue to disagree over the number of casualties during the Malagasy Uprising. The original figure of 89,000 casualties is often quoted. Historian Jean Fremigacci contested the 89,000 estimate, noting that losses of this magnitude normally should have manifested on the demographic curve, but in Madagascar population growth began again and even accelerated from 1946 to 1949. He estimates 30–40,000 Malagasy deaths, of which 30,000 were violent and
8568-403: The firearms of the French military. Nevertheless, the rebels invented encirclement, ambush and human wave tactics that allowed them to defeat their better armed opponents on several occasions. The attacks in the east were immediately followed by similar actions in the south of the island before rapidly spreading throughout the country. By early April, when violence first erupted in Antananarivo,
8687-437: The following year. After initially supporting Admiral Didier Ratsiraka , Tsiranana's successor, in 1992 Jaona led demonstrations against it and in favor of federalism, being severely wounded in the process. His son, Monja Roindefo , is also an active member of MONIMA and served as Prime Minister under Andry Rajoelina . The Malagasy government has organized official annual commemorations of the Uprising since 1967, when 29 March
8806-406: The former Merina royal court. The movement was pacifist, and while it sought independence for Madagascar, it embraced the French vision of the island as part of the global Francophone economic and cultural community . Their platform garnered mass support that cut across geographic, ethnic and class divisions, and in November 1946 the trio were elected to represent Madagascar as deputies ( députés ) in
8925-469: The government proved unable to make effective decisions regarding decolonization of the numerous remaining French colonies . After a series of crises culminating in the Algerian crisis of 1958 , the French Fourth Republic collapsed. Wartime leader Charles de Gaulle returned from retirement to preside over a transitional administration empowered to design a new French constitution . The Fourth Republic
9044-417: The height of the movement, nationalist insurgents gained control of one third of the island. The rebel territory was home to about 1,600,000 people, and a provisional government was set up: The head of the northern zone was Victorien Razafindrabe, a Merina and low-ranking ex-official, whereas Betsileo ex-teacher Michel Radaoroson served as insurgent leader in the south. The rebel provisional government followed
9163-603: The island to 18,000, primarily by transferring soldiers from French colonies elsewhere in Africa. The colonial authorities sought to fight on the physical and psychological fronts and engaged in a variety of terror tactics designed to demoralize the population. The French military force carried out mass execution , torture , war rape , torching of entire villages, collective punishment and other atrocities such as throwing live Malagasy prisoners out of airplanes ( death flights ). The estimated number of Malagasy casualties varies from
9282-530: The key leaders of the Uprising were captured or killed. Radaoroson died in combat on 20 July, Razafindrabe was captured on 2 September and died shortly afterwards, while Lehoaha surrendered on 11 November. The last rebel stronghold, named Tsiazombazaha ("That which is inaccessible to Europeans"), fell in November 1948. Defeated, most of the remaining nationalist fighters disappeared into the eastern rainforest in December 1948. The last senior rebel leader, Ralaivao,
9401-589: The members of the nationalist secret societies Vy Vato Sakelika (VVS) and Jiny, coordinated surprise attacks in the eastern part of the island at the Tristani police camp near the rail line at Moramanga , in the coastal town of Manakara and at several points along the lower Faraony River where key French plantations were located. Furthermore, a unit of the Tirailleurs Malgaches (Malagasy colonial troops) mutinied at Diego-Suarez and defected to
9520-407: The model of the original Rova of Antananarivo . These were staffed with Merina colonists called voanjo ("peanuts"). Radama's territorial expansion began in 1817 with a campaign to the eastern port town of Toamasina, where he established a military post. This was followed by a series of westward campaigns into Menabe in 1820, 1821 and 1822. The following year, Radama sent military expeditions along
9639-411: The nationalist insurgency left deep scars in Malagasy society. A generation of the managerial class was wiped out, creating challenges for the country when it achieved independence in 1960. Madagascar's first three deputies were arrested, tortured and kept in prison until they were given amnesty in 1958. Another leader who survived the conflict, Monja Jaona , was also jailed for nine years and then founded
9758-514: The nationalist leader in Tunisia, for the independence of that colony by 1956, and began discussions with the nationalist leaders in Morocco for a French withdrawal. The intention of the new Constitution's authors was to rationalize the parliamentary system . Ministers were accountable to the legislative body, the French National Assembly , but some measures were introduced in order to protect
9877-596: The new proportional representation did not create conditions for ministerial stability. Governmental coalitions were composed of an undisciplined patchwork of center-left and center-right parties. Finally, the Fourth Republic was confronted with the collapse of the French colonial empire . The creation of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) was first proposed by French foreign minister Robert Schuman and French economist Jean Monnet on 9 May 1950 as
9996-514: The new draft was approved by 53% of voters voting in favor (with an abstention rate of 31%) in the referendum held on 13 October 1946 and the Constitution of 27 October 1946 came into force two weeks later as the Fourth Republic, in an arrangement in which executive power essentially resided in the hands of the President of the Council (the prime minister). The President of the Republic
10115-419: The next months. The French counter-attacks remained rather limited until April 1948, however, as their forces were hindered by disease, the weather, and the unfamiliarity of the imported troops with local conditions, with over a thousand men hospitalized. With the end of the wet season , however, the French launched a large-scale offensive and overran the rebel territories. Between July and September 1948, most of
10234-456: The nomination of his ministers, Prime Minister Paul Ramadier called for a vote of confidence in order to verify that the Assembly approved the composition of his Cabinet. This initiated a custom of double election, a vote for the Prime Minister followed by a vote of confidence in the chosen Cabinet, that weakened the Prime Minister's authority over the Cabinet. Cabinets were dismissed with only
10353-487: The northeast coast, establishing military posts at Maroantsetra, Tintingue and Mananjary. In 1824 further expeditions established posts at Vohemar, Diego Suarez , and Mahajanga. In 1825 military posts were established in the southeastern coastal towns of Farafangana and Fort Dauphin. The Antalaotra were defeated in 1826 in a combined land and sea attack. Revolts by the Antanosy and Betsimisaraka prompted Radama to launch
10472-416: The number of its telephones, working-class housing has improved beyond recognition and the various 'gadgets' of the consumer society–from television to motor cars–are now purchased by the working class on an even more avid basis than in other Western European countries. The worldwide 1973 oil crisis slowed down its explosive growth. Thus, the mid-1970s marked the end of the period. Thomas Piketty describes
10591-443: The number of nationalist fighters was estimated at around 2,000. Attacks against French military bases multiplied over the course of the month throughout the central highlands as far south as Fianarantsoa and as far north as Lake Alaotra . The movement enjoyed particularly strong support in the south, where the revolt attracted as many as one million peasants to fight for the nationalist cause. Two guerrilla zones were established in
10710-467: The oppressed masses against the exploitative Hova elites. Though the uprising indeed remained geographically limited, it enjoyed broad support among several ethnic groups, not just Merina. French security forces were initially taken by surprise and were unable to organize an effective response to contain the uprising. By May 1947, however, the French military had begun to counter the nationalists' attacks. Five North African battalions arrived in Madagascar at
10829-440: The party's members and supporters. The extent to which the MDRM was actually involved in the uprising is disputed; most leaders of the party later claimed that they were innocent, whereas French intelligence maintained that the party had forged links with foreign powers like United Kingdom to channel arms and ammunition to militants. Later appraisals suggest that the MDRM was infiltrated by members of militant secret societies before
10948-440: The principalities conquered by his father revolted upon news of Andrianampoinimerina's death. The young ruler immediately had to embark on military campaigns that successfully put down the rebellions and secured his position, which included completing the pacification of the Betsileo kingdom. In 1816 Radama was contacted by a Mauritian trader sent by British Governor Robert Townsend Farquhar of Mauritius (Ile de France), who
11067-583: The proposed new constitution, which was to be put to a referendum. De Gaulle advocated a presidential system of government, and criticized the reinstatement of what he pejoratively called "the parties system". He resigned in January 1946 and was replaced by Felix Gouin of the French Section of the Workers' International ( Section française de l'Internationale ouvrière , SFIO). Ultimately only
11186-432: The prosecution was shot dead three days before the trial, and much of the evidence against the defendants was obtained through torture. All three were found guilty of conspiracy against the state and endangering national security. Although these points were raised at the trial, Ravoahangy was sentenced to death , along with Raseta and four other nationalists, while Rabemananjara was sentenced to life in prison . In July 1949,
11305-494: The rebellion, and that though members of the party aided the insurgency, the party as whole did not. The French generally suspected that the rebellion was secretly supported by foreign powers, most significantly by the United Kingdom. Two British nationals, namely ex-Major John Morris, and Major Nicholson who worked at the British consulate in Antananarivo, were accused of stirring up Malagasy nationalist activities. Morris
11424-412: The rebels. Most historians share the view that the militants escalated the conflict toward violence on the basis of false information transmitted by duplicitous individuals or groups attempting to neutralize the nationalist influence. Members of VVS and Jiny involved in the initial attacks have stated that their organizations were obliged to attack after the signal to take action was transmitted to them by
11543-554: The remainder attributable to disease and starvation in the conflict areas. Fremigacci's interpretation was challenged by demographer Alfred Sauvy , who suggested the trauma to population growth that would normally be observed by these casualties may have been masked by improvements in malaria survival rates resulting from a major colonial anti-malaria campaign undertaken in the same period. According to Fremigacci, "There were war crimes in Madagascar in 1947 but without intent to exterminate." An estimated 550 French nationals died during
11662-516: The submission of several towns in Betsileo. Andrianampoinimerina ultimately captured and executed Andriamanalina, and together Radama and his father also captured the strategic town of Kiririoka. On Andrianampoinimerina's deathbed, he reportedly told his son, "The sea is the border of my rice field". Radama swore to his father that he would achieve this ambition. In 1810, at the age of 17, Radama succeeded his father as king of Imerina. Several of
11781-410: The time outside France. Over the decades that followed independence the French government and news sources in France remained largely silent on the issue of the Malagasy Uprising. In 1997, a Malagasy official criticized the French for never having had a diplomat present at the annual commemoration ceremonies. The first official condemnation of the Uprising's suppression by the French colonial authorities
11900-483: The translated Bible. A wide range of political and social reforms were enacted under Radama's rule, including an end to the international slave trade, although this had historically been a key source of wealth and armaments for the Merina monarchy. Through aggressive military campaigns he successfully united two-thirds of the island under his rule. Abuse of alcohol weakened his health and he died prematurely at age 35. He
12019-663: The wake of the humiliating defeat at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu in early May 1954. At the Geneva Conference (1954) , he made a deal that gave the Viet Minh control of Vietnam north of the 17th parallel, and allowed him to pull out all French forces. That left South Vietnam standing alone. However, the United States moved in and provided large-scale financial, military and economic support for South Vietnam. Mendès France next came to an agreement with Habib Bourguiba ,
12138-533: Was allowed to remain as a figurehead until the emergence of a popular uprising, termed the Menalamba rebellion , for which the queen was held responsible. The rebellion was harshly crushed, and the queen was exiled in 1897. The Menalamba rebellion was only the first manifestation of ongoing opposition to French rule that occasionally erupted in violent clashes between the Malagasy and the colonial authorities in Madagascar. Secret nationalist societies began to form in
12257-489: Was captured in February 1949, effectively ending the armed resistance. The French government's first official estimate of the number of Malagasy killed in the conflict was 89,000. In 1949 the High Commissioner of Madagascar added to this figure the estimated number who fled into the forest and were believed dead, declaring the true number of dead at over 100,000. Many Malagasy believe this to be an underestimate of
12376-614: Was dissolved on 5 October 1958 following a public referendum which established the current French Fifth Republic with a strengthened presidency . After the liberation of France in 1944, the Vichy government was dissolved and the Provisional Government of the French Republic ( French : Gouvernement provisoire de la République française , GPRF), also known as the French Committee of National Liberation ,
12495-437: Was eventually expelled from the island as a result. There also circulated rumours about American support for the rebels, though no evidence emerged to support these claims. In fact, the rebels were almost completely isolated from outside aid, and extremely poorly supplied with modern weaponry. They likely never possessed more than 150 rifles and three machine guns. Most rebels had to resort to spears, and had minimal protection from
12614-410: Was expressed by president Jacques Chirac during his official visit to Madagascar on 21 July 2005, when he met with Malagasy president Marc Ravalomanana and qualified the repression of the Malagasy uprising as "unacceptable". On the 65th anniversary of the Uprising in 2012, Malagasy Prime Minister Omer Beriziky issued a request to the French government to declassify their archival materials related to
12733-461: Was first declared a day of mourning by President Tsiranana. It is now observed as Martyrs' Day . The annual commemorations under his administration brought together perpetrators of war crimes, their surviving victims, former nationalist guerrillas and leaders, and family members of those killed, and characterized the Uprising as a tragic mistake. In the late 1970s under the Ratsiraka administration,
12852-640: Was given a largely symbolic role, although he remained chief of the French Army and as a last resort could be called upon to resolve conflicts. After the expulsion of the Communists from the governing coalition, France joined the Cold War against Stalin, as expressed by becoming a founding member of NATO in April 1949. France now took a leadership position in unifying western Europe, working closely with Konrad Adenauer of West Germany. Robert Schuman , who
12971-482: Was governed by a 'High Authority', checked by bodies representing governments; representatives of the peoples of the member States (selected from each state's Members of Parliament ); and an independent judiciary . The Treaty of Paris (1951) , which created the ECSC, was superseded on 25 March 1957 by the Treaty of Rome , which established the European Economic Community (the forerunner to
13090-405: Was in Paris when the Uprising began), in violation of their right to diplomatic immunity. Debates about the Malagasy Uprising in the French National Assembly on 1 August 1947 concluded with the decision to revoke this immunity for all three deputies, who were tortured in prison. The trial, which was held from 22 July to 4 October 1948, was marked by numerous irregularities. The principal witness for
13209-587: Was in the offing and that the government would order another precipitous pullout and sacrifice French honour to political expediency. This prompted General Jacques Massu to create a French settlers' committee to demand the formation of a new national government under General De Gaulle, who was a national hero and had advocated a strong military policy, nationalism and the retention of French control over Algeria. General Massu, who had gained prominence and authority when he ruthlessly suppressed Algerian militants, famously declared that unless General De Gaulle
13328-499: Was instituted after a unanimous request of the Provisional Consultative Assembly to be properly represented. With most of the political class discredited and containing many members who had more or less collaborated with Nazi Germany, Gaullism and communism became the most popular political forces in France. Charles de Gaulle led the GPRF from 1944 to 1946. Meanwhile, negotiations took place over
13447-489: Was interested in increasing British influence in the region and preventing the re-establishment of French trading posts on Madagascar. As a result of this initial contact, two of Radama's half-brothers, Rahovy and Ramarotafika, were sponsored to be educated in Mauritius. This was followed by a commercial treaty. On 23 October 1817, Radama signed a treaty negotiated by former military general James Hastie that granted Radama
13566-468: Was officially declared to be the consequence of heavy intoxication. Radama was buried in a stone tomb on the grounds of the Rova of Antananarivo . In line with Malagasy architectural norms , his tomb was topped with a trano masina ("sacred house") symbolic of royalty. Like his father Andrianampoinimerina and other Merina sovereigns that would follow him, he was laid to rest in a silver coffin, and it
13685-467: Was returned to power, the French Army would openly revolt; General Massu and other senior generals covertly planned the takeover of Paris with 1,500 paratroopers preparing to take over airports with the support of French Air Force units. Armoured units from Rambouillet prepared to roll into Paris. On 24 May, French paratroopers from the Algerian corps landed on Corsica , taking the French island in
13804-479: Was succeeded by his highest-ranking wife, Ranavalona I . Radama was the son of Rambolamasoandro and King Andrianampoinimerina of Imerina , a growing kingdom in the central plateau of the island around Antananarivo . As a child, Radama was educated at court and learned to read the Malagasy language in the Sorabe Arabico-Malagasy script used by Antemoro ombiasy (court astrologers). As
13923-473: Was therefore received as a blow to French prestige and authority, and it raised the specter of the violent conflict launched by Vietnamese nationalists in French Indochina the month before. Moutet responded stridently, declaring a "war against the Malagasy autonomy movement". The refusal of the French government to support a democratic process toward independence for Madagascar drew criticism from
14042-515: Was twice Prime Minister and at other times Minister of Finance and Foreign Minister, was instrumental in building post-war European and trans-Atlantic institutions. A devout Catholic and anti-Communist, he led France to be a member of the European Communities , the Council of Europe and NATO. Les Trente Glorieuses ('The Glorious Thirty') was the high prosperity in the 30 years from 1945 to 1975. In 1944, De Gaulle introduced
14161-461: Was unsuccessful. When they returned a year later, Andrianampoinimerina split his army into two columns and put Radama at the head of the second column, providing him with his first opportunity to command a military regiment. He was accompanied by a group of seasoned soldiers called the Tantsaha, and Andriandtsoanandria, one of his father's more experienced military advisers. He successfully negotiated
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